Unit 5 - Solids,

Liquids & Gases

Lecture Notes &

Practice
Exercises
 Chapter 18 - Density & Pressure
*Mass (m) is defined as the total amount of matter in a substance.
*Volume (V) is the amount of three-dimensional space occupied by that substance.
Density: the mass per unit volume of a substance. So, mathematically, ρ = m/V is the equation used to
calculate density.
The SI unit of density is the kilograms per metres cubed (kg/m3).
*For a specific material, irrespective of its shape and size, its density remains the same.
The diagrams below show three pieces of iron of different shape and size. All 3 samples have the same density
because they are made of the same material.

Experiment to determine the density of an irregular-shaped object:

• The mass (m) of the object is found out using an electronic pan balance (digital balance).
• Some water is poured into a calibrated measuring cylinder - a cylinder with graduated numerical
markings.
• The initial volume (V1) of the water is recorded from the markings.
• The irregular object is tied with a light string & gently immersed completely in water.
• The new volume (V2) of the water is recorded.
• The change in volume is calculated by subtracting the initial volume from the new volume.
• The change in volume of water is equal to the volume of the irregular object (Vstone = V2 - V1).
• The density is then calculated using the equation: ρ = m/v.
Precautions:
• Wear protective goggles to keep the eyes safe from tiny particles in the air.
• Take readings by keeping the eyes at the same level as the meniscus to avoid parallax error.
• The object should be slowly immersed in water so that water does not spill out or cling to the wall of the
cylinder.

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Experiment to determine the density of a liquid:
• The initial mass (m1) of an empty calibrated measuring cylinder is found out using an electronic pan
balance (digital balance).
• The liquid is poured gently into the measuring cylinder.
• The new mass (m2) of the cylinder with the liquid is found out from the digital balance.
• The change in mass is calculated by subtracting the initial mass from the new mass.
• The change in mass is equal to the mass of the irregular object (mliquid = m2 - m1).
• The volume (Vliquid) of the liquid is recorded from the markings.
• The density is then calculated using the equation: ρ = m/v.

Precautions:
• Wear protective goggles to keep the eyes safe from tiny particles in the air.
• Take readings by keeping the eyes at the same level as the meniscus to avoid parallax error.
• The liquid should be slowly poured into the cylinder so that it does not spill out or cling to the wall of
the cylinder.
Pressure:
Pressure in solids:
The equation that links pressure, force and area is given by: P = F/A.
The SI unit of pressure is pascal (Pa).
Another unit of pressure can be Newtons per metres squared (N/m2).
Larger units of the Pascal may include:
• kilopascal (kPa): 1 kPa = 1000 Pa
• megapascal (MPa): 1 MPa = 1000 000 Pa
• gigapascal (GPa): 1 GPa = 1000 000 000 Pa

The diagram on the left shows the same block kept at two
different positions.
• In either position, the force remains same because the
weight remains same.
• The pressure in position 2 is greater as the area of contact
is smaller and according to P = F/A, the smaller the area
of contact, the larger the pressure.

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 The diagram shows some coins stacked up in a pile
in position 1 and spread-out in position 2.
• The force remains same as the weight
remains same.
• The area of contact in position 2 is greater
and according to P = F/A, the pressure is
smaller.

Pressure in liquids:
Pressure in liquids is given by the equation: P = hρg, where:

• P is the pressure;

• h is the depth from the surface;

• ρ is the density of the liquid;

• g is the gravitational field strength.

From this equation, it can be concluded that pressure in a liquid depends on the depth, provided

that ρ and g are constant.

Experiment to determine how liquid pressure depends on depth:

A cylinder is taken and three holes are drilled in it
at equal intervals of the same size. The holes are
plugged in with corks. The cylinder is filled with
water and the plugs are removed at the same
time.

The diagram on the left shows how water pours

out of the holes.

It is seen that water from the bottom hole pours

out with the greatest speed because water at the
level of the bottom hole exerts the greatest
pressure as it is at the highest depth.
Properties of pressure in liquids:
1. Pressure in liquids increases with depth.
2. The pressure remains constant at a certain depth at any given point.
The pressure at points X, Y and Z is the same because they are all at the same
level.

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3. Pressure at a certain point in a liquid acts in all directions.

4. Atmospheric pressure: Atmospheric pressure acts on all objects including us

because of the Earth’s atmosphere. The value of the atmospheric pressure is about
100000 Pa or 100 kPa. However, we do not feel this atmospheric pressure because
our blood pressure balances out the atmospheric pressure.

Pressure in Gases:
Gas molecules move randomly and collide with the walls of their containers. As they rebound, there is
a change in momentum which causes a force to be exerted and pressure is given by force per unit
area.
Chapter 19 - States of Matter
State Shape Volume Molecular Molecular
Arrangement Motion
Solid Fixed shape Fixed volume Tightly packed Vibrate about
mean fixed
position
Liquid No fixed shape/ Fixed volume Tightly packed Slide past
Shape of the one another
container
Gas No shape Takes the Further apart/Loosely Move randomly
volume of the packed at high speed
container
The diagram shows the arrangement of molecules in ice (solid), water (liquid) & gas (steam).

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 Manometer:

A manometer measures the pressure acting on a column of fluid. It is made from a U-shaped tube of
liquid in which the difference in pressure acting on the two straight sections of the tube causes the liquid
to reach different heights in the two arms.

The pressure difference can then be calculated by using the following equation:

pressure difference, ΔP = height (h) × density (ρ) × gravitational field strength (g)

ΔP = h × ρ × g

Mathematical example:

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Barometer:

Barometers can be used to predict the weather. They measure changes in atmospheric pressure over time.

Differences in pressure are seen on weather forecast maps as a pattern of isobars. These changes in
pressure are used to make predictions and, if used with wind readings, are reasonably accurate.

Many traditional barometers contain mercury. The mercury is in a long glass tube with an open reservoir at
the bottom:
• higher atmospheric pressure exerts a downward force on the mercury in the reservoir - the mercury
gets pushed up the tube;
• lower atmospheric pressure cannot hold up the weight of the mercury column as effectively - the
mercury moves lower down the tube.

Mathematical example:

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 Gas laws:

Kinetic Theory & Kelvin Temperature:

The kinetic theory of gases states that all the molecules are in constant random motion. In simpler terms,
they all have a kinetic energy, hence the name - kinetic theory. A rise in temperature causes the kinetic
energy of gases to increase. In other words, when temperature increases, the average speed of
the molecules also increases.

Even though in everyday life we use degree Celsius as a unit of temperature, in gas laws, all
calculations involving temperature must be in the Kelvin scale. To convert temperature in degree
Celsius to Kelvin, simply add 273. Conversely if you want to convert the temperature in degree Celsius
from Kelvin scale, subtract 273.

Temperature in the Kelvin scale is called absolute temperature and 0 K is called absolute zero.

The quantities in concern in gas laws are pressure, volume & temperature. The gas laws basically represent
the relationship between any of these two quantities. When the relationship between any two quantities is
to be determined, it has to be ensured that the third quantity is kept constant.

Boyle's Law:

Boyle's law represents the relationship between pressure and volume and as mentioned earlier, to establish
the relationship between pressure and volume, the temperature must be kept constant.

Boyle’s law states that the pressure of a fixed mass of gas is inversely proportional to the volume.
Mathematically: P∝1/V.
To turn the expression into an equation we need to introduce a constant. Therefore,
P = constant x 1/V
OR
PV = constant
Therefore
P1V1 = P2V2. This is the equation that you will be using in calculations involving Boyle’s law.

Graphs for Boyle’s Law

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Analyzing relationship between pressure and volume:
It has to be kept in mind that between pressure and volume, pressure is the dependent quantity and
volume is the independent quantity, i.e., pressure depends on volume and not the other way around.
Since temperature is kept constant, it is called a control variable in this context.

As seen in the diagram, pushing the plunger in causes the

volume of gas inside the container to decrease.

Since the gas molecules are closer, they will now collide
more frequently.

More frequent collisions mean a greater average force per

unit area. Therefore, a greater pressure is exerted.
Pressure Law:

Pressure law represents the relationship between pressure and temperature and as mentioned earlier, to
establish the relationship between pressure and temperature, the volume must be kept constant.

Pressure law states that the pressure of a fixed mass of gas at constant volume is directly proportional to the
temperature (in the Kelvin scale).

Mathematically: P ∝ T
To turn the expression into an equation we need to introduce a constant. Therefore
P = constant x T
OR
P/T = constant
Therefore
P1/T1 = P2/T2. This is the equation that you will be using in calculations involving Pressure law.

Graphs for pressure law

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 Analysing relationship pressure and temperature:
It has to be kept in mind that between pressure and temperature, pressure is the dependent variable
and temperature is the independent variable, i.e., pressure depends on temperature and not the other
way around. Since volume is kept constant, it is called the control variable in this context.
As the temperature increases, the kinetic
energy of the molecules also increases.

The molecules move faster and collide

harder with each other.

There is a greater rate of change of

momentum, a greater force that acts per
unit area. Therefore, the pressure of the gas
increases.

Solids, Liquids & Gases - Frequently-asked Questions in IGCSE:

1. Describe the motion of gas molecules.
Ans: Fast and random.
2. How do gas molecules exert pressure on the walls of their container?
Ans: Gas molecules move randomly and collide with the walls of their container. As they rebound,
there is a change in momentum. Force is given by rate of change of momentum. Force per unit area is
pressure.
3. Describe the arrangement and motion of molecules in solids, liquids and gases.
Ans: In solids, molecules are tightly packed. They vibrate about their mean fixed positions. In liquids,
molecules are tightly packed. They slide past each other. In gases, molecules are loosely packed.
They move randomly at high speeds.
4. What effect does a rise in temperature have on the speeds/kinetic energies of gas molecules?
Ans: The kinetic energy increases.
5. Explain the changes that occur when a solid melts. Refer to particles in your answer.
Ans: Bonds between particles are weakened or broken. Particles go from regular to irregularly packed.
Particles go from vibrating (about a fixed position) to sliding past each other.

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Concise Questions:
16) An ideal gas held at a pressure of 310 kPa is compressed to a third of its original volume.
Calculate the new pressure of the gas. (3 marks)
17) Find the Kelvin temperature corresponding to 25 oC. (1 mark)
18) Explain how particles are able to escape a liquid before it reaches its boiling point. (2 marks)
19) An object has a mass of 0.45 kg and a volume of 75 cm3. Calculate its density in kg/m3.
(3 marks)
20) A vase with a base area of 0.044 m2 applies 49 N to a table surface. Calculate the pressure on
the table. (1 mark)

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