Innovations in Education and Teaching International

Vol. 43, No. 4, November 2006, pp. 327–336

Mapping and managing knowledge and

information in resource-based learning
Sigmar-Olaf Tergana*, Wolfgang Gräberb and Anja Neumannb
aKnowledge Media Research Centre, Tübingen, Germany; bLeibniz Institute for Science Education,
University of Kiel, Germany
Sigmar-OlafTergan
Innovations
1470-3297
Original
Taylor
402006
43
s.tergan@iwm-kmrc.de
00000November
&Article
Francis
10.1080/14703290600973737
RIIE_A_197274.sgm
and (print)/1470-3300
in Education
Francis 2006
Ltd and Teaching
(online) International

In resource-based learning scenarios, students are often overwhelmed by the complexity of task-relevant
knowledge and information. Techniques for the external interactive representation of individual knowledge in
graphical format may help them to cope with complex problem situations. Advanced computer-based concept-
mapping tools have the potential to foster spatial learning strategies and processes of individual knowledge
management. In addition, they have the potential to represent not only conceptual knowledge, but also content
knowledge about a domain, as well as knowledge resources. The paper analyzes the potential of digital concept
maps for supporting processes of individual knowledge management in resource-based learning. After a brief
review of the structural, representational, processing, and usability features of digital concept maps, results of
empirical research related to the following main management processes are considered: knowledge identifica-
tion/evaluation, information search, knowledge generation, knowledge representation/organization, knowledge
communication, and knowledge use.

Introduction
Learners studying in a self-regulated way have to cope with a complexity of knowledge and
knowledge resources in many domains. This is particularly true for resource-based learning
scenarios (Rakes, 1996) when information is stored electronically on servers all over the world.
Learners in such scenarios have to search, localize, represent, store, make efficient use of infor-
mation, and relate it to their personal knowledge. Information literacy is needed to make effec-
tive use of resources. Many students, however, have not yet acquired effective strategies of
resource-based learning. They suffer from cognitive overload and conceptual and navigational
disorientation. Visual-spatial strategies are suggested to help learners coping with subject-matter
complexity and ill-structuredness (Holley & Dansereau, 1984; Jonassen et al., 1997). They may
reduce working memory load and help students to elicit, (co-)construct, structure and restruc-
ture, elaborate, evaluate, locate and access, communicate, and use ideas and thoughts, as well

* Corresponding author. Knowledge Media Research Centre, Konrad-Adenauer-Str. 40, 72072 Tübingen,
Germany. Email: s.tergan@iwm-kmrc.de

ISSN 1470–3297 (print)/ISSN 1470–3300 (online)/06/040327–10

© 2006 Taylor & Francis
DOI: 10.1080/14703290600973737
328 S.-O. Tergan et al.

as knowledge, about relevant contents and resources (Jonassen et al., 1993). Jonassen et al.
(1997) have described a variety of visualization methods for representing, conveying, and
acquiring structural knowledge. The idea behind all methods is that cognitive processing of
complex subject matter may be enhanced if structures behind ideas and knowledge, as well as
their relevance for learning and problem solving, are made explicit. Helping students to organize
their knowledge is as important as the knowledge itself, since knowledge organization affects
students’ intellectual performance (Bransford et al., 1999). Advanced computer-based mapping
tools are suggested to help students construct, organize, store, retrieve, and restructure task-
relevant ideas and knowledge, and get access to related information resources. It is because of
this assumed potential that digital mapping tools are suggested as useful for managing knowl-
edge and information. The most well-known mapping tools offering features supporting the
individual managing of knowledge and information are mind mapping (Buzan, 1995) and
concept mapping (Novak, 1990). The present article focuses on concept mapping as the most
researched mapping tool in the context of learning and instruction.

Characteristics of concept maps

A visualization technique, which has a long tradition in the educational context as a cognitive
tool for enhancing learning, is concept mapping. The technique was invented by Novak and
Gowin (1984) based on the ideas of Ausubel (1963), who advocated that an individual’s subject-
matter knowledge is mentally represented in a hierarchy of concepts. A concept map is a spatial
array that represents elements of knowledge by means of nodes and links, with the nodes repre-
senting ideas, concepts, and beliefs, and the links relations between them. Multiple linkages
between concepts may depict how each concept is related to other concepts. Concept mapping
is suggested
to take advantage of the remarkable capabilities of the human visual perception system and the benefits
of visual information representation. These benefits include (a) ease of recognition, (b) the possibility
to quickly scan a picture and find differences or keywords, (c) compactness of representation, and (d)
the observation that it seems to be easier to keep an overview. (Kommers & Lanzing, 1997, p. 423)
Concept mapping is conceived to be essential for a constructivist approach to learning and prob-
lem solving. ‘Constructing concept maps stimulates us to externalize, articulate, and pull
together information we already know about a subject and understand new information as we
learn … It stimulates a learner to find contours of his/her knowledge’ (Kommers & Lanzing,
1997, p. 424).
During the process of learning and problem solving, a concept map—as an external represen-
tation of semantic memory—may also help the learner overcoming problems that are due to the
limitations of short-term memory in both capacity and duration of stored information. Combin-
ing visual and verbal modes for cognitive processing reduces the burden on working memory,
expanding the brain’s ability for coping with complex cognitive task requirements. In addition
to the potential of concept maps for reducing cognitive load (Sweller, 1988, 1994), they may
serve functions beyond simple memory extensions. There is a lot of evidence indicating that the
use of concept maps has proven to be a valuable strategy for supporting cognitive functions in a
variety of learning and instructional settings (Jonassen, 1987; Novak, 1990; Bruillard & Baron,
2000; O’Donnell et al., 2002).
 Mapping and managing knowledge and information 329

Table 1. Examples of concept-mapping tools

Tool Website

Knowledge Manager http://www.knowledgemanager.us/

Mind Manager http://www.mindjet.com/
Inspiration http://inspiration.com/productinfo/inspiration/features/index.cfm
CmapTools http://cmap.ihmc.us/
SMART Ideas http://www.smarttech.com/products/smartideas/index.asp

In the past, concept mapping has been used in the instructional context primarily for purposes
of fostering knowledge elicitation, knowledge acquisition, and knowledge assessment (Kommers
& Lanzing, 1997). The approach was restricted to a mapping of concepts and relations between
concepts. Recently this conception of concept mapping has been criticized as too narrow and
not appropriate for capturing an individual’s knowledge about a subject matter in a comprehen-
sive manner (Alpert & Gruenenberg, 2000). The maps tend to represent the conceptual macro-
structure of a domain only, leaving the knowledge about contents and resources—to which the
conceptual structure refers—unrepresented. Unlike traditional tools, advanced computer-based
concept mapping tools similar to those listed in Table 1 provide additional representational
capabilities. They allow people to express knowledge more fully by incorporating the represen-
tation of content and resource knowledge using multiple coding formats (text, sound, picture,
video) and interactive links. Thus, not only semantic knowledge of a subject-matter domain in
terms of abstract concepts and their semantic relationships may be represented, but also, in a
more comprehensive manner, content knowledge as represented by self-generated annotations
and elaborations of the conceptual knowledge like notes, summaries, weblogs, or graphics.
Additionally, resource knowledge—to which the concepts refer and which is relevant for a
further elaboration of the conceptual knowledge—may be represented by means of linking
concept nodes to PC files or web pages (Coffey et al., 2002). Whereas traditional concept-
mapping tools only allow for two-dimensional static representations of conceptual knowledge,
advanced computer-based tools also provide free interactive access to content and resource
knowledge linked to the conceptual knowledge by means of hyperlinks.
Figure 1 shows STORM-K, a browsable visual model of weather-forecasting expertise based
on the CmapTools mapping software (Cañas et al., 2005). It illustrates how concept maps may
be used for the representation of knowledge and information. In this way concept maps may be
used as cognitive tools for mapping and managing knowledge and information. They may help
learners in externalizing and keeping up to date what is known about a subject matter in a
personal repository and providing knowledge-based access to individual repositories of resource
knowledge.
In addition, advanced digital concept-mapping tools provide typical office-software facilities,
Figure 1. A screen shot from STORM-LK, a browsable visual model of weather-forecasting expertise based on CmapTools mapping software (Cañas et al., 2005) (printed with permission of Springer-Verlag)

e.g. free editing facilities to be used for (re)constructing, (re)organizing, and (re)representing
mapped knowledge. They also provide facilities for storing, printing, representation in different
formats (outline, graphic), e-mailing and web implementation in HTML format. Functions for
interactive access to linked knowledge elements on the basis of the conceptual structure of a
domain may be used to enhance the localization and use of individual conceptual elaborations,
330 S.-O. Tergan et al.

Figure 1. A screen shot from STORM-LK, a browsable visual model of weather-forecasting expertise based
on CmapTools mapping software (Cañas et al., 2005) (printed with permission of Springer-Verlag)

as well as knowledge resources. In addition, some of these tools also provide functions for review-
ing the creation process of a map, e.g. by means of backtracking, and provide functions for web-
conferencing (e.g. Smart Ideas). Most of the tools also support collaborative construction of
concept maps, enabling distributed teams to collectively develop and access maps (see Cañas
et al., 1999). Because of their enhanced functions, computer-based concept maps may be partic-
ularly helpful as cognitive tools for students studying in a self-regulated context in open resource-
based e-learning scenarios designed according to a constructivist design rationale. These scenarios
give students a great deal of freedom for self-evaluating the appropriateness of existing knowledge,
searching for additional information, assembling ideas, (co)constructing and representing knowl-
edge and knowledge resources, sharing and communicating such knowledge to others, as well as
for using knowledge and knowledge resources in a flexible manner for creative problem solutions.
This conception of using concept-mapping technology for managing knowledge and knowl-
edge resources is quite concordant with a conception of individual knowledge management as
part of advanced self-regulated resource-based learning, which is gradually fading into the field
of e-learning (Maurer & Sapper, 2001). A framework for analyzing the potential of computer-
ized concept mapping for different process categories of individual knowledge management is
suggested. The framework is oriented toward a model of basic knowledge management
 Mapping and managing knowledge and information 331

processes as described by Probst et al. (1999). The processes in focus are cognitive—as well as
meta-cognitive—processes framed into categories, which are relevant for knowledge manage-
ment processes in advanced e-learning and resource-based learning. It is suggested that the
framework may be used for analyzing and tailoring empirical research on concept mapping used
for supporting processes of individual knowledge management.

Concept mapping for fostering processes of knowledge management

How can mapping tools add to fostering processes of individual knowledge management?
According to Malhotra (2000), the focus of knowledge management is on an interaction of tech-
nology-based tools and the people using these tools in a task-appropriate manner for coping with
cognitive requirements of managing both mental and external representations of knowledge.
Based on the model of Probst et al. (1999), several highly interdependent process categories of
knowledge management may be identified. The categories are: knowledge identification/evalu-
ation, information search, knowledge generation, knowledge representation/organization,
knowledge communication, and knowledge use.

Knowledge identification/knowledge evaluation

Knowledge identification and evaluation are closely related meta-cognitive processes performed
by an individual. After an initial process of task analysis, needs assessment, and goal setting, a
student coping with a complex cognitive task has to first identify task-relevant knowledge and to
evaluate it with respect to the knowledge available or not available for coping effectively with a
particular task situation. Self-evaluation of individual knowledge may be done on a map-based
representation of one’s own knowledge. For example, if the task is to acquire expert knowledge,
the structure of an individual’s knowledge as represented in an individual concept map may be
compared with the knowledge structure of an expert as represented in an expert map. The
potential of knowledge maps as a means for diagnosing individual structures of knowledge has
been shown in a variety of empirical studies (Jonassen et al., 1997). In self-regulated learning
scenarios, the particular contribution of computer-based concept maps is that they may support
self-assessment (Shavelson et al., 1994; Kommers & Lanzing, 1997).

Information search
When individual knowledge has been evaluated as inappropriate for effectively coping with a
cognitive task situation and knowledge gaps have been identified, it is necessary to look for task-
relevant content and resource knowledge to fill the gaps and acquire appropriate knowledge.
‘Resource-appended Concept Maps make useful, highly accessible learning resources’ (Coffey
et al., 2002). Learners in virtual learning scenarios may, for example, get access to subject-matter
content knowledge as represented in texts or multimedia documents, which are stored in repos-
itories provided by the learning environment on CD-ROM, or they may access knowledge
resources available on the World Wide Web. Concept maps have been used as a navigation device
for students who need orientation while they explore broad information domains like hypermedia
documents available on CD-ROM or on the World Wide Web (Kommers & Lanzing, 1997;
332 S.-O. Tergan et al.

Potelle & Rouet, 2003). They ‘serve to provide learners with navigational clues, in order to facil-
itate navigation through the materials and … the construction of new knowledge’ (Bruillard &
Baron, 2000). For example, McDonald and Stevenson (1998) and Carnot et al. (n.d.) found
that concept maps provide an efficient access to web-based information resources. This effect is
more pronounced with low knowledge-level students than with high knowledge-level students
and when students are meaningful learners compared to rote learners. An innovative use of
concept maps for enhancing web searches was recently presented by Carvalho et al. (2001).
Concept maps combined with filtering and ranking algorithms of the results of search engines
(Google, Altavista, Yahoo, Excite) were found to enhance identifying pages, which are consid-
ered to be of relevance for the context of the map.

Knowledge generation
New knowledge is generated by constructive cognitive processes like integrating, elaborating,
reorganizing, and reformatting existing knowledge structures and linking knowledge elements
(concept knowledge, content knowledge, resource knowledge) with contexts and situations.
Concept mapping has been used effectively in instructional settings to foster processes of knowl-
edge generation (Wallace et al., 1998; O’Donnell et al., 2002). For example, Gaines and Shaw
(1995a) describe the rationale of a prototype Learning Web implementation, as well as tools,
such as concept maps and repertory grids used within the Web for knowledge generation.
Advanced concept-mapping tools provide functions for integrating elaborations by either adding
new nodes or by appending annotations to existing nodes. Knowledge generation is also
supported by providing functions for reorganizing and reformatting existing maps.

Knowledge representation/organization
The process of knowledge representation is at the centre of all knowledge management processes.
In order to make generated knowledge accessible for future use, it must be organized according
to some semantic or pragmatic rationale, and represented in a format mirroring the cognitive
affordances for coping with a particular task situation. It must also be dynamically adaptable
according to changes in task affordances and personal interests. In complex and knowledge-rich
cognitive processing tasks, it is necessary to represent not only the conceptual knowledge of a
domain, but also content knowledge and resource knowledge. When individual knowledge is
externalized in a map, the map can provide easy access to these types of knowledge, for example,
in situations when an argument during a discussion has to be referenced to a particular content
or knowledge resource or when content has to be reviewed in the course of a writing process.
Digital concept-mapping tools provide functions for externalizing mental representations of
different types of knowledge in arbitrary formats. Concept maps are no longer merely two-
dimensional spatial arrays that represent concept knowledge in the form of a node–link–node
diagram. In addition to traditional tools, digital tools also allow for mappings in a hypertext-
like format by using sub-maps and links (Alpert & Gruenenberg, 2000). By means of linking,
concept knowledge, content knowledge and resource knowledge may be represented in a
coherent representational format. When concept maps are used for representing individual
knowledge, they serve as cognitive tools to augment capacities of human memory (Jonassen
 Mapping and managing knowledge and information 333

et al., 1998). Wiegmann et al. (1992) have shown that the kind of spatial configuration of
nodes, the means for highlighting links, as well as the users’ spatial and verbal abilities, may
affect knowledge acquisition.

Knowledge communication
Knowledge communication, as a knowledge management process, may serve different purposes,
for example, to disseminate knowledge from a tutor to students, between students, and from a
student to a tutor. Students working together in a cooperative instructional setting communicate
and share knowledge in order to contribute to the construction of shared knowledge or to the
design and development of a common cognitive artifact. Computer-based mapping tools may
contribute to fostering processes of knowledge communication in several ways. They may, for
example, be used to communicate the concept structure of a subject matter and enhance knowl-
edge acquisition (McAleese et al., 1999). They may also be used as a basis for fostering cooper-
ative work (Gaines & Shaw, 1995b). Concept maps may be particularly useful in fostering
coping with a task situation that requires knowledge, which is too comprehensive, and concep-
tual views, which are too diverse, for a single person to manage successfully. During the
construction phase, concept maps may contribute to foster grounding processes (McAleese
et al., 1999; Coffey et al., 2002).

Knowledge use
In order to facilitate knowledge use, mental representations of knowledge have to be structured
and represented to cope adequately with the requirements of a particular task. Knowledge repre-
sentations must be easily adaptable to different situations, tasks, individual interests and
contexts of use (Spiro et al., 1991). Concept map-based external representations of ideas and
individual knowledge meet these conditions. Concept maps have proven to be valuable cognitive
tools for supporting cognitive functions of knowledge use in a variety of learning and instruc-
tional settings, among them manipulating conceptual knowledge (Cañas et al., 1999), informa-
tion searching and browsing (Carnot et al., n.d.), cooperative work and knowledge sharing
(Gaines & Shaw, 1995b; Coffey et al., 2002; Novak & Wurst, 2004) and designing hypermedia
products (Kommers & Lanzing, 1997). Concept maps used to manage individual knowledge
and knowledge resources may be particularly useful in resource-based learning scenarios like
WebQuest (http://webquest.sdsu.edu/). Concept maps may help learners maximize the use of
information obtained from online resources when these are made accessible by a concept map
(Carvalho et al., 2001; Tergan, 2005).

Perspectives for application and research

It is important to develop and use strategies and tools for knowledge management for the
purposes of coping with knowledge-rich task situations more effectively (Malhotra, 2000). Up
to now, there have only been isolated approaches aimed at bringing together mapping tools for
knowledge management and e-learning (Gaines & Shaw, 2002). It is the task of educational
information technology to develop systems and tools for individual knowledge management and
334 S.-O. Tergan et al.

to integrate them into platforms for web-based e-learning. Concept mapping has proven to be a
valuable technique for enhancing aspects of cognitive processing of conceptual knowledge.
Advanced concept-mapping tools meet the demands of coping effectively with managing
conceptual, content and resource knowledge in one coherent visual representation (Cañas et al.,
2005). They have a high potential to support learners in self-regulated learning and knowledge
management. The task of instruction is to develop learner-centred instructional scenarios and
integrate the use of knowledge management systems and tools. Research on the effective use of
mapping tools for supporting the management of conceptual, content and resource knowledge
in e-learning scenarios has to be initiated. In a recent approach, Neumann et al. (2005) success-
fully implemented a mind-mapping tool (Mind Manager) in a resource-based learning scenario
to assist students in managing knowledge and information. Results of a pilot study show that the
tool was accepted by most of the students and evaluated as useful for keeping ideas, knowledge,
and information organized and easily accessible during task completion.
Past research has shown that students rarely use concept mapping spontaneously, because it
is difficult, and that the process of map modification can be messy and cumbersome. Concept
mapping used for individual knowledge management requires skills in generating appropriate
maps and using them efficiently. The kind of task, the map characteristics, the amount of
subject-matter knowledge, and the tendency for rote or meaningful learning are variables that
may influence the effective use of concept maps in learning scenarios (Lambiotte & Dansereau,
1992; Wiegmann et al., 1992; Bruillard & Baron, 2000; O’Donnell et al., 2002).

Conclusion
Until now empirical research has focused on traditional concept mapping and the use of concept
maps for learning and instruction. In order to evaluate the potential of concept mapping for
knowledge management in resource-based learning and problem solving, research has to focus
on the individual and situational conditions of the effective use of mapping tools for knowledge
management and on how management processes may be fostered by technical features and
instructional measures.

Notes on contributors
Sigmar-Olaf Tergan is senior researcher within the hypermedia research unit at the Knowledge
Media Research Centre (KMRC) in Tübingen. His research interests are conceptual and
empirical studies on learning with multimedia and hypermedia, knowledge management
with mapping tools, and evaluation of e-learning.
Wolfgang Gräber is senior researcher at the Leibniz-Institute for Science Education (IPN) at the
University of Kiel, Germany. His main research interest focuses on bridging the ‘two
cultures’ (science and general education) in school lessons, aiming for scientifically literate
citizens, and promoting self-directed learning (with new technologies) as a prerequisite for
lifelong learning.
Anja Neumann is doctoral student at the Leibniz-Institute for Science Education at the
University of Kiel, Germany. Her main interest focuses on research in self-regulated
resource-based learning and its support through spatial visual strategies.
 Mapping and managing knowledge and information 335

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