Road Loads

Automotive Aerodynamics

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• Automotive aerodynamics is the study of
the aerodynamics of road vehicles.
• Its main goals are:-
– reducing drag and wind noise,
– minimizing noise emission, and
– preventing undesired lift forces and other causes
of aerodynamic instability at high speeds.
– produce downforce to improve traction and thus cornering
abilities.

The other main goal is to respond to

the growing demands for fuel
efficiency and more energy-efficient
strategies to reduce total energy
consumption of the vehicle.

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• The aerodynamic resistance is generated
by two sources:
1. The air flow over the exterior of the vehicle body
90% of the total aerodynamic resistance of a
passenger car.
2. The flow through the engine radiator system and the
interior of the vehicle for purposes of cooling,
heating, and ventilating.

• The external air flow generates:

1. normal pressure (pressure drag), constitutes more
than 90% of the total external aerodynamic
resistance of a passenger car (air flow  to the body)

2. shear stress on the vehicle body (skin friction), more

significant, for a long vehicle, such as a bus or a
tractor—trailer train (air flow // to the body)
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 AERODYNAMIC FORCES AND
MOMENTS
For a passenger car
cruising at a speed about
80 km/h, the power
required to overcome the
aerodynamic resistance
is greater than that
required to overcome
mechanical resistance
which include:-
•rolling resistance of
the tires.
• the resistance in the
transmission,

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Mechanics of air flow
Determined by Bernouli’s
equation
(relation between V , P)
Pstatic + Pdynamic = Ptotal
Ps + ½V2 = Pt
 : density of air
V : velocity of air
Pt = const. 1
1
At a distance from the
vehicle:
Ps = Patm , Pd = ½V2 ,
Pt = Ps + Pd
(same for all stream lines).
2
As the airflow approaches 1 4
the vehicle:
1) (high pressure) Ps = Pt , 3
V=O 1
1) Ps , V , Pd
2,3) Ps  , V  , Pd 
4) Ps  , V  , Pd 
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 Air density
It should be mentioned that atmospheric conditions
affect air density .
•An increase in ambient temperature from 0° to 38°C will cause a
14% reduction in aerodynamic resistance,
•An increase in altitude to 1219 m will lead to a decrease in
aerodynamic resistance by 17%.

Standard set of conditions:-

Temperature (15°C) and barometric pressure 101.32 kPa
(14.7 psi, 76 cm or 29.92 in. Hg).
Air density  may be taken as 1.225 kg/m3 (0.002378
slug/ft3, and its equivalent weight density 0.07651 lb/ft3).

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Aerodynamic drag and boundary layers
•Boundary layer: a region of reduced velocity when air flows over a
body begins with zero thickness and grows with distance along the
body.
•Favorable pressure gradient: a process of pressure decreasing in the
direction of flow along the surface, which cause a boundary layer
growth.
•Adverse pressure gradient: a process of pressure increasing when
flow turns again to follow the body which decelerate the flow in the
boundary layer.

Region of reduced velocity and

pressure decreasing

3/13/2019 Vehicle dynamics Adverse pressure gradient 7

pressure increasing
 Separation point: point where airflow is no longer
attached to the body and formulation of vortices in
this region, the smaller the separation area the
lower the drag.
The Aerodynamic drag forces arising from:
1. Friction in the boundary layer.
2. Low pressure in the separation region. 8
3/13/2019 3. High pressure fore body
Effect of separation point on dirt deposition
at the rear

The flow along the

sides drawn up in
the rear combining
with flow over the
roof

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Pressure
distribution on
a vehicle
+,- with respect to
ambient pressure

lift and drag

forces on
different
vehicle styles

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 Aerodynamic forces: (fig 27)
Air stream which acting on the vehicle’s body imposes forces and
moments

Forces:
Drag , Side force and
Lift force.
Moments:
Rolling , Pitching and
Yawing moments.

Aerodynamic forces
and moments are
measured in the
ground plane at the
mid wheel base and
mid track position.

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Main components
of aerodynamic
drag coefficient
Drag: the main
aerodynamic force.

Drag derives from

contribution of
many sources.

For specific vehicle

shown in the (fig)
65% of the drag
arises from the
body.
(0.275/0.42)=65%
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 After body drag

After body drag (0.14), the higher component of drag because of

separation zone, ( slop up to 15° to reduce drag).
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 Fore body drag
Fore body drag component
(0.05).

Design of front end and

windshield rounded low
hood line reduce CD by (5-
15%),

The location of stagnation

point is important as it
separates the air flow above
and below the body.

The lower the stagnation

point the minimum fore
body drag will be obtained.

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 Windshield angle

Design of front end

and windshield)
rounded low hood
line (5-15%) reduce
CD,
Optimized
Windshield angle =
28°.

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Wheels and wheel
wells(0.09) :
Shielding of wheels and
wheel wells improve their
aero dynamics but it possible
only for rear wheels
The wheel-houses is one of the
important areas that can be
responsible for up to 25-30% of
total aerodynamic resistance of
a vehicle

Under body (0.06),

minimizing clearance
between ground and under
side of car reduces drag and
(smooth under body
minimize the drag).

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 Cooling system:
flow management affect the drag
coefficient Influence of cooling system
on drag.

Air Dams improve air flow

through radiator (decrease
pressure on firewall) 18
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 Aerodynamic Aids

• Front bumper spoiler

(reduce clearance
under side) and
increase pressure drag
• Deck Lid Spoilers
(reduce rear lift),
stabilize vortices.
• Window and Pillar
treatments:
– Small separation zones,
Increase drag
– Smooth contours
reduce noise
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Vehicle dynamics 20
 Optimization
Vehicles aerodynamics
developing on basis
of:
1. Adaptation of stream
lined shapes.
2. Development of fluid
mechanics.
3. Studying of Airflow
characteristics.
(fig 35) shows an
example of
aerodynamic
optimization of
vehicle.
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 Aerodynamic Drag
DA = ½ V2 CD A – semi-empirical equation
CD: aerodynamic drag coefficient
A: frontal area of vehicle
: air density
½ V2: dynamic pressure
V: relative total velocity

 = 0.00236 (Pr) (519) …lb/ft3

29.92 460+Tr
Tr – Fahrenheit, Pr – inches of mercury

 = 1.225 (Pr) (519) …kg/m3

101.325 273.16+Tr
Tr –Celsius, Pr – kilopascal
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 CD =DA (experimental value)
½ V2 A
CD = 0.007 – 1.95
The value of CD coefficient means : the drag force is the same
value times as the dynamic pressure acting over the frontal
area.
1980 :cars 0.3 – 0.35
vans 0.33 – 0.35
pick ups 0.42 – 0.46
trucks 0.45 – 0.75
Relative total velocity
If wind blows toward
the vehicle.

If tail wind V = VV - VW Vehicle dynamics 25

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Side winds creates drag and momentum change (so it’s important)
CD increases 5 – 10% with yaw angles because of large separation
region which will occurs.

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Side force from cross
wind, it may change
direction of travel

SA : side force
V : total wind velocity
Cs : side force coefficient
A : frontal area
Note that: (frontal area is
differ for the side force)
Cs = f (wind angle) (fig 39)
If wind angle is zeroCs= 0
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Lift force
Causing from the pressure
differential from the top to
the bottom of vehicle. It acts
to  and  the weight
on the axles.

Lift have negative impact on stability of

vehicle.
CL :- 0.3 – 0.5 at zero wind Lift may be reduced by using under
angle body spoilers
(CL : may reach 1) depending Vehicle dynamics 29
on the wind angle.
Pitching moment
(P.M.): while lift force
acts (P.M.) may occur to
transfer weight between the
front and rear axles.

PM = ½ V2 C PMA L
L : wheel base
C PM : pitching moment
coefficient
A : frontal area
PM = f (pitch angle)
C PM = 0.05 – 0.2
C PM varies with body pitch
angle and sensitive to the
angle of attack (α) of the
vehicle.
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Yawing moment:
Lateral force which
not act at the mid
wheel base position.
Causing yawing
moment.
YM = ½ V2 CYM A L
YM = f (wind direction)
CYM = 0 at zero wind
angle

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 Rolling moment:
• Caused by lateral force acting on an
elevated point on the vehicle in the
wheel base position.
• low influence on stability

: is sensitive to wind direction like the

yawing moment coefficient
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 Rolling resistance
- At low speeds rolling resistance is the only resistance
force.
- At speeds 50 – 60 mph:-
rolling resistance = aerodynamic drag.
Rolling resistance caused by:
– deflection of tires
– deflection of road surface
– air drag of the tire
– energy loss on bumps
– tire slip in both lateral and longitudinal directions.

Rx = Rxf + Rxr = frW

Rxf , Rxr : rolling resistance on fronts and rear wheels.
W: weight of vehicle.
fr: rolling resistance coefficient (determines the effects of
complicated and interdependent physical properties of tire and
ground)
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 Factors affecting rolling resistance:

fr depends on physical
properties of tire and
ground.
1)Tire temperature:-
it arises from
deflection and
energy loss in the
tire material
(20 minutes tire warming up).

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 Factors affecting rolling resistance
2)Tire inflation pressure loads
determines the elasticity
and deflection of the side
walls and contact region of
tire.
soft surface 
high inflation increase ground
penetration work high
coefficient
medium surface 
fr nearly balanced
hard surface  fr  with higher
inflation pressure.

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 Factors affecting rolling resistance
3)Velocity affect fr
because of flexing
work and vibration of
tire body (especially at
low inflation
pressure).
4)Tire material and design
of tread and side walls
affect fr, smooth tread
20% decrease fr than
new tires.

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5)Tire slip while
acceleration , braking ,
and cornering shows
more fr because of
wheels slip because of
frictional scuffing.

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 Estimation of fr :

-------- Experimental
equation

Rx: rolling resist force

W: weight on the wheel
C: constant elastic characteristics of the material of tire
D: outside diameter
ht: tire section height
w: tire section width
 load  fr , larger tire  fr , low aspect ratio h/w  fr

Typical values of fr

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fr and velocity
At low speed:

(experimental Equation)
V: vehicle speed in mph
At high speed:

(experimental Equation)
V: speed mph
fo: basic coefficient
fs: speed effect coefficient
fo , fs = f (inflation pressure) , (road surface)

Roll. Res. Min on:- hard, smooth, dry surface,

and inflated tyres.
Worn out roads doubles roll. res.
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 Total road loads
RRL = fr W + ½ V2 C DA + W sin (Lb)
The road load horse power:-
HpRL: power required to
HpRL = RRL V
overcome resistances
550Power = Force . Velocity
HpRL = (fr W + ½ V2 C DA + W sin) V
550
V3 in equation means that small increase in speed will result
A large increase in vehicle power required to over come road loads

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Power = F.S = Force . Velocity = F. V = N . m (watt)
t s
 Fuel economy effects

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 Home work

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