Objective FEARL JOY

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to relate the properties and structures of household gadgets to
their uses.

Household appliances or gadgets are electrical and/or mechanical machines which can (1) accomplish some
household functions such as cooking; (2) make the living space more comfortable by cooling the
surroundings; or (3) provide entertainment.

What are the materials used in making household appliances? How are the properties of these materials
determine their uses?

Cooking appliances are used to heat food ingredients during the cooking process. Examples include toaster,
oven, boiler, coffee maker, hot plate, and rice cooker. Most of the cooking appliances are powered by
electricity. Hence, they are mostly made of electrical conductors such as steel, aluminum, and copper. To
protect the users from electric shock, their handles are often made of polymers for electrical insulation.
Example
An oven toaster is an appliance that uses electricity to heat and toast bread. An important part of the toaster is
the heating element.

The heating element is often made of nichrome wire, which is an alloy of nickel and chromium. It converts
electricity into heat through a process called resistive heating. Electric current passes through the element and
encounters resistance. Because of the resistance, the electrical energy is converted into heat. Nichrome is an
ideal material for heating element because of its high resistance. It also forms a thin layer of chromium oxide
when it is heated for the first time. This layer protects the nichrome from breaking or burning out.

Cooling appliances are used to lower the temperature and circulate the air in a room. They are often used
during hot weather to make the living space more comfortable. Electric fans and air conditioners are examples
of cooling appliances. They are powered by electricity so many of their components are made of metals. Their
covers are often made of polymers or plastics.

Example
An electric fan is an appliance that uses rotating blades (or paddles) to circulate air. Unlike an air conditioner,
a fan does not cool air. However, it produces a cooling effect by moving the air around the room. The moving
air or breeze allows your skin to evaporate sweat faster, cooling your skin.
An important part of an electric fan is the motor, which converts electric energy into mechanical energy, often
through an interaction of magnetic fields and current-carrying conductors. Copper is a metal commonly used
in coil windings, bearings, and connectors of motors because of its high electrical conductivity (due to its free
flowing electrons), high electrical efficiency, and low cost.
The motor is then attached to the fan blades through a shaft. The blades are often made of wood, iron,
aluminum, or plastic. It is important for the blades to be light, durable, tough, and easily molded or cut into
shapes.

Consumer electronics or home electronics are equipment intended for everyday use. They are often used for
entertainment. They include television, DVD players, video recorders, and video game consoles. They have
software embedded within the hardware of electronic components.
Example
Most home electronics have electronic panel displays. A typical example of material used in display is
the liquid-crystal display (LCD). LCD is made up of liquid crystal, a state of matter between solid and
liquid. A liquid crystal may flow like a liquid, but its molecules are oriented in a crystal-like manner.
If you look closely on an LCD TV screen, you will notice that the images are made of millions of tiny blocks
called pixels (picture elements). Each pixel can be switched on or off very rapidly to make the images move.
These pixels are controlled electronically using liquid crystals.

Try it!
Select one household appliance that you often use at home or in school. Research how it was invented and
how it works. Also, find out what materials are used to build it. Then design a future version of that appliance.

What do you think?

Why is it necessary to continue the research on materials that can be used for the manufacturing of household
devices?

Key Points
 Household appliances or gadgets are electrical and/or mechanical machines which can (1)
accomplish some household functions such as cooking; (2) make the living space more comfortable by
cooling the surroundings; and/or (3) provide entertainment.
 Many appliances are powered by electricity so they are mostly made of electrical conductors such as
metals and alloys. Polymers are used in covers and handles as electrical insulation.
 Most home electronics have electronic panel displays made up of liquid crystals, a state of matter
between solid and liquid.
Objective SUPREMO
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to explain how the structures of biological macromolecules such
as proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids determine their properties and functions.

Biomolecules are large organic compounds that are important to life’s processes, such as respiration and
metabolism. There are numerous biomolecules with different structures and functions. They are generally
classified into four major groups – proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids.

In this lesson, you will look into the general structure, properties, and functions of each of these groups of
biomolecules.

Proteins are biomolecules composed of amino acid units. Amino acids are organic molecules that have a
central carbon atom bonded to four different groups — an amino group (−NH2), an acidic carboxyl group
(−COOH), a hydrogen atom, and a variable side chain, R. The side chain can range from a single hydrogen
atom to complex ring structures.

In a protein, the amino acids are linked via a peptide bond. This peptide bond is formed between an amino
group of one amino acid and an acid carboxyl group of another amino acid. A chain of two or more amino
acids linked together by peptide bonds is called a peptide.

The smallest protein has about 50 amino acids. However, large proteins can have as many as 1000 amino
acids, arranged in any possible sequence. It is estimated that human cells can create between 80 000 to 100
000 different proteins.

The shape of a protein is important so that it can carry out its function. Long chains of amino acids fold into a
unique three-dimensional shape. Some areas of the protein may twirl into helices, like the coils of a telephone
cord. Other areas may be repeatedly bent into a pleated sheet, like the folds of an accordion. An important
intermolecular force of attraction that dictate and maintain the shape of a protein is the hydrogen bonding.

Properties
Proteins can participate in neutral, acidic, or basic reactions because their amino acids have an acidic carboxyl
end and a basic amino end. The amino acids are amphotericwhich means they can function either as an acid
or a base. Also, proteins have high molecular weights because they are comprised of many amino acids.
Functions
The sequence of amino acids determines the protein’s shape and function. Proteins play many important roles
in living cells. They can hasten chemical reactions, transport substances, and provide structural support.

Many proteins function as enzymes, which are molecules that catalyze or speed up chemical reactions in the
body. The reactant molecules bind to the active site of the enzymes, where they react to form products.
Enzymes have shapes that are highly specific for their functions. A slight change to their structures will inhibit
them to do their function.
Transport proteins carry small particles throughout the body. For example, the protein haemoglobin carries
oxygen in the blood from the lungs to the rest of the body. An important part of hemoglobin is its iron group
(called heme), the part to which oxygen binds.

Structural proteins are fibrous proteins which have long, thin structures. A typical example of a structural
protein is keratin, which is a component of the protective covering of most animals – hair, nails, skin or
feathers.

Learn about it!

Carbohydrates are molecules that are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They have a general
formula of CnH2nOn. They can be grouped depending on the number of their monomer units
called saccharides.

Carbohydrates can be divided into three major groups: monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.

Monosaccharides are the simplest form of carbohydrates. They contain either five or six carbon atoms. They
have open-chain and cyclic forms. A typical example of monosaccharide is glucose, C6H12O6, one of the
products of photosynthesis in plants.

Disaccharides are two monosaccharides bonded to each other. The monosaccharides are linked through
an ether (C−O−C) group. A common example of a disaccharide is the sweetener sucrose, or table sugar.
Sucrose is formed by glucose and fructose.

Polysaccharides are long chains of monosaccharide units. They are also called complex carbohydrates.
Similar to disaccharides, the monosaccharides in a polysaccharide are linked through an ether bond. An
example of a polysaccharide is starch, which is used to store energy in plants. It is comprised solely of glucose
subunits.

Properties
Monosaccharides and disaccharides are small molecules with multiple polar groups so they are water
soluble. Because they exhibit hydrogen bonding in their structures, they have high melting points.

In comparison, polysaccharides are less soluble due to their large sizes and complex shapes. For example,
starch and glycogen are both insoluble in water. On the other hand, cellulose, also water-insoluble, cannot be
digested by humans because the appropriate enzyme to breakdown cellulose into simpler monosaccharides is
lacking. Hence, nutritionists call cellulose as dietary fiber because it just passes through the digestive system
unchanged.

Functions
The main function of carbohydrates is to store and provide energy. They are broken down into smaller
glucose units that can be easily absorbed by the cells. When glucose is further broken down, the energy
released by breaking its chemical bonds are used or stored by the body in the form of glycogen.

Some carbohydrates also serve as the framework of cellular structures. For example, cellulose makes up the
cell wall of plant cells. Chitin, another carbohydrate, forms the exoskeleton of arthropods and the cell wall of
fungal cells.

Lipids are large, nonpolar biomolecules. They are mainly composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Unlike
proteins and carbohydrates, lipids are not polymers with repeating monomer subunits. They have many kinds
including triglycerides, waxes, and steroids.

Triglycerides are lipids composed of glycerol and fatty acids. Glycerol is a molecule with three carbons, each
containing a hydroxyl (−OH−OH) group while fatty acid is a long chain of carboxylic acid.

When three fatty acids bond to glycerol, they form ester bonds.
Triglycerides can be solid or liquid at room temperature. If solid at room temperature, they are called fats.
Fats, such as lard and butter, are produced by animals. If liquid at room temperature, they are called oils. Oils,
such as coconut and olive oils, are produced by plants.
Waxes are lipids that are composed of a fatty acid with a long chain of alcohol. They are produced by both
plants and animals. Plants often produce wax that coats their leaves which prevents them from drying out.
Animals such as bees also produce wax. Bees create their honeycomb structures from beeswax.

Steroids are lipids without fatty acid chains. Instead, they have multiple rings in their structures. They are
built from the basic four-ring steroid structure.

An example of a steroid is dietary lipid cholesterol. Cholesterol is the precursor of hormones such as estrogen
and progesterone. Recall that hormones are molecules that communicate between organs to regulate
physiology and behavior.

Properties

Lipids such as triglycerides and waxes are mostly made of nonpolar hydrocarbon chains, making them
generally insoluble in water. The hydrocarbon chains are the “hydrophobic (water-fearing) tails” of lipids. On
the other hand, their hydroxyl, ester, and ether groups can interact with water. These groups are called
“hydrophilic (water-loving) heads.” When lipids are mixed with water, they arrange themselves in a spherical
form called a micelle.

Functions

Lipids are the reserved sources of energy. The energy stored in their bonds is used by the body for fuel.
When the energy is abundant, cells store the excess energy in the fatty acids of triglycerides.
Lipids like waxes are used as a protective coating of organisms. Because they are hydrophobic, lipids protect
plants and animals from drying out by controlling evaporation.

Nucleic acids, discovered by Friedrich Miescher in 1869, are biomolecules that are made up of repeating
units of nucleotides. Nucleotides are monomers with three components, a 5-carbon sugar, a phosphate group,
and a nitrogenous base. The nucleotides are linked through phosphodiester bonds.

If the sugar is ribose, then the nucleotides make up the ribonucleic acid (RNA). On the other hand, if the
sugar is deoxyribose, then the nucleotides make up thedeoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). Both DNA and RNA
have nitrogenous bases. The five common nitrogenous bases are adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C),
thymine (T), and uracil (U).
Properties
DNA and RNA are very stable molecules because of the stacking interaction between their hydrophobic parts.
Also, hydrogen bonding present between the polar parts of the molecule plays a role in maintaining the
structure of the nucleic acid.

Functions
DNA contains the genetic instructions for the development and functioning of organisms. This genetic
information is converted by the RNA into amino acid sequences of proteins. RNA has three types, messenger
RNA (mRNA), ribosomal RNA (rRNA), andtransfer RNA (tRNA). The mRNA carries the genetic sequence
information between the DNA and ribosomes. In ribosomes, proteins are synthesized. The rRNA catalyzes the
peptide bond formation while the tRNA serve as the carrier molecules of the amino acids that make up the
protein.

What do you think?

How are nucleic acids related to proteins? What will happen to the protein being synthesized in the ribosomes
if an error occurs in the genetic information passed from the DNA to the RNA?

Key Points
 Biomolecules are large organic compounds that are important to life’s processes. They are generally
classified into four major groups – proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids.
 Proteins are biomolecules composed of amino acid units. The sequence of amino acids determines the
protein’s shape and function. In the human body, proteins hasten chemical reactions, transport
substances, and provide structural support.
 Carbohydrates are molecules that are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They have a
general formula of CnH2nOn. Their functions are to store energy and serve as the framework of
cellular structures.
 Lipids are large, nonpolar biomolecules mainly composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They
function as reserved sources of energy and protective coating of organisms.
 Nucleic acids are biomolecules that are made up of repeating units of nucleotides, which are made up
of a 5-carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base. They encode, transmit, and express
genetic information.
Objective CLEAR JOY
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to explain how energy is harnessed from different
sources of energy.

Where does the electricity we use every day come from and how are they generated?

Learn about it!

There are several sources of energy that are harnessed to generate the power distributed by our
electricity providers. These energy sources include fossil fuels, biogas, geothermal, hydrothermal,
batteries, solar cells, and biomass.

Fossil fuels and Biogas

Fossil fuel is the general term given to combustible products of buried organic matter that decayed
under extreme temperature and pressure. Fossil fuels include crude oil (e.g.,
octanes C8H18C8H18), natural gas or biogas (CH4CH4), and coal (CC).

Biogas is a gas produced from anaerobic (absence of oxygen) decomposition of organic matter.

How is energy harnessed?

The components of fossil fuels are heated and vaporized to steam which drives the turbines and
generate electricity.

Geothermal Energy
Geothermal energy refers to the heat produced inside the Earth. This energy is harnessed from the
molten rocks near volcanic regions.

How is energy harnessed?

The molten rocks heat the groundwater to steam which drives the turbines to generate electricity.

Learn about it!

Hydrothermal Energy
Hydrothermal energy refers to the heat obtained from hot water from hydrothermal vents or
seawater in contact with hot rock beds.

How is energy harnessed?

Hot water from hydrothermal vents is collected into a heat exchanger. The heat from the water is
transferred to another fluid (e.g. isobutane) which evaporates and drives the turbines to generate
electricity.

Batteries
Batteries are also called electrochemical cells. They are devices that store and convert chemical
energy into electrical energy. They can be disposable or rechargeable. The energy from batteries
comes from a chemical reaction (e.g. redox reaction between CuSO4CuSO4 and ZnZn to
form ZnSO4ZnSO4 and CuCu).

How is energy harnessed?

When a battery is connected to an external circuit, electrolytes move within the battery, and
chemical reactions are completed at the two terminals of the battery. The flow of electrons in the
reactions generate the current (flowing charges) and delivers electricity to the external circuit.

Learn about it!

Solar Cells
Solar cells are devices that can collect light energy from the sun and convert it into electricity.

How is energy harnessed?

Light energy is collected over solar panels. The collected energy can be stored in batteries or can
be directly converted to electricity.

Biomass
Biomass refers to the organic matter from living organisms and often refers to plants or plant-based
materials that can be converted to energy. It is the oldest source of energy known to man.
How is energy harnessed?
The biomass is burned to generate heat. The heat produced can be directly used to do daily chores
such as cooking.

Electricity may also be generated from biomass. The components of biomass are burned in a boiler.
The generated heat is used to produce steam which drives the turbines to generate electricity.

Learn about it!

Renewable and Nonrenewable Energy
Energy sources may be renewable or nonrenewable. Renewable energy sources are those that are
naturally replenished. Biogas and biomass are renewable energy sources. Geothermal,
hydrothermal, and solar energies can also be considered renewable. In contrast, nonrenewable
energy sources are finite, so they will get depleted over time.
Crude oil is a nonrenewable energy resource.

How about batteries? Disposable batteries are nonrenewable. Rechargeable batteries can be
classified as nonrenewable or renewable, depending on the energy source used for recharging
(e.g., if solar energy is used to recharge the batteries, then it is renewable).

Electricity from Power Plants

Power plants are designed to generate electricity from energy harnessed from different sources.
Common among power plants are vapor-driven turbines. The turbines are rotated by the vapor and
in turn spin a generator. The spinning generator then produces electricity that is transported by
transmission lines to the distributors and to our homes.

Try it!
Research on the following and classify the type of energy source they use to generate electricity.
1. Daniell Cell
2. Malampaya power plant
3. Makiling-Banahaw (Mak-Ban) power plant
4. islaSOL II
5. Sultan Energy Philippines
6. Green Power Bukidnon Phil. Inc.

What do you think?

What other energy sources do we harness for power? Are they renewable or not?

Key Points
 Energy is harnessed from the following sources: fossil fuels, biogas, geothermal,
hydrothermal, batteries, solar cells, and biomass.
 Energy sources may be renewable or nonrenewable.
 Renewable energy sources are those that do not get depleted.
 Nonrenewable energy sources are finite, so they will get depleted over time.
 Common structures in all power plants are the steam- or vapour-driven turbines which spin
generators to produce electricity.
Objectives MADZ
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to give examples of household cleaning products and
explain the need to use them.

Cleaning products contain substances that remove dirt, stain, and bad smell. There are different
cleaning products, and some of them are used to clean surfaces such as bathroom tiles, floors,
sinks, and drains. Others are used to clean clothing, blankets, and curtains.

Cleaning products include detergent, bleach, air freshener or purifier, and disinfectant. What are the
cleaning products you use at home?

Learn about it!

Detergent
A detergent contains surfactants, which are substances with cleaning properties. Surfactants have
long water-insoluble hydrocarbon tail and water-soluble polar heads. When these molecules are
placed in water, they form micelles. They orient themselves with the hydrocarbon tails, sticking to
one another while the polar heads are pointing outwards and into the water.
A mixture of detergent and water is a colloid. Micelles are dispersed throughout the water, so the
mixture appears cloudy. When oil or grease is present, the micelle disperses and entraps the
grease. When the detergent is rinsed out, the grease comes with it.
Bleach
Bleach is a household cleaning agent used to remove dyes and whiten clothing. The color that
stains white fabrics typically arise from organic dyes and pigments. For example, when carrot juice
spills on your white garment, the pigment beta-carotene binds with the fabric.
Chlorine-based bleach is used to break the chemical bonds of the pigment. The pigment is changed
to a different substance that do not absorb visible light. Hence, the stained garment appears white
again.

Air freshener or purifier is used to emit fragrance in different spaces at home, especially in
restrooms. It can be in the form of spray, candle, oil, bead, or gel. Its main purpose is to eliminate or
mask unpleasant odors. Its name is misleading though because it does not really freshen or purify
the air.
Solid or liquid air fresheners (candle, oil, bead, or gel) have volatile fragrant molecules. These
molecules easily change from solid or liquid into gas, even at room temperature. When they mix with
air, they move via diffusion. Diffusion is the movement of particles from higher concentration to
lower concentration. Hence, the air freshener molecules spread out across the room.
Air freshener molecules diffuse across the room. They move from areas with higher concentration
with those with lower concentration.
Spray air fresheners are aerosols. Aerosols are colloids of solid or liquid particles in gas. The
fragrant molecules dissolve in air. When these molecules are allowed to escape their spray
containers, they mix with air, and the fragrant smell spreads.

A disinfectant is an antimicrobial household product. It kills microorganisms on surfaces of

inanimate objects. Note that it is different from antiseptics, which are used on living things to kill
microorganisms. The effectiveness of a disinfectant depends on the number of microorganisms,
environment (temperature), time of exposure, and nature of microorganisms.
Most disinfectants, such as alcohol and chlorine, work by denaturing proteins of microorganisms.
When their proteins are damaged, metabolic processes are disrupted, causing death.

Explore!
Check the cleaning agents you use at home. What are the kinds of surfaces those agents clean?
What are the things you consider in buying those cleaning products?

What do you think?

What are the safety precautions that must be done when using cleaning products?

Key Points
 Cleaning products contain substances that remove dirt, stain, and bad smell. They come in
different physical forms such as solids, liquids, and aerosol.
 Cleaning products include detergents, bleaches, deodorizers, and disinfectants.
Objective D. ROSE
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to identify the active ingredient in common household
products used for cleaning.

The active ingredient is the compound that acts to fulfill the function of a said product. A finished
household product is usually a mixture of many different compounds.

How can we identify the active ingredient of a product assuming it is a mixture?

Learn about it!

All products have an active ingredient that enables it to work. Some products only have one active
ingredient while others may have more than one. Here are some important pointers in determining
the active ingredient.
 The active ingredient can be classified as acidic, basic, or neutral.
 The determination of its acidity or alkalinity often dictates how the product will work.
 The active ingredient must always be labelled in consumer goods.

Importance of an Active Ingredient

Knowing the active ingredient in certain products will tell you what function they can serve.
Product labels are required to put down their active ingredients. Some of these ingredients may be
toxic to the user or even to the environment. In some cases, a few household products will share the
same active ingredient, allowing them to be used for different purposes. While other products may
have the same function, they have different active ingredients.
Example
The table below contains different cleaning products with specific active ingredients and their
specific functions.

Learn about it!

Different active ingredients have different modes of action on how they are able to clean certain
materials. The basic idea for most of these ingredients is to convert a “dirt” substance into
something that is soluble in water.
The active ingredient determines the mode of action of a specific product.
 Dissolution - A common mode of action based on the principle of like-dissolves-like and the
concept of solvent – solute interactions.
 Acid–Base - Certain substances are either acidic or basic. An acid will react with a base, or
vice versa, allowing it to be dissolved or carried away by water.
 Reduction – Oxidation - Oxidizing agents work to convert certain substances into water-
soluble ions.
 Surfactants - Detergents and soaps can be classified as surfactants. They form tiny vessels
known as micelles that carry away the undesired material.
 Disinfectant - The reagent targets a biological organism responsible for an undesired effect.

Example
Micelles form from amphiphatic molecules. Amphiphatic molecules are molecules that have polar
and non-polar regions in their structure. This amphiphatic nature allows them to form micelles.
The micelles are soluble in water due to the polarity of the head, and the nonpolar tail interacts with
oils and greases that allow it to be carried in a vessel that can dissolve in water.

Product development is an essential part of the industry. A little knowledge in chemistry is a useful
skill in finding alternative products because active ingredients may share similar properties. These
ingredients can be found in everyday materials. Homemade cleaning materials using similar
ingredients can be made from common items such as vinegar, citrus fruits (lemons and calamansi),
and baking soda.
Can you give examples of how baking soda (sodium carbonate, basic properties) or vinegar (acetic
acid, acidic properties) can be used as substitute cleaning products?
Try it!
Given the different modes of action of specific active ingredients, list down as many possible
chemical reagents you can find in your house that may fit under these modes of actions.
Key Points
 Active ingredient is the reactive and functional ingredient of a household product.
 An active ingredient may have several mechanisms where it can remove stains, ranging from
acid-base, oxidation – reduction, disinfectants, surfactants, and dissolution (via solvent –
solute interaction).
 Two different products can have similar modes of action as long as their active ingredients
have similar properties.
Objective KIM
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to identify the common ingredients (other than active
ingredient) in cleaning agents and their uses.

Active ingredients are only a part of the entire mixture that we call the product or in this case, the
cleaning agent. For all cases of practicality, the product cannot be sold as a pure active ingredient
for commercial and practical reasons. Other components of the mixture have specific purposes in
making the cleaning agent.

Learn about it!

A cleaning agent is a mixture of many compounds. They are considered as additive ingredients.
These additive ingredients have some functions in the product. Some ingredients are added to
mixtures while others have more complex mechanisms.
Some functions if additive ingredients include: solvents, fragrance enhancers, masking agents,
builders, preservatives, antimicrobial agents, and bubble enhancers.

A solvent is often used to increase the quantity of the cleaning agent. The solvent is used to dilute
the cleaning agent to its minimum functional concentration. For instance, ethanol which is used as a
disinfectant is functional at 40% solution while bleach can be functional as low as 5% solution.

Fragrance enhancers
In other cases, fragrance enhancers are added to products to mask a more putrid smell. Particularly,
bathroom cleaners use these added fragrances. Fragrances often come in the form of essential oils.

Masking agents
A scent of a product is often underestimated in terms of its toxic effects. Some cleaning agents have
masking agents to remove fragrance for chemically sensitive users or people who present with
allergies. However, the molecule of fragrance still remains in the product.

Builders
The term 'builders' is something used in discussing surfactants. In the case of cleaning agents,
these builders are often present in detergents. Builders are substances that prevent other
contaminants from reacting with the active ingredient in the detergent.

Preservatives
Cleaning agents that are stored for long term periods need some sort of preservative to keep the
active ingredient functional. These may come in the form of salts, organic reagents, or buffers that
maintain pH balance

Antimicrobial reagents
Microbes are often the cause of infection or cause some products to degrade. The purpose of a
cleaning agent is to maintain the appearance or use of a certain material. Therefore it would make
sense for antimicrobials to be present in cleaning agents.

Bubble enhancers
Adding bubble enhancers to allow detergents to do their job more effectively by enhancing the
covered area of the surfactant. The formation of foam/bubbles facilitates the surfactant by aiding in
the accumulation of unwanted particles.
To summarize, the functions of additive ingredients are (but not limited to the following):
 serve as disinfectant for hygienic purposes and to prolong the shelf life of the product
 enhance or mask a specific property; and
 protect the active ingredient from attacking other molecules
Examples
Triclosan is an example of an antimicrobial additive that reduces or prevents bacterial
contamination. They are usually present in toothpastes and soaps.

Sodium tripolyphosphate is a common example of a builder found in detergents. It allows

surfactants to work at their full potential. It also acts as a pH buffer and prevents deposition of soil.

Explore!
Unscented products can be misleading in some cases and can still cause an allergic reaction for
people who have a reaction to it. Why is this so?
Try it!
Collect various samples of water (from the streams, seawater or tap water) and a control of distilled
water. Add a drop of detergent in approximately the same amount of water. Shake well, and try to
quantify the appearance of bubbles. What can you say about the bubbles?

Key Points
 Additive ingredients are not innate, and they have a specific function in making the product
what it is.
 There is a variety of additive ingredients with a variety of functions such as masking agents,
enhancing agents, or preservatives.
Objective LOR & TABAR
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to give common examples of personal care products
used to enhance the appearance of the human body.

There are numerous personal care products you can find in grocery stores and shopping malls
worldwide. What are these personal care products? And why do people use them?

Learn about it!

Personal care products are consumer products used in personal hygiene and for beautification.
These products have two classifications, personal hygienic items and cosmetics though there is only
a small distinction between the two. Personal hygienic items are the products people use to keep
themselves clean while cosmetics are often described as luxury products used for enhancement of
physical beauty.

Products for Personal Hygiene

Shampoo and Conditioner

Shampoo and conditioner are both haircare products. They are viscous liquids used to clean hair.
They are used by applying them to wet hair, massaging them into the scalp, and rinsing them.

Shampoos are particularly used to remove the unwanted buildup of dust and other particles on the
hair without stripping out sebum. Sebum, a mixture of triglycerides, wax, and fatty acids, is secreted
by the sebaceous gland in humans. The main function of sebum is to lubricate the hair and keep it
manageable.

Hair conditioners are used to change the texture and appearance of hair. When shampoos strip
out much sebum, hair conditioners provide the oils (EFAs - essential fatty acids) which function as
natural sebum. These EFAs keep the hair softer and more pliable. Conditioners also often contain
moisturizers, which hold moisture in the hair.

Soap

Soap is a personal care product used for bathing and cleaning the skin. It can remove the oil and
dirt particles adhered to the skin. These particles are often insoluble in water so they cannot be
washed off by water alone. Soap breaks up these particles into smaller sizes and mixes them with
water.
How does soap mix the insoluble particles with water?

Soap is made up of fatty acids, which are molecules with two different ends – hydrophobic and
hydrophilic ends. When mixed with water, the soap molecules form a micelle. The hydrophobic
ends attach to the unwanted particle while the hydrophilic ends are attracted to water. So when
water is used to rinse off the soap, dirt particles are washed away.

Facial Cleanser

Have you ever wondered why there are marketed cleansers especially made for the face? Is
there really a difference between the facial cleansers and body soaps?

The skin on your face has more sebaceous glands than most parts of the body. Sebaceous
glands produce sebum which lubricates the skin and protects it from bacteria. Sebum reaches the
surface of the skin through the hair follicles. When sebaceous glands become overactive, too much
sebum is produced. The sebum is combined with dead cells (keratin) which are naturally present in
the skin, and their combination results in a plug. Because the follicle is plugged, the bacteria
called Propionibacterium acnes present in the skin proliferate. The bacterial growth causes acne,
the painful inflammation and swelling of the facial skin. Acne and other facial skin diseases are often
prevented using facial cleansers.

Facial cleansers remove makeup, dead skin cells, and dirt that can clog the pores. Best facial
cleansers should have a pH near 4.7, the average pH of the skin’s surface. Bar soaps with high pH
(9 to 10) can disrupt the pH balance of the skin and favor the overgrowth of P. acnes. Also, the
cleanser should not have thickeners which are present in bar soaps. These thickeners allow the
soaps to form a rigid bar shape, but they can clog the pores resulting in acnes. Lastly, bar soaps
may remove natural oils from the facial skin and cause sebaceous glands to overproduce sebum,
which eventually lead to clogged pores.
Deodorant and Antiperspirant

There are two types of sweat glands found in the skin, eccrine and apocrine glands. Eccrine
glands can be found on almost all over the body, with the highest density in palms and soles. They
produce sweat, an odorless substance comprised mostly of water and sodium chloride. They are
active in thermoregulation because the evaporation of sweat has a cooling effect on the body. On
the other hand, apocrine glands are found only in certain areas of the body, including armpits and
some parts of external genitalia. These glands secrete an oily fluid which is odorless before
microbial activity. The oily fluid is comprised of fats and proteins which are broken down by bacteria
into certain acids with bad smell. The bad smell in the armpits is often masked using personal care
products such as deodorant and antiperspirant.

The terms deodorant and antiperspirant are often used interchangeably, but they actually
differ. Antiperspirants control sweat and body odor by preventing sweat to reach the skin surface
and by reducing the bacteria that cause body odor. Deodorants only contain antimicrobial agents to
prevent body odor, but they do not control sweat. However, both of these products contain
fragrances that mask the smell of body odor.
Toothpaste

When you eat, some food stays on your teeth. This food can be broken down by mouth bacteria to
form a sticky film called dental plaque. When plaque builds up and hardens, it forms
tartar. Tartar is a crusty deposit that traps stains on the teeth and causes discoloration. When tartar
forms, bacteria will build up and damage the gums. Pockets between gums and teeth will form when
the gums are infected with the bacteria. So to prevent the formation of plaque and occurrence of
gum disease, teeth must be cleaned by brushing. Plaque begins forming 4 to 12 hours after
brushing so it is important to brush teeth at least twice a day.

Toothpaste is a paste or gel used with a toothbrush to remove food from the teeth and kill the
bacteria which cause bad breath. It contains abrasives which scrub away stains and plaque on your
teeth. Abrasives also polish the teeth so they look fresh and clean after brushing.

Cosmetics
Cosmetics are substances or products used to enhance the appearance or scent of the body
without affecting the body’s structure and functions. Common cosmetics include facial makeup and
fragrances.

Facial Makeup

Generally, women use more cosmetics than men. Many women apply facial makeup to enhance
their facial features or cover imperfections of the skin. They use products such as foundation,
concealer, lipstick, lip gloss, lip balm, blush, eyeshadow pencil, mascara, and eyeliner.
Foundation is used to cover blemishes and even out skin color. When extra coverage is needed to
conceal acne and undereye circles, a concealer is used. A concealer is often thicker and more solid
than foundation so it can provide longer lasting coverage of skin imperfections.

Lipstick is intended to add color and texture to the lips. It is different from a lip gloss which is
intended to add shine to the lips. Lip balm is also used to add color, but its main purpose is to
moisturize and protect the lips from chapping.

Blush or rouge is used to add color to the cheeks to make them look more defined. Different colors
of blush compliment different skin tones.

Eyeshadow, eyebrow pencil, and mascara are all used to accentuate the eyes. The eyeshadow is
used to add color on the eyelids and under the eyebrows to make the eyes more attractive
while eyebrow pencil is used to darken the eyebrows to make them more defined. Mascara is
applied to darken the eyelashes and make them appear longer and thicker.

Fragrances

Have you ever flipped through a catalogue of beauty products and found different names for
fragrances?

Cologne, eau de toilette, and perfume are the common names of fragrances. They all contain
essential oils, such as vanilla, rosehip, and peppermint oils, that are diluted with a solvent such as
ethanol, propylene glycol, and water. The difference among these fragrances is the concentration of
the essential oil.

Cologne is a shortened version of “eau de Cologne.” Eau is the French word for water
while Cologne came from the French city “Koln” where a particular scent was first made. Cologne is
the most diluted fragrance, with about 2 to 5% essential oils. It often smells sweet and fruity.
Because it has less essential oils and higher percent alcohol, its smell do not last very long
compared to other fragrances. It is not viscous so it is often applied by “splashing” it in the body.

Eau de toilette or toilet water has more concentration of essential oil compared to cologne. It has
about 5 to 15% oil. Because it has more oil compared to alcohol, it is more viscous and is often sold
in spray bottles.

Perfume is the most concentrated of all the fragrance options so it is also the most expensive. It has
about 15 to 40% essential oils. It has thicker and oilier consistency so it is often in stopper bottles.
Try it!
Find the personal care products you use at home. What are the purposes of these products? What
are your reasons for choosing the brand of your personal care products?

What do you think?

Why is it important for you to understand the chemistry of personal care products?

Key Points
 Personal care products are consumer products used in personal hygiene and for
beautification.
 Personal care products include shampoo, hair conditioner, soap, facial cleanser, deodorant,
antiperspirant, toothpaste, facial makeup, and fragrances.