Friction head

100 0 Total
dynamic Pressure head
head
Example:
Module 1 Static Sprink

FAO Irrigation Manual : Volume I – Module 1–6

Total
30% Sand static discharge
80 20 head head
Irrigation development: 30% Clay

Irrigation
40% Silt Static suction head
A multifaceted process (social, economic, engineering, agronomic, Water
Clay Classification: Clay loam
health and environmental issues to be considered in a feasibility study)

y
cla

Pe
60 40

ge

rce
Module 2

nta

nta
rce

ge
Silty Friction head
Natural resources assessment

Pe
Total

Sil
clay

Manual
Sandy dynamic

t
40 60 head
Pressure head

Module 3 clay
Clay loam Silty clay
loam Static
Sprink
Sandy clay Total
Agronomic aspects of irrigated crop production loam static discharge
head
head
20 80
Module 4 Lo Sandy
Loam
Silt loam
am
Crop water requirements and irrigation scheduling ys
an
loam
Silt
Static
Sand d suction lift

Module 5 0
100 80 60 40 20 0
100
water

Irrigation pumping plant

Planning, Development,
Percentage sand

Module 6 Solar radiation

Guidelines for the preparation of technical drawings Monitoring & Evaluation
Atmospheric circulation

Module 7
Surface irrigation systems:
Planning, design, operation and maintenance
Rain clouds of Cloud formation

Module 8 Irrigated Agriculture

Sprinker irrigation systems:
Planning, design, operation and maintenance
Precipitation
with
Transpiration
Evaporation
Module 9
Localized irrigation systems:
Planning, design, operations and maintenance
Farmer Participation Runoff
Evaporation

Water table Rivers & lakes

Module 10
Irrigation equipment for pressurized systems

Module 11 Ocean
Financial and economic appraisal of irrigation projects

Module 12
Groundwater
Volume I
Salt water

Harare, 2002
Guidelines for the preparation of tender documents

Module 13
Construction of irrigation schemes
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)
Sub-Regional Office for East and Southern Africa (SAFR)
Module 1–6
Harare, 2002
Module 14 Food
Food
Monitoring the technical and financial performance of an ir rigation A And
Agriculture
Organization A And
Agriculture
F O Of Organization
scheme The F O Of

IS
F
AT N United
A

I
PA The

IS
Nations

F
AT N United

I
PA
F O Nations

IS
F
AT N

I
PA
SAFR/AGLW/DOC/006

Irrigation Manual

Planning, Development
Monitoring and Evaluation
of Irrigated Agriculture
with Farmer Participation

Developed by

Andreas P. SAVVA
Karen FRENKEN

Volume I

Modules 1 – 6

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)

Sub-Regional Office for East and Southern Africa (SAFR)
Harare, 2002
The views expressed in this paper are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this publication do not imply
the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization
of the United Nations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area of its
authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries

ISBN 0-7974-2316-8

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise,
without the prior permission of the copyright owner

© FAO SAFR 2002

Design and Layout: Fontline Electronic Publishing, Harare, Zimbabwe

Printed by: Préci-ex, Les Pailles, Mauritius
 Foreword
The first edition of the Irrigation Manual was published in 1990 in two volumes by the “Smallholder Irrigation” Project
(UNDP/FAO/AGRITEX/ZIM/85/004). The authors of this first edition were FAO Staff on the project1. This edition of
one hundred copies ran out within two years from publishing.
Although the manual was written with Zimbabwe in mind, it soon became popular in several countries of the sub-region.
In view of the high demand, it was decided to proceed with a second edition. The experience gained from using the first
edition of the manual as the basic reference for the AGRITEX2 training programme of irrigation practitioners and the
University of Zimbabwe, was incorporated in the second edition which was published in 1994, in one volume by the
“Technical Assistance to AGRITEX” project (UNDP/FAO/AGRITEX/ZIM/91/005). This second edition was published
under the same authors as the first edition, with the assistance of a review committee from AGRITEX3. The two hundred
copies of this edition also ran out within two years of publishing.
In 1995, the FAO Sub-regional Office for East and Southern Africa (SAFR) was established in Harare, Zimbabwe, in
order to provide easy access to technical assistance and know-how for the countries of the sub-region4. In view of the
high demand for support in the field of smallholder irrigation by the countries of the sub-region, this office was
strengthened with four water resources management officers and a number of on-going programmes have been
developed to provide this support. One of these programmes is the publishing of a new regional edition of the irrigation
manual in support of the on-going national training programmes within several countries in the sub-region and to
provide the basic reference for another important programme, which is the sub-regional training on planning and design
of smallholder irrigation schemes.
This third edition aspires to further strengthen the engineering, agronomic and economic aspects of the manual and to
introduce new modules related to social, health and environmental aspects of irrigation development. The emphasis is
directed towards the engineering, agronomic and economic aspects of smallholder irrigation, in view of the limited
practical references in this area. This manual, being directed to the irrigation practitioner, does not provide an in-depth
analysis of the social, health and environmental aspects in irrigation development. It only attempts to introduce the
irrigation practitioner to these areas, providing a bridge between the various disciplines involved in irrigation
development.
The initiatives and efforts of the Water Resources Management Team of SAFR in publishing this Manual are considered
as a valuable contribution to the dissemination of knowledge and training of irrigation practitioners in the sub-region.
The material covered by this manual is expected to support both national and sub-regional training programmes in the
planning, design, construction, operation and maintenance and on-farm water management of irrigation schemes. This
will support the implementation of FAO’s mandate to increase food production through water control, intensification
and diversification, which are the basic components of the Special Programme for Food Security (SPFS).
The manual is the result of several years of field work and training irrigation engineers in the sub-region. The approaches
have been field tested and withstood the test of time.

1 A.P. Savva, Chief Technical Advisor; J. Stoutjesdijk, Irrigation Engineer; P.M.A. Regnier, Irrigation Engineer; S.V. Hindkjaer, Economist.
2 Agritex: Department of Agricultural Technical and Extension Services, Ministry of Lands and Agriculture, Zimbabwe.
3 Review committee: E. Chidenga, Acting Chief Irrigation Officer; P. Chipadza, Senior Irrigation Specialist; A. Dube, Senior Irrigation Specialist; L. Forichi, Irrigation
Specialist; L. Madhiri, Acting Principal Irrigation Officer; S. Madyiwa, Irrigation Specialist; P. Malusalila, Chief Crop Production; R. Mariga, Assistant Secretary, Economic
and Markets Branch; D. Tawonezvi, Agricultural Economist.
4 The following 21 countries are part of the FAO-SAFR region: Angola, Botswana, Burundi, Comoros, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Lesotho, Madagascar, Malawi, Mauritius,
Mozambique, Namibia, Rwanda, Seychelles, South Africa, Swaziland, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe.
Irrigation manual

For ease of reference to the various topics covered by this Manual, the material has been divided into 14 modules,
covering the following:

Module 1: Irrigation development: a multifaceted process

Module 2: Natural resources assessment
Module 3: Agronomic aspects of irrigated crop production
Module 4: Crop water requirements and irrigation scheduling
Module 5: Irrigation pumping plant
Module 6: Guidelines for the preparation of technical drawings
Module 7: Surface irrigation systems: planning, design, operation and maintenance
Module 8: Sprinkler irrigation systems: planning, design, operation and maintenance
Module 9: Localized irrigation systems: planning, design, operation and maintenance
Module 10: Irrigation equipment for pressurized systems
Module 11: Financial and economic appraisal of irrigation projects
Module 12: Guidelines for the preparation of tender documents
Module 13: Construction of irrigation schemes
Module 14: Monitoring the technical and financial performance of an irrigation scheme
To those who have been waiting for so long for a practical irrigation engineering manual: here it is. I am sure that it will have
a lot to offer to both new and experienced irrigation engineers.

Victoria Sekitoleko
FAO Sub-Regional Representative
for East and Southern Africa
 Acknowledgements

The preparation of the third edition of the Irrigation Manual is an initiative of FAO’s Sub-Regional Office for East and
Southern Africa (SAFR).
The whole project was managed and coordinated by Andreas P. Savva and Karen Frenken, Water Resources Development
and Management Officers at FAO-SAFR, who are the main authors. Karen Frenken also is the main technical editor.
The following persons provided valuable inputs into this Volume I: Fabeon Chigumira (Module 3), Mawira Chitima
(Module 4), Owen Hughes (Module 3), Tove Lilja (Module 1 and 5), Simon Madyiwa (Module 1 and 5), Victor Mthamo
(Module 5), Kennedy Mudima (Module 1, 4 and 5), Samuel Sunguro (Module 2), Lee Tirivamwe (Module 2, 3, 4 and
6).
The preparation of several drawings by Solomon Maina is acknowledged.
Special appreciation is extended to Chris Pappas for his substantial contribution to the layout of the Irrigation Manual.
 Unit conversion table

Length Mass
1 inch (in) 0.0254 m 1 ounce 28.3286 g
1 foot (ft) 0.3048 m 1 pound 0.4535 kg
1 yard (yd) 0.9144 m 1 long ton 1016.05 kg
1 mile 1609.344 m 1 short ton 907.185 kg
1 metre (m) 39.37 inches (in) 1 gram (g) 0.0353 ounces (oz)
1 metre (m) 3.28 feet (ft) 1 kilogram (kg) 1000 g = 2.20462 pounds
1 metre (m) 1.094 yards (yd) 1 ton 1000 kg = 0.984 long ton
1 kilometre (km) 0.62 miles = 1.102 short ton

Area Pressure
1 square inch (in2) 6.4516 x 10-2 m2 1 pound force/in2 6894.76 N/m2
1 square foot (ft2) 0.0929 m2 1 pound force/in2 51.7 mm Hg
1 square yard (yd2) 0.8361 m2 1 Pascal (PA) 1 N/m2
= 0.000145 pound force /in2
1 acre 4046.86 m2
1 atmosphere 760 mm Hg
1 acre 0.4046 ha
= 14.7 pound force/in2
1 square centimetre (cm2) 0.155 square inches (in2) (lbf/in2)
1 square metre (m2) 10.76 square feet (ft2) 1 atmosphere 1 bar
1 square metre (m2) 1.196 square yard (yd2) 1 bar 10 metres
1 square metre (m2) 0.00024 acres 1 bar 100 kpa
1 hectare (ha) 2.47 acres
Energy
Volume 1 B.t.u. 1055.966 J
1 cubic inch (in3) 1.6387 x 10-5 m3 1 foot pound-force 1.3559 J
1 cubic foot (ft3) 0.0283 m3 1 B.t.u. 0.25188 Kcalorie
1 cubic yard (yd3) 0.7646 m3 1 B.t.u. 0.0002930 KWh
1 cubic centimetre (cm3) 0.061 cubic inches (in3) 1 Joule (J) 0.000947 B.t.u.
1 cubic metre (m3) 35.315 cubic feet (ft3) 1 Joule (J) 0.7375 foot pound-force (ft.lbf)
1 cubic metre (m3) 1.308 cubic yards (yd3) 1 kilocalorie (Kcal) 4185.5 J = 3.97 B.t.u.
1 kilowatte-hour (kWh) 3600000 J = 3412 B.t.u.
Capacity
1. imperial gallon 0.0045 m3 Power
1. US gallon 0.0037 m3 1 Joule/sec 0.7376 foot pound/sec
1. imperial barrel 0.1639 m3 1 foot pound/sec 1.3557 watt
1. US. barrel 0.1190 m3 1 cheval-vapor 0.9861 hp
1 pint 0.5681 l 1 Kcal/h 0.001162 kW
1 US gallon (dry) 0.0044 m3 1 watt (W) 1 Joule/sec
1 litre (l) 0.22 imp. gallon = 0.7376 foot pound/sec (ft lbf/s)
1 litre (l) 0.264 U.S. gallon 1 horsepower (hp) 745.7 watt 550 ft lbf/s
1 litre (l) 0.0061 imperial barrel 1 horsepower (hp) 1.014 cheval-vapor (ch)
1 hectolitre (hl) 100 litres 1 kilowatt (kW) 860 Kcal/h
= 0.61 imperial barrel = 1.34 horsepower

= 0.84 US barrel
1 litre (l) 1.760 pints Temperature
0C (Celsius or centigrade-degree) 0C = 5/9 x (0F - 32)
1 cubic metre of water (m3) 1000 l
0F (Fahrenheit degree) 0F = 1.8 x 0C + 0F
= 227 U.S. gallon (dry)
1 imperial barrel 164 litres K (Kelvin) K = 0C + 273.15
 Irrigation Manual
Module 1

Irrigation Development: a Multifaceted Process

Social, Economic, Engineering, Agronomic, Health
and Environmental Issues to be Considered
in a Feasibility Study

Developed by

Andreas P. SAVVA
and
Karen FRENKEN

Water Resources Development and Management Officers

FAO Sub-Regional Office for East and Southern Africa

In collaboration with

Simon MADYIWA, Irrigation Engineer Consultant

Kennedy MUDIMA, National Irrigation Programme Officer, Zimbabwe
Tove LILJA, Associate Professional Officer, FAO-SAFR

Harare, 2001
 Contents

List of figures xi
List of tables xii
List of abbreviations xiii

1. INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 The river basin or catchment approach 1
1.2 Soil and water conservation 1
1.3 Surface, sprinkler and localized irrigation development 2

2. FARMERS' PARTICIPATION IN IRRIGATION DEVELOPMENT 3

2.1. Principles of participation 3
2.2. Identification of stakeholders 3
2.3. Definition of roles of stakeholders 5
2.4. Farmers’ participation in scheme planning and development 5
2.4.1. Farmers’ participation in resource identification 5
2.4.2. Farmers’ participation in scheme planning and design 6
2.4.3. Farmers’ participation in scheme implementation 7
2.4.4. Scheme operation and maintenance responsibilities 7
2.5. Monitoring and evaluation of smallholder irrigation development 7

3. CRITERIA FOR THE SELECTION OF AN IRRIGATION SYSTEM 9

3.1. Types of irrigation systems 9
3.1.1. Surface irrigation systems 9
3.1.2. Sprinkler irrigation systems 12
3.1.3. Localized irrigation systems 24
3.2. Irrigation efficiencies of the different types of irrigation systems 24
3.3. Parameters affecting the selection of an irrigation system 27
3.3.1. Water 27
3.3.2. Soil and topography 29
3.3.3. Climate and crop 30
3.3.4. Capital and labour 30
3.3.5. Energy 30
3.3.6. Social aspects and policies 31
3.3.7. Socio-economic aspects 32
3.3.8. Health aspects 32
3.3.9. Environmental aspects 32
3.4. Methodologies used in the selection of an irrigation system 33
3.5. Conclusion 37

4. HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF IRRIGATION DEVELOPMENT 39

4.1. Types of diseases related to water and ways of transmission 39
4.1.1. Malaria 40
4.1.2. Bilharzia 40
4.2. Disease preventive measures 40
4.2.1. Hydraulic measures to prevent diseases 40
4.2.2. Measures to reduce human-vector contact 43

Module 1 – iii
Irrigation manual

4.3. Disease post-construction control measures 44

4.3.1. Biological and chemical control 44
4.3.2. Physical control 44
4.4. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) 45
4.4.1. Hydrology 45
4.4.2. Water quality 46
4.4.3. Soil properties and salinity 46
4.4.4. Biodiversity 46

5. CHECKLISTS FOR THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC, AGRO-TECHNICAL, HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL

IMPACT ASSESSMENTS OF IRRIGATION DEVELOPMENT 47
5.1. Checklist for the socio-economic impact assessment of irrigation development 47
5.2. Checklist for the agro-technical impact assessment of irrigation development 47
5.3. Checklist for the health risk assessment of irrigation development 47
5.4. Checklist for the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) of irrigation development 50

6. PRINCIPLES AND GUIDELINES ON THE PREPARATION OF FEASIBILITY STUDIES FOR

IRRIGATION PROJECTS 53
6.1. Climate and natural resources 53
6.1.1. Climate 53
6.1.2. Land 53
6.1.3. Water 53
6.2. Agriculture 54
6.2.1. Existing farm practices 54
6.2.2. Land tenure 54
6.2.3. Proposed agricultural system 54
6.3. Credit and marketing 54
6.4. Engineering aspects 54
6.5. Social aspects 55
6.6. Organization and management aspects of the project 55
6.6.1. The organization of planning and construction 55
6.6.2. The organization of operation, maintenance and management 55
6.6.3. Extension services 55
6.7. Health and environmental impact assessment 55
6.8. Economic and financial analysis 55
6.9. Presentation of the feasibility study 56

REFERENCES 57

iv – Module 1
 List of figures
1. Layout of furrow irrigation 10
2. Wetting patterns for coarse and fine textured soils 10
3. Layout of borderstrip irrigation 11
4. Layout of basin irrigation 12
5. Layout of a periodic-move sprinkler irrigation system 13
6. Layout of a portable sprinkler irrigation system 14
7. Layout of a semi-portable sprinkler irrigation system 15
8. Layout of a drag-hose sprinkler irrigation system 16
9. Layout of a side-roll lateral sprinkler irrigation system and wheel mounted lateral 17
10. Layout of an end-tow lateral sprinkler irrigation system and towed lateral on skid or wheel support 18
11. Layout of a gun sprinkler irrigation system and irrigation machine 19
12. Layout of a fixed sprinkler irrigation system 20
13. Perforated pipe sprinkler irrigation system 20
14. Centre pivot and field irrigation layout 21
15. Linear move lateral system 22
16. Cable drawn travelling irrigator and layout 23
17. Basic components of a localized irrigation system 24
18. The inter-relationship between surface water and groundwater 28
19. Causes and impacts of reduced water quality in a river system 34
20. Typical cross-section of a trapezoidal field canal for smallholder irrigation schemes 42
21. Free draining off-take structure 43
22. Schematic presentation of weed types 45

Module 1 –v
 List of tables
1. Project development stages and activities for smallholder irrigation 4
2. Conveyance, field canal and field application efficiencies 25
3. Farm irrigation efficiencies for sprinkler irrigation in different climates 26
4. Field application efficiencies for well-managed sprinkler irrigation systems 26
5. Project efficiencies for localized irrigation systems 26
6. Technical factors affecting the selection of irrigation method 33
7. Scheme development factors affecting the selection of irrigation method 33
8. Factors affecting the selection of modern irrigation systems for use in developing countries 35
9. Additional factors affecting the selection of irrigation systems in developing countries 36
10. Common diseases related to water and their transmission 39
11. Mean velocities in trapezoidal channel for controlling bilharzia snails in the Western Hemisphere 41
12. Flows through a standard Agritex canal 42
13. Management and mitigating steps for public health risks 48
14. Management and mitigating steps for soil degradation 50

vi – Module 1
 List of abbreviations
AC Asbestos Cement
AGRITEX Department of Agricultural, Technical and Extension Services (Zimbabwe)
EIA Environmental Impact Assessment
FFS Farmers Field School
ILO International Labour Organization
IPM Integrated Pest Management
ILRI International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement
IMC Irrigation Management Committee
NGO Non-Governmental Organization
NPSHA Net Positive Suction Head Available
O&M Operation and Maintenance
PRA Participatory Rural Appraisal
PT&E-FWM Participatory Training & Extension on Farmers' Water Management
SEAGA Socio-Economic And Gender Analysis
uPVC unplasticized Polyvinyl Chloride
WUA Water Users Association

Module 1 – vii
 Chapter 1
Introduction

Drought and floods are recurring events affecting the (FAO, 1996). Catchment management must consider the
livelihoods of millions of people around the world. This, the social, economic and institutional factors operating within
result of climatic variability, contributes to the risks of and outside the basin. A basic principle of catchment
farming across most of East and Southern Africa. In management is that all planning and implementation takes
response, people living in drought or flood prone areas have place through participatory approaches and related tools at
developed livelihood and production systems to minimize the regional or national level, at sub-basin level, and at
risks posed by the extreme climatic variations. However, with community and farm level.
the population increases of the last century and the growing
pressure on land, land use has become more intensive, and This approach has a number of recognized advantages,
land and people have become more vulnerable to the effects especially where drought and water management are
of climatic events. Within a more complex environment and crucial issues. It offers a geographical setting where the
through sophisticated production systems, people, livestock, dynamic relationships between local drought or flood
crops and wildlife are competing for increasingly scarce conditions and underlying causes can be faced in a
resources. Over time, these pressures will lead to greater coordinated and programmed way and it also provides a
susceptibility to future droughts and floods resulting in natural framework for achieving optimal hydrological and
further degradation of resources and loss of productivity - a environmental conditions as well as for increasing
downward spiraling effect. sustainable productivity within the catchment area.

A serious drought or a series of consecutive droughts can be 1.2. Soil and water conservation
a disaster-triggering agent that exacerbates social and
economic problems, and reduces society’s overall livelihood A range of technologies for integrated natural resources
security. These problems are most severe where economies management by improving soil, water and nutrient
are least diversified, where virtually everyone depends either management in ways that are profitable and easily adopted
directly or indirectly on agriculture. Despite the low returns are available to smallholdersand include the following:
to land, labour and capital, farmers have long maintained a Y Quality on-farm management of farmyard manure,
suite of indigenous strategies and options to manage risk and where available, with targeted application of farmyard
to deal with poor overall productivity. However, it is generally manure and mineral nitrogen (singly and in combination)
acknowledged that low-resource agriculture is no longer
Y Improved on-farm use and management of other
capable of meeting the livelihood demands of rising
organic materials
populations in fragile dryland environments. Methods need
to be developed to assure that natural resources are managed Y The use of legume rotations, especially with different
in a sustainable way given the prevailing circumstances. spatial arrangements for inter-cropping to improve soil
fertility, particularly drought tolerant and versatile legumes
1.1. The river basin or catchment approach Y Adopting zero slope contours, infiltration pits, modified
A catchment, or drainage basin, forms an excellent tied ridging and other relevant rainwater harvesting
framework for the management of natural resources and techniques to increase rainfall capture and infiltration
development of rural land, and to a large extent urban and Y Good land preparation and land cover, and timely
peri-urban land as well. It is basically defined as a planting to coincide with good soil moisture
hydrological unit, but it can also be used as a physical-
biological unit or a socio-economic-political unit for the Through improving soil and water conservation, rainfed
planning and management of natural resources. agriculture has a real potential to produce more food per unit
of land and unit of water, a process which would significantly
Catchment or river basin management is the process of contribute to food security. In fact, the bulk of the world’s
formulating and carrying out a course of action involving the food, especially in the East and Southern Africa region,
manipulation of resources in that area to provide goods and originates from rainfed agriculture. However, only some 15-
services without adversely affecting the soil and water base 30% of the rainfall is exploited for food production from

Module 1 –1
Irrigation manual

crops. 70-85% of the rainfall in water-scarce farming systems performance of irrigation schemes. Over the years, the
is ‘lost’ from the crop field and losses are generally even process of implementation of irrigation projects, especially
higher, with less than 10% used in productive food making those spearheaded by governments and some donors, has
by the crops, where surface runoff is high and soil nutrient followed a top-down approach. However, experience has
depletion is severe. shown that if farmers are not involved in all the
development stages of a project, they will lose the sense of
Even if low yields are characteristic of rainfed agriculture, ownership and therefore treat that project as alien to them.
these yields could be increased within the available water Consequently, the long-term performance and sustain-
balance in rainfed farming systems by improving water-soil- ability of the scheme is negatively affected. According to
crop management through, for example, conservation FAO (1995), projects planned with beneficiaries, rather
agriculture1. The challenge is to increase the amount of water than for them, have proved more sustainable and no more
that can be made available to the crops to satisfy their crop costly. Chapter 2 provides guidelines for participatory
water requirements over time, maximize the infiltration and development of smallholder irrigation schemes.
water-holding capacity of the soils and improve plant water-
uptake capacity. It is important to select the appropriate irrigation system.
There are many factors to consider before selecting a
Crop yields and returns per unit of rainfall received could be particular irrigation system. These include water resources,
maximized with, season by season, coupled with responsive topography, soils, climate, type of crops to be grown,
management of the cropping system. The implementation of availability and cost of capital and labour, type and
responsive farming programmes2 would provide localized appropriateness of a particular irrigation technology to
information about expected rainfall behaviour for the farmers and its associated energy requirements, water use
forthcoming season and offer guidelines or detailed efficiencies, as well as socio-economic, health and
recommendations to farmers about how best to proceed environmental aspects. Chapter 3 explores the different
according to the rainfall forecast. criteria that should be at the disposal of the planners and
In dryland farming and rainfed agriculture in particular, the engineers for the selection of the most appropriate
focus should be on minimizing water loss through runoff and irrigation system for the particular circumstances. The
evaporation and maximizing transpiration. This can be done actual planning and design of the different irrigation
through in situ water conservation or through water systems will not be described in this module, but will be
harvesting. In situ water conservation aims at preventing dealt with in the modules 7 (surface irrigation), 8 (sprinkler
runoff and keeping the rain, as much as possible, where it irrigation) and 9 (localized irrigation).
falls and minimizing evaporation. Water harvesting is the Continuous monitoring and evaluation of the health and
collection and concentration of rainwater and runoff which environmental impact of irrigation is necessary. Chapter 4
is then used for irrigation (FAO, 1991). More precisely, it is is intended to sensitize irrigation planners and users alike to
the process of collecting and concentrating rainfall as runoff water-related diseases, which may result from irrigation
from a larger catchment area to be used in a smaller projects. It also proposes hydraulic engineering safeguards
cultivated area. Different water harvesting techniques are that have to be incorporated in irrigation planning and
available and water harvesting can in fact be considered as a design, and environmental management techniques geared
type of irrigation. towards the reduction of diseases related to water and the
For more detailed information on rainfed agriculture, soil preservation of the environment.
and water conservation and water harvesting techniques Checklists for socio-economic, agro-technical, health risk
the reader is referred to literature specialized in the subject. and environmental impact assessments of irrigation
This Irrigation Manual concentrates on the development of development are provided in Chapter 5.
surface, sprinkler and localized irrigation systems.
Finally, Chapter 6 explains how the various social, economic,
1.3. Surface, sprinkler and localized physical, crop production, engineering and environmental
irrigation development aspects are incorporated into a feasibility study.
The social and institutional context of irrigation
development has immense bearing on the ultimate
1 Conservation agriculture: a concept aiming at conserving, improving and making more efficient use of natural resources through the integrated management of available
water, soil and biological resources in combination with limited external inputs.
2 Responsive farming: flexible a system of farming in which key decisions affecting crop water utilization and crop yield are modified each season in response to pre-season
and early season predictions of season rainfall amount, duration, intensity index and other parameters as appropriate.

2– Module 1
 Chapter 2
Farmers’ participation in irrigation development

According to Chancellor and Hide (1996), there is only very – social background, religion and cultural aspects
scant information published on the determinants of success – status of groups in society, formal or informal
and failure of the design and implementation process of – organizational and leadership structures
smallholder irrigation schemes in developing countries. Most – current constraints and farmers’ priorities
design manuals make very little reference to socio-economic
issues related to community scheme development, operation b) Farmers’ interests, motives and attitudes:
and management. Problems of farmer participation are rarely – needs and aspirations
encountered in privately owned schemes or those initiated by – openly expressed, hidden and vested interests
farmers. However, for schemes initiated by donors or – hopes, expectations and fears related to the project
governments, there is a need for close consultation between – attitudes, friendly or hostile, towards imple-
farmers and implementing agencies in all stages of menting agencies and other groups
development. This can be achieved through participatory
planning, designing, construction and management of c) The farmers’ potentials:
irrigation schemes (Table 1). – strengths of groups with regards to skills,
resources, knowledge, rights, etc.
– weaknesses and shortcomings, for example
2.1. Principles of participation
knowledge of benefits of project or otherwise
The purpose of stakeholder participation in project – what the group can contribute to or withhold from
development is to give planners and the parties involved an the project
overview of all persons, groups, organizations and
institutions involved in or connected with the project. d) The implications of the above on the planning, design
Participation is expected to result in the incorporation of and construction of the project:
the interests and expectations of all parties significant to the – how the project should be designed and
project. It will also provide room for the clearing of implemented in order to address the concerns and
potential conflict areas. needs of the farmers or farmer groups.

The steps to take in encouraging participation of interested In this respect the use of the PRA tool will facilitate, for the
groups are to: planner, the understanding of existing constraints and the
farmers’ perceptions of how irrigation can be used to
Y Identify the persons, groups and organizations remove some of the constraints in crop production. During
connected with or influenced by the project the same process, and in order to avoid interference by
Y Identify their level of influence on the project, for individuals or groups that may have vested interests,
example key stakeholders such as women, who provide farmers should identify the stakeholders that will be
the bulk of the labour, and displaced persons should involved with the participatory planning. Also, right from
have a significantly stronger influence than secondary the outset not only the advantages but also the
stakeholders such as middlemen responsibilities that come hand-in-hand with a new scheme
should be made clear to all involved.
Y Involve them in all decision-making processes and
characterize their influence on the project
2.2. Identification of stakeholders
Y Assure them and make them feel that they have the
power to influence the course of development Stakeholders are individuals, groups or organizations who
have an interest in a particular project. For irrigation
In order to capture the determinant issues for farmer projects these are normally farmers, persons displaced by
participation, planners have to understand: the project, lending institutions, government, donors, input
a) The characteristics of the farmer groups they are suppliers, service suppliers and buyers.
dealing with:

Module 1 –3
Irrigation manual

Table 1
Project development stages and activities for smallholder irrigation (Adapted from: Chancellor and Hide, 1996)

Project stage Main activities Purpose

PROJECT • Facilitate farmers’ awareness • Ensure development is demand-driven
IDENTIFICATION • Perceived needs by farmers
• Farmers’ request for assistance
PRE-FEASIBILITY • Initial field visits and PRAs • First-hand assessment of irrigation potential
• Identify farmers’ objectives, requirements and capabilities
• Collect existing physical and socio- • Provide background for informed decisions
economic data
• Stakeholder analysis • Identify stakeholders, determine their roles and
interests, highlight potential conflict and strengths
• First approval or rejection of • Use existing data and findings to indicate preliminary
prefeasibility by stakeholders feasibility
FEASIBILITY • Detailed physical data collection and • Ensure adequate resources to meet farmers’ objectives
field investigations
• Socio-economic survey/assessment • Ensure resources available for proposed development
• Financial and institutional review • Determine farm budgets and organization needs for
assistance
• Preliminary design and costs • Provide basis for discussions with farmers
• Participation of farmers in design choices • Provide opportunities to modify design or withdraw
request
• Initiate appropriate farmers’ organization • Provide basis for loans, management, O&M
• Prepare project feasibility report including • Enable comparison of projects or project designs
financial and economic appraisal competing for funding
CONDITIONAL • Approval by irrigation professionals and • Ensure quality of design
APPROVAL farmers
DETAILED • Review O&M capabilities and needs • Match design with farmers’ capabilities
DESIGNS • Final data assessed and final farmers • Allow informed commitment of farmers
choices
• Detailed designs, quantities and contract • Finalize details and costs
documents prepared
• Funding arrangements organized • Assure farmers of credit availability and cost
• Farmers’ contributions clearly determined • Enable farmers to take responsibility for financial and
and agreed by contract practical commitment
FINAL APPROVAL • Approval by all major stakeholders • Multi-directional responsibility implemented
IMPLEMENTATION • Tenders received • Enable cost-effective choice
(OVERSEEN BY • Contractor chosen and contracts agreed
MINISTRY / • Farmers’ loan activated • Assure payment for work and materials
FUNDING AGENCY • Farmers’ participation in construction • Promote sense of ownership and acquire skills for
/ FARMER future O&M
COMMITTEE) • Training of farmers on cultivation, • Promote effective use of water, good yields and sustainable
on-farm water management marketing activity
and O&M
• Hand-over of scheme to farmers • Farmers assume responsibility
MONITORING • Regular review of performance • Ensure targets are achieved and sustained
AND EVALUATION • On-going training and extension • Encouragecontinued improvement

During project identification, stakeholders of an irrigation Meetings and continuous dialogue throughout the
scheme should be identified first. Irrigation projects should development process are necessary for the stakeholders to
ideally be developed on farmers’ requests in order to ensure make contributions as well as to identify and defuse
that development is demand-driven. However, govern- potential conflicts. There should also be agreements,
ment, donors, NGOs or other agencies may identify a need preferably written and signed, that each party will execute
for them. In this case it is incumbent upon the institution its function throughout the planning, design,
spearheading the development to mobilize farmers and implementation, operation and maintenance of the
other stakeholders so that they appreciate the benefits of scheme.
irrigation and will give their go-ahead for the project.

4– Module 1
 Module 1: Irrigation development: a multifaceted process

2.3. Definition of roles of stakeholders programme on Socio-Economic And Gender Analysis

(SEAGA). Its purpose is to support participatory planning
There is a need to clearly define the role of each stakeholder
of irrigation schemes and the integration of socio-
in order to avoid the possibility of role conflict. Usually, the
economic and gender issues in the planning process. Its
main players are the farmers and the irrigation agency,
ultimate aim is to improve irrigation scheme performance,
normally a government institution. The responsibilities of
while strengthening the position of rural women and
the agency are technical in nature. They include field
disadvantaged groups. The guide is written for professionals
surveys, such as water resources assessment, topographic,
who are involved in the planning, design and
soil and socio-economic surveys, designs, technical and
implementation of irrigation programmes. It is thus
financial project appraisal, the supervision of construction
intended for irrigation engineers, members of
and irrigation extension. On their part farmers provide the
multidisciplinary identification and formulation missions,
land for irrigation, organize finance for development (if not
staff of rural development projects, government employees,
provided by the government or donors), provide labour for
staff of NGOs, and engineering and consulting firms.
surveys and construction activities and any other assistance
that the project may require. The farmers should form an
Irrigation Management Committee (IMC) or a Water 2.4.1. Farmers’ participation in resource
Users Association (WUA) to act as the contact between identification
them and other stakeholders. Such committees operate Farmers normally have the resources land (be it owned or
based on bye-laws established and adopted by the farmers not) and labour at their disposal, but they need assistance in
during general meetings, and also oversee the operation and acquiring other resources such as capital and water. This
maintenance of the irrigation infrastructure. section will limit itself to the issues related to land and
labour because of the importance with which the farmers
Government, donors and lending institutions are
regard them. This is not to say that the other issues are not
important, for development cannot take place without
as important.
funding. Additionally, government and donors facilitate the
adoption and implementation of appropriate policies and
Land
strategies to enhance irrigation development. Local
authorities can also facilitate irrigation development by The issues of land and communities are inextricably linked.
bringing to the attention of decision-makers the need for Planners have to take into account the fact that any new
such development. The private sector, through suppliers of development that alters traditional land use patterns is a
irrigation equipment and inputs, and buyers of agricultural potential source of conflict. Potential conflict areas should
commodities also have a positive role in irrigation be identified and addressed from the outset. Therefore,
development. there is a need to actively involve the affected communities
in the decision-making process right from the outset.
Of paramount importance are regular stakeholder meetings
to update each other on developments and chart the way The ownership of land offers immense incentives to invest
forward. Taking minutes of all meetings and approving and in it. As a rule, if an irrigation scheme is privately owned,
signing such minutes is important for use as reference when the owner will be only too willing to improve their scheme
and if problems are encountered later. The presence of an and carry out operation and maintenance as and when
extension agent during meetings can facilitate the process necessary. The same can not always be said in the case of
of taking minutes, especially if a large number of farmers communal land. When irrigation development is done on
are not literate. communal land, there is generally a disruption of the
original communal land ownership pattern. Often some
2.4. Farmers’ participation in scheme people lose their land when it is converted to irrigation.
planning and development This land could have been used for cultivation, grazing,
hunting etc. prior to the introduction of irrigation. At the
Farmers’ participation in irrigation planning and same time, other farmers whose land may not be converted
development is crucial for its success. Gender-sensitivity at to irrigation, but will become plotholders, will make an
all stages is equally important. For detailed guidelines on apparent gain. In other cases, development cannot go ahead
gender-sensitive irrigation planning, design and because of problems encountered with land redistribution.
implementation the reader is referred to the guide on the It is therefore necessary to hold meetings with all the
integration of socio-economic and gender issues in the farmers, their local leadership, government and other
irrigation sub-sector (FAO, 1998). This guide has been stakeholders in order to reach compromises on land
developed within the framework of the joint FAO/ILO redistribution or compensation arrangements. This should

Module 1 –5
Irrigation manual

be done prior to the decision to go ahead with the project. Zimbabwe during the late eighties, was found to be very
It is also important to ensure that the parties involved fully useful in providing the openness and informed decision-
understand the arrangements agreed upon and are making needed in participatory development. Farmers
committed to implementing them. then play a significant role in scheme planning through
participation in the following way:
Labour Y The farmers should select lands to be irrigated and the
In most countries in Southern Africa, rainfed crop irrigation agency should assist farmers by assessing the
production utilizes family labour for about five months of suitability of those lands
the year. However, irrigated crop production is a year- Y The communities within the area to be developed
round labour demanding enterprise. Hence, the issue of should participate in the Environmental Impact
the labour demand of a particular irrigation activity is very Assessment (EIA) for the project, through contributing
important. Farmers normally have on-farm and off-farm vital information, such as current uses of their natural
activities prior to irrigation development. Irrigation will resources, ecology, human health, etc.
therefore introduce extra demands on the people’s labour.
Y Farmers should provide labour for topographic, soil and
According to Chancellor and Hide (1996), some countries socio-economic surveys. They should, through their
in sub-Saharan Africa experience labour shortages due to committees, decide who should do which activity
use of labour intensive technologies and the migration of
Y Farmers could provide information on past experience
male labour to urban centres. Consequently, women make
with floods, point out areas with potential for flooding,
up the bulk of labour for agricultural activities which result
and suggest to the planners locations for structures
in them being over-burdened.
such as water abstraction from the river, hence
It is therefore necessary, during scheme planning, to preventing the pumping station from being flooded
evaluate the labour requirements of the planned irrigation Y The farmers should select the crops to be grown in the
design alternatives versus the estimated available labour in project and the agency should guide them only on
order to determine when and where shortages may occur technical matters related to the suitability of such crops
(see also Module 11). Each alternative will have its own for the climate, soils, the cost of production and expected
labour requirements and these should be discussed with the returns as well as the marketing potential of these crops
farmers. The assessment should also capture issues related
to labour and gender so that the design minimizes over- Y The irrigation agency should facilitate the exposure of the
working, especially of women who already have many other farmers to various irrigation methods and enlighten them
activities to attend to. Therefore, irrigation technology as to the advantages and disadvantages of each. The
options should be gender-sensitive (FAO, 1998). For farmers then should propose the irrigation methods they
example, the use of a drag-hose sprinkler demands light would prefer to be considered during irrigation design
work that is limited to moving the tripod and hose from Y The prospective irrigators should suggest the plot sizes
one position to the next. This system has gained popularity they would prefer to irrigate and the irrigation agency
amongst Zimbabwean smallholders to the extent that 30% should provide information on the management,
of all smallholder schemes in this country have adopted this labour and input costs required for different plot sizes,
system (FAO, 2000). as well as on the potential of the land and water
resources to satisfy the various sizes
2.4.2. Farmers’ participation in scheme planning and Y After completing the designs, the irrigation agency
design
should explain the alternative designs to farmers and
Farmers participating in the planning process should be the implications of each vis-à-vis land redistribution,
able to make well-informed decisions. It is therefore water resources potential, plot sizes and total area to be
necessary that farmers be exposed to the various options of irrigated, cropping programmes, labour requirements,
irrigation development and irrigated crop production capital costs, operation and maintenance costs,
before embarking on the participatory planning process. environmental aspects, land use patterns and other
Farmer visits to several irrigation schemes using different considerations
technologies and discussion with the farmers using these Y Finally, the farmers will decide which option to adopt.
schemes are considered as indispensable tools in initiating
farmers into the process of participatory planning and Once the farmers decide on their preferred design option
informed decision-making. This approach, introduced in then the agency and the farmers should sign an agreement

6– Module 1
 Module 1: Irrigation development: a multifaceted process

indicating the chosen option. What is important in the Y Bookkeeping

whole process is to help farmers appreciate the trade-off Y Access to markets and market information
between what they want and what is technically feasible,
economically viable and environmentally sound. Such training should be practical, in order to provide the
hands-on experience needed, and should take into
The duration of this process varies from group to group and consideration that the background of most smallholders in
is affected by the size of the scheme and the number of Eastern and Southern Africa is in rainfed crop production.
beneficiaries. Experience in Zimbabwe has shown that the
preparation of feasibility studies with farmer participation The recently introduced Farmers Field School (FFS)
can last from 3-4 months for small schemes (10-20 ha) to methodology in the sub-region provides a good vehicle with
one year for schemes of 100 ha. which to continue the participatory process beyond the
construction and follow it during the operation of the
2.4.3. Farmers’ participation in scheme scheme. For this, FAO has developed a programme called
implementation “Participatory Training & Extension in Farmers’ Water
Management (PT&E-FWM)” (FAO, 2001). This
The implementation of an irrigation project involves
programme provides guidelines, procedures and relevant
preparing tender documents for construction, evaluating the
material for the development of a participatory training and
tenders, selecting the contractor and supervising
extension programme for technical staff, extension workers
construction. The farmers should be involved in all these
and other stakeholders, in order to assist farmers in taking
processes, especially if they are contributing part of the
charge of water management at field and scheme level and
finance, in cash or kind, for the project. The irrigation agency
adapting, in a sustainable manner, appropriate water
should provide technical information to assist the farmers in
technologies. The programme is particularly relevant to
reaching decisions. The farmers should contribute their own
irrigation management transfer programmes, assisting
labour for certain construction activities, such as trenching,
water users associations in the operation and maintenance
back-filling, pipefitting, land levelling and concrete mixing.
of farmers irrigation systems, and to smallholder irrigation
This will also assist them in gaining the experience needed
programmes, giving guidance to farmers in adopting
later in the maintenance of the project. In this respect it is
efficient water control techniques.
advisable to use labour intensive methods, where possible.
The supervision of construction still remains the
responsibility of the irrigation agency. Where the farmers 2.5. Monitoring and evaluation of
contribute money for the project, they should also sign smallholder irrigation development
certificates authorizing payments to the contractor. Once an irrigation scheme is implemented, there is a need
to continuously monitor its performance, in order to
2.4.4. Scheme operation and maintenance identify constraints and opportunities for improved
responsibilities irrigation performance. There are a number of parameters
The responsibilities of scheme operation and maintenance that can be measured and assessed as performance
(O&M) should be clear to all parties from the outset. To indicators. These include technical irrigation system
assist farmers in selecting a design alternative, planners performance, which looks at performance in terms of
should estimate the O&M requirements at the planning water use efficiencies and other related parameters;
stage and discuss them with farmers. If the irrigation agency economic analyses, which evaluate economic and financial
is to pay for O&M for a specified time before hand-over to performance; as well as socio-economic analyses, which
farmers, the farmers should be organized and prepared for evaluate the impact of economic performance on the social
take-over well in advance. well-being of the people. Module 14 deals more in detail
with monitoring the technical and financial performance of
While the experience gained by the farmers during the irrigation schemes.
course of planning and development is a valuable tool for the
O&M of the irrigation scheme, farmers would still require Box 1 provides a typical case of the success that can result
assistance from the irrigation agency and the extension from the implementation of an irrigation project through
service in the form of training in the following areas: farmer participation, as reflected by the socio-economic
benefits that accrued to the community. This information,
Y Crop production and protection which highlights the success of Hama Mavhaire drag-hose
Y Irrigation scheduling and on-farm water management sprinkler irrigation scheme in Zimbabwe, is a result of a
study to assess the socio-economic impact of three
Y Schedule of scheme maintenance
smallholder irrigation schemes in Zimbabwe (FAO, 1997a).

Module 1 –7
Irrigation manual

Box 1:
Example of successful implementation of smallholder irrigation development with farmer participation (Source:
FAO, 1997a and Savva, 1998)

Hama Mavhaire irrigation scheme in Zimbabwe is a 96 hectare drag-hose sprinkler irrigation project. The scheme is
apportioned equally to 96 farmers, of which 70% are women. It is located in a dry agro-ecological area that receives
about 450 mm of rainfall per year. Dryland cropping fails 3 to 4 years out of 5. The development of the scheme was
initiated in 1989, following strong farmer requests to Government for irrigation development.
Participation of farmers in planning and design
The government dispatched a team of experts, comprising engineers, agronomists and economists, to the project site
to carry out a feasibility study. Several meetings were held in order for planners to understand the farmers’
expectations and to explain to the farmers the potential and requirements of the proposed development. This was
followed by a baseline socio-economic survey. The local authorities then selected, from the many aspirant irrigators,
those who showed the keenest interest in irrigation. The land chosen consisted of about 80% of non-cultivated bush,
while the remaining 20% was arable land owned by the farmers who were selected for the scheme. The farmer group
was to be the partner in irrigation development. It elected its own committee, which was tasked with liaising with the
planners on all matters related to the new development.
To facilitate a process of making informed decisions, arrangements were made for farmers to visit different types of
irrigation systems, surface and sprinkler. The farmers spent considerable time discussing issues with their
counterparts at those projects. The issues discussed included the type of irrigation system, types of crops irrigated,
fertilizer requirements, crop yields and marketing. This exposure proved useful to farmers when they eventually
decide on the type of irrigation system they prefer and the crops to be grown. Once the experts completed design
options, they took them back to the farmers and explained the pros and cons of each. Eventually the farmers settled
on a drag-hose sprinkler irrigation system. This process took one full year.
Participation of farmers in construction
Upon the adoption of the design, tender documents were prepared with the condition that farmers would provide all
unskilled labour required for construction. During construction the group provided labour for trenching and back-filling
and assisted pipe fitters by carrying and placing pipes and fittings in position. As a result of their participation, the
farmers were trained in pipefitting and other general repairs to their system. Additionally, the contractor trained one
farmer per irrigation block on the repair of sprinklers. The irrigation engineers and extension staff trained the farmers
on leadership, bookkeeping, scheme operation, improved agronomic practices and irrigation scheduling. This
process took six months for the first 48 hectares and three months for the remaining 48 hectares.
Socio-economic impact of scheme development
The socio-economic impact study showed that on average, the net income per plot-holder quadrupled due to the
introduction of irrigation, from a gross margin assessed at US$650 annually on 2.5 hectares of dryland crop
production to a gross margin of US$2 775 for one hectare irrigated. The other benefit of the introduction of irrigation
was that when electricity was brought into the Hama Mavhaire area to power the pump, the nearby shopping centre
was also electrified. Before the scheme was constructed, there was only one general dealer, one bottle store and one
grinding mill, which was powered by a diesel engine. Now there are three general dealers, two bottle stores, four
electrically-driven grinding mills and a butchery. In addition, one of the plot-holders confirmed that a significant portion
of the investment that he put into the shop he operates at a nearby shopping centre came from the proceeds of
irrigation.
There are other indicators of a substantial rise in the standard of living of the irrigators. About 29% of the plot-holders
are reported to have purchased between one and four head of cattle from the income earned through irrigation during
the first five to six years of scheme operation. In addition, 13% of the plot-holders had put up brick under corrugated
iron houses and 10% had installed solar panels during the same period. Women, who constitute the majority of the
plot-holders and are represented at all committees, also confirmed that the other major benefit of irrigation was that
they are able to pay for the costs of educating their children.
The success of the Hama Mavhaire irrigation scheme is largely attributed to the dedication and determination of the
group to improve their standard of living. The participatory approaches adopted for the development of the scheme
provided the opportunity to the group, planners and implementers to jointly plan and implement a scheme, making it
both technically feasible and socially acceptable.

8– Module 1
 Chapter 3
Criteria for the selection of an irrigation system

There are many factors to consider before selecting a Surface irrigation systems apply water to the land by an
particular irrigation system. These include water resources, overland water flow regime. Within this group are the
topography, soils, climate, type of crops to be grown, furrow, borderstrip and basin irrigation systems. In sprinkler
availability and cost of capital and labour, type and irrigation systems, water is conveyed and distributed
appropriateness of a particular irrigation technology to through pressurized pipe networks before being sprayed
farmers and its associated energy requirements, water use onto the land. There are several sprinkler irrigation systems,
efficiencies, as well as socio-economic, health and which can broadly be divided into set systems and
environmental aspects. It is not wise to use a single criterion continuous move systems. In localized irrigation systems, a
for selection purposes. However, there are instances when pipe distribution network is used to distribute and deliver
one criterion can weigh heavily in favour of a particular filtered water (and fertilizer) to a predetermined point. The
irrigation system. three main categories of localized irrigation methods are
drip, spray and bubbler. More recently, drip irrigation
The socio-economic impact of an irrigation system largely systems have been developed whereby the laterals are buried
determines the success of the project. This embraces the in the root zone of the crop. Sub-surface irrigation systems
socio-economic benefits, for and against, that can be rely on the raising or lowering of the water table in order to
derived not only by the government but also, more effect groundwater flow to the root zone. As such, they are
importantly, by the communities in which the project is drainage flow systems.
located, and how these affect the sustainability of the
project.
3.1.1. Surface irrigation systems
Health and environmental aspects are also important. The Surface irrigation systems are based on the principle of
introduction of irrigation in a particular area can not only moving water over the surface of the land in order to wet it,
improve health, but also introduce health hazards, if either partially or completely. They can be subdivided into
mitigation measures are not adequately addressed during furrow, borderstrip and basin irrigation. The scheme layout
the scheme design, implementation, operation and up to field level, such as canals and drains, can be similar for
management. Irrigation development may also introduce each system. Low irrigation efficiencies are usually
other environmental risks, such as salinization and the associated with poor land levelling, wrong stream size and
deterioration of biodiversity. change in soil type along the irrigated area both vertically
It is therefore necessary to obtain all available information and horizontally.
and data and to carry out an analysis of all the factors before According to FAO (1989), 95% of the irrigated area in the
possibly ranking the criteria for purposes of selecting an world is under surface irrigation. Some of the major
irrigation system. In order for a project to be sustainable, advantages of surface irrigation systems over other systems
all technical, socio-economic, health and environmental are that they are easy to operate and maintain with skilled
information should be analyzed in such a way that the labour, they are not affected by windy conditions and, with
system chosen is technically feasible, economically viable, the exception of furrow irrigation, they are good for the
socially acceptable and environmentally sound. leaching of the salts from the root zone. Generally, they are
associated with low energy costs.
3.1. Types of irrigation systems
Surface irrigation systems do have several disadvantages,
In order to be in a position to select an irrigation system for though. They are less efficient in water application than
a given area, it is important to look at the types of irrigation sprinkler or localized irrigation systems. The spatial and
systems commonly used. Based on the method of applying temporal variability of soil characteristics, such as
water to the land, there are four broad classes of irrigation infiltration rate and texture, make water management
systems: (1) surface irrigation systems, (2) sprinkler practices difficult to define and implement. It is also
irrigation systems, (3) localized irrigation systems and (4) difficult to apply light, frequent irrigation required early
sub-surface irrigation systems. and late in the cropping season. Another disadvantage can

Module 1 –9
Irrigation manual

be the high labour demand, as compared to sprinkler and on soil type, crops and stream size to be applied to the
localized irrigation systems, in situations where labour is furrow. Coarse soils require closely-spaced furrows in order
not abundant. to achieve lateral water flow in the root zone. Figure 2 show
the general wetting patterns of sand and clay. There is more
Below follows a description of the three surface irrigation lateral water flow in clay than in sand. Typical furrow
methods, which are dealt with more in detail in Module 7. lengths vary from about 60 m on coarse textured soils to
500 m on fine textured soils, depending on the land slope,
Furrow irrigation stream size and irrigation depth. The minimum and
A furrow irrigation system consists of furrows and ridges, maximum slopes for furrows should be 0.05% and 2%
of which the shape, spacing and length depend mainly on respectively in areas of low rainfall intensity. In areas where
the crops to be grown and the types of soils. Figure 1 shows there is a risk of erosion due to intensive rainfall, the
furrow irrigation. Siphons are mostly used to take water maximum slope should be limited to 0.3%.
from the field ditch to the furrows. Most field crops, except very closely spaced crops such as
According to Kay (1986), the width of the furrows varies wheat, as well as orchards and vineyards can be irrigated
from 250-400 mm, the depth from 150-300 mm and the using furrows. However, with this type of irrigation there is
spacing between the furrows from 0.75-1.0 m, depending a risk of localized salinization in the ridges.

Figure 1
Layout of furrow irrigation (Source: FAO, 1985)

Figure 2
Wetting parameter for coarse and fine textured soils (Source: Kay, 1986)

10 – Module 1
 Module 1: Irrigation development: a multifaceted process

Figure 3
Layout of borderstrip irrigation (Source: FAO, 1985)

Borderstrip irrigation less the risk of erosion and the steeper the border can be.
Borderstrips, border checks or strip checks are strips of However, crop cover can only be a determining factor in
land separated by small earth bunds that guide the water as case a permanent crop, such as pasture, will cover the
it flows down the field. They can have rectangular or borderstrip.
contoured shapes, depending on the field. The borderstrip
slopes uniformly away from the direction from the source Basin irrigation
of the irrigation water. They should be levelled across, in Basin irrigation is the most common type of surface
order to allow for the even wetting of the whole area, irrigation and is particularly used in paddy rice
covered by a border and allow free drainage at the end. irrigation. A basin is a leveled area of land, surrounded
Figure 3 shows the layout of borderstrip irrigation. by earth bunds, that does not need directed and
Normally, water is let onto the field from the canals through controlled flow (FAO, 1989). Basins should be quickly
siphons. The siphoned water spreads across the width of filled with water during irrigation, after which the water
the border when there is no cross slope, thereby facilitating infiltrates evenly throughout the basin, in order to
uniform water application. Uneven borders slopes and achieve high application uniformity. Basin irrigation can
cross border slopes are some of the most common be a very useful way of leaching harmful salts. However,
problems that result in low irrigation efficiencies. a good drainage system should also be put in place to
Borderstrips may vary in size from 60-800 m length and 3- dispose of the excess water.
30 m width depending on the soil type, stream size, Basins can be adapted to suit any crop, soil or farming
irrigation depth, slope, field size and farming practices. practices. Crops grown under basin irrigation include rice,
Generally, border width becomes smaller as the soil alfalfa, row crops and orchard crops. The basins vary in size
becomes coarser for the same unit stream size, irrigation from 1-2 m2 to 3-4 ha depending on the irrigation depth,
depth, and slope, as coarse soils have a higher intake rate land slope and farming practices. Generally, for the same
than fine soils and consequently less lateral water flow. stream size and irrigation depth, basins should be smaller
Border lengths for a width of 12 m vary from 60 m for an on light soils than on heavier soils. In cases where the land
irrigation depth of 100 mm, a slope of 2% and a stream size is considerably steep, terracing may be necessary in order
of 15 l/s for sandy soils to 300 m for an irrigation depth of to construct basins. Typically terrace width varies from 1.5
200 mm, a slope of 0.4% and a stream size of 4 l/s for clay m for 4% land slopes to 150 m for 0.1% land slopes. Figure
soils. The minimum slope of borders is 1% and the 4 illustrates rectangular basins being irrigated using water
maximum is 2% in humid areas and 5% in arid areas, from the farm canal.
depending on crop cover. The greater the crop cover, the

Module 1 – 11
Irrigation manual

Figure 4
Layout of basin irrigation (Source: FAO, 1985)

Direct method of water supply to the basins with a drainway midway between supply canals. “Basin a” is irrigated, then
“Basin b”, and so on.

Cascade method of water supply to the basins with a tier arrangement. Ideal on terraced land, where water is supplied to
the highest terrace, and then allowed to flow to a lower terrance and so on.

3.1.2. Sprinkler irrigation systems They have a large component of built-in management in
A sprinkler irrigation system consists of a pipe network, that it is easy to apply the exact amount of water that one
through which water moves under pressure before being requires, unlike surface irrigation systems where the depth
delivered to the crop via sprinkler nozzles. The system of irrigation desired at a given time can not be accurately
basically simulates rainfall in that water is applied through applied. Sprinkler irrigation systems also require much less
overhead spraying. Therefore, these systems are also known labour than surface irrigation systems. In contrast to these
as overhead irrigation systems. As such, the water advantages, sprinkler irrigation systems are relatively high
distribution of certain sprinkler systems is affected to a large energy demanding and require fairly good water quality, in
extent by the wind patterns and velocity in a particular area. terms of sodium and chlorite. These systems are also
susceptible to windy conditions.
Sprinkler irrigation systems are suitable for most crops,
except those whose leaves may be sensitive to prolonged There are several types of sprinkler irrigation systems,
contact with water or crops requiring ponding of water at which can be broadly sub-divided into two groups: set
some stage of their life. They are generally suitable for light, systems, which operate with sprinklers in a fixed position,
frequent irrigations, unlike most surface irrigation systems. for some time at least, and continuous move systems,
which operate while moving.

12 – Module 1
 Module 1: Irrigation development: a multifaceted process

Set systems Periodic hand-move sprinkler irrigation systems

Set systems can be further divided according to whether or The hand-move lateral systems are comprised of either
not sprinklers should be moved through a series of positions portable or buried mainlines, sub-mainlines and hydrant
during the course of irrigating a field. Those systems that valves at intervals for connecting the laterals (Figure 5).
must be moved are called periodic-move systems and those
that do not require any movement are called fixed systems. Hand-move lateral systems normally utilize quick-coupling
Periodic-move systems can be further divided according to laterals that are moved from one hydrant position to
the method of movement of sprinklers and laterals into another by hand. Therefore, they are labour-intensive
hand-move systems, where laterals and sprinklers are moved compared to other sprinkler irrigation systems. In fact they
manually, and mechanically-move systems, where the are the predecessors of mechanically-move systems, which
movement is done by mechanical means. were developed to reduce labour input. Hand-move
systems are adapted to irregular field shapes, fairly steep
topographies and are suitable for most field crops.
Figure 5 Due to their labour demand, they may be ideal where
Layout of a periodic-move sprinkler irrigation labour is available and cheap. A brief description of the
system (Source: Keller and Bliesner, 1990) various periodic hand-move systems (portable, semi-
portable and drag-hose) is given below. The differences
between the individual systems depend on which
components are movable and which are not.

Portable systems
A portable sprinkler irrigation system has portable
aluminum or light steel mains, submains, laterals and
sometimes even portable pumps. This means that the
equipment can be moved from one area to another in order
to carry out irrigation events as required. It is, therefore,
designed to irrigate different fields with different crops
using the same equipment. It suits areas that border
perennial streams or that have a number of sources of water
in their vicinity or where supplementary irrigation is

Figure 6
Layout of a portable sprinkler irrigation system (Source: FAO, 1990)

Module 1 – 13
Irrigation manual

required. They are extensively used in tobacco because of sugar cane, field crops and vegetable crops. The length of
the 3-4 year rotation followed for this crop. Figure 6 shows the hose varies with the desired ease of operation and initial
a portable system, where only one lateral is operating. The capital investment required. A length of 30 m is considered
shaded area indicates the area already irrigated. The lateral as reasonable. The drag-hose irrigation system has been
is moving towards the pump in a clockwise direction. successfully implemented in Zimbabwe’s smallholder
When the lateral reaches the last position closest to the irrigation sector since 1988. In 1997 it was estimated that
pump, it is flipped over to the other side of the mainline more than 30% of all smallholder schemes in Zimbabwe
and continues moving away from the pump. After having were under this system. Other countries, such as South
finished this side the mainline can be moved to another Africa, Swaziland, Malawi and Kenya, are using this system.
position and the next part can be irrigated moving the A more detailed description is given in Module 8.
lateral in the same way as explained above.
Periodic mechanically-move systems
Semi-portable systems Several mechanically moved sprinkler irrigation systems
The semi-portable or semi-permanent system usually has have been introduced during the last 30 years in an effort
permanent AC or uPVC mains and submains, which should to reduce the cost of labour. The most popular
be buried, and portable aluminum or light steel laterals. mechanically moved systems are briefly explained below.
This means that the mains and submains can not be moved.
Both the portable and the semi-portable systems are Side-roll and side-move lateral system
common in many parts of the world. Figure 7 shows a
These systems are similar to the hand-move system, except
semi-portable system in which the laterals together with the
that instead of people moving laterals it is done by a
sprinklers are moved during irrigation. A more detailed
machine. The system is a rigidly-coupled lateral supported
description of semi-portable systems is given in Module 8.
on a number of wheels, which are mechanically moved by
a power source such as an engine at the center of the line
Drag-hose systems or at the end. The number of wheels varies with the length
Drag-hose or hose-pull systems are composed of buried of the lateral. The lateral is attached to the main line via a
mains, submains and laterals. The hoses are attached to the flexible hose or a portable aluminium pipe. When the
hydrants or garden taps of the laterals on one end and to the system is operating, the wheels are stationary. When a
risers, fixed onto tripod stands, on the other end. The change of lateral position is needed, an engine moves the
sprinklers are fixed on tripod stands. Usually, one sprinkler wheels to the next position. Figure 9 shows a typical side-
is attached to each hose. Figure 8 is a schematic illustration roll lateral layout and its wheel-mounted lateral.
of a drag-hose irrigation system in which sprinklers,
connected to the supply line through flexible hoses, are The side-roll lateral system has the disadvantages of being
shown in different positions. A prerequisite to the uniform only suited to short crops and mostly rectangular fields.
wetting of the system is the systematic manner of Due to its long lateral, which extends to about 500 m, it is
movement of the sprinklers from one position to another, not suitable for rapidly changing topography or steep
so that adequate overlap is achieved. slopes. In the side-move lateral system, the lateral is raised
to a height of 1.5 m from the ground, making it suitable for
The hose and tripod stand are manually moved from one higher crops. The general disadvantage of both systems is
sprinkler position to the next. These systems were originally that when they reach the end of the field they have to be
used to irrigate citrus trees and orchards. In Southern towed back to the beginning of the field, a process that is
Africa they are now increasingly used for the irrigation of time consuming.

14 – Module 1
 Module 1: Irrigation development: a multifaceted process

Figure 7
Layout of a semi-portable sprinkler irrigation system based on a 12 m x 12 m spacing with tertiaries
serving two plots

Module 1 – 15
Irrigation manual

Figure 8
Layout of a drag-hose sprinkler irrigation system on a 12 m x 12 m spacing

16 – Module 1
 Module 1: Irrigation development: a multifaceted process

Figure 9
Layout of a side-roll lateral sprinkler irrigation system and wheel-mounted lateral (Source: FAO, 1982)

Module 1 – 17
Irrigation manual

End-tow lateral systems as tractors rather than by hand. This system, by virtue of its
long laterals, is not suited to irregular field shapes, rough and
End-tow lateral systems are similar to hand-move systems
rapidly changing topography or row crops grown following
except that they consist of rigidly coupled laterals, up to 400
the contours. Figure 10 is a schematic representation of the
m in length, connected to the mainline during operation.
lateral on skid or wheel support and the sequence of moves
They also need to be towed from one side of the mainline to
of an end-tow sprinkler irrigation system.
the next. The towing is normally done using machinery such

Figure 10
Layout of an end-tow lateral sprinkler irrigation system and towed lateral on skid or wheel support
(Source: FAO, 1982)

18 – Module 1
 Module 1: Irrigation development: a multifaceted process

Gun and boom sprinkler irrigation systems The gun and boom sprinklers are normally mounted on
trailers or skids, which have to be towed from one
Gun sprinklers have large nozzles, 16 mm in diameter or
position to the next. Figure 11 shows two typical layouts
larger, that are rotated by a rocker arm. Boom sprinkler
for gun sprinklers. In one instance the gun is pulled
irrigation systems have rotating arms on which sprinklers are
towards the fixed winding machine by the pipe supplying
positioned. The gun and boom sprinklers operate at up to 62
water, while in the other the gun is self-hauled on the
metres (or 6.2 bars) head and discharge approximately 31.5
pipe supplying the water. In the latter the winding
l/s (Keller and Bliesner, 1990). The systems are used on most
machine is moving towards the pipe anchorage as the
crops, mainly for supplementary irrigation. Their use is
pipe winds onto the drum.
limited to coarse textured soils because heavier textured soils
have low intake rates that are incompatible with the high
application rates of these systems.

Figure 11
Layout of a gun sprinkler irrigation system and irrigation machine (Source: FAO, 1982)

Module 1 – 19
Irrigation manual

Figure 12
Layout of a fixed sprinkler irrigation system (Source: FAO, 1982)

Fixed sprinkler irrigation systems Perforated pipe sprinkler irrigation systems

Fixed sprinkler irrigation systems can be sub-divided into Perforated pipe sprinkler irrigation systems utilize holes,
solid-set systems and permanent systems as described drilled on the lateral pipe, for spraying water (Figure 13).
below. These systems are ‘on and off ’ in terms of their The holes are uniformly spaced along the top and sides of
operation and therefore require very little labour. However, the lateral pipe and are typically 1.6 mm in diameter.
they do require high capital investment. According to Keller and Bliesner (1990), this system is
mainly used on home lawns and is generally suited to coarse
Fixed systems can be automated, in which case the textured soils because of its high water application rates.
automatic control system can be programmed for The minimum practicable application rate is about 13
irrigation, cooling and frost protection. Figure 12 shows a mm/hr, making it unsuitable for heavy textured soils. In
typical layout of a fixed sprinkler irrigation system. In this
particular case, the whole system is entirely fixed.
Figure 13
Perforated pipe sprinkler irrigation system
Solid-set systems (Source: Farmelectric Handbook)
These systems have enough portable laterals for their
movement to be unnecessary. The mains and submains may
be either buried or portable. The number of sprinklers may
be sufficient so that no movement during irrigation is
necessary. However, sometimes sprinklers may be moved
within the area covered by laterals. These systems are used
for high value crops and are suitable for light, frequent
irrigation, such as the germination of small seeds.

Permanent systems
These systems have permanent buried mains, submains and
laterals with sprinklers permanently located on the laterals.
Often only the riser pipe and sprinkler are above the
ground. These systems can satisfy the need for light
frequent irrigation, be used for frost protection and
cooling, and are best suited for automation. They are also
often used to irrigate orchards, vineyards and other special
crops. They have high irrigation efficiency and a very low
labour requirement.

20 – Module 1
 Module 1: Irrigation development: a multifaceted process

Figure 14
Centre pivot and field irrigation layout (Source: FAO, 1982)

Module 1 – 21
Irrigation manual

Zimbabwe this system has been used for vegetable and areas at the periphery of the circle. These systems are suitable
tobacco seedling production. However, its use is gradually for most field crops. They are best suited to soils that can take
declining because of the rising popularity of micro- up high infiltration rates, and areas without obstructions such
sprinkler irrigation systems. as power lines and buildings.
The use of centre pivots is increasingly gaining popularity
Continuous-move systems
among commercial farmers in Eastern and Southern Africa.
Continuous-move systems have motorized laterals or The low per hectare cost of large centre pivot systems, the
sprinklers, which irrigate and move continuously at the limited labour requirements and the low energy
same time. Their innovation was prompted by the need to requirements of pivot systems using spray nozzles are the
minimize labour inputs. They basically comprise a centre main reasons for the popularity of these systems. Centre
pivot, linear moving laterals and travelling irrigators. pivot systems equipped with nozzles and drop pipes,
placing the nozzles just above the crop canopy, are very
Centre pivot useful under windy conditions.
This is one of the most popular irrigation systems. The
centre pivot system consists of a pipe lateral mounted on Linear-move laterals
steel towers. The fixed end of the lateral, the pivot, is Linear-move systems are similar to centre pivots except that
connected to a water supply (Figure 14). The pipe carries instead of the water being supplied from a central point and
different sizes of impact, spinner or spray sprinklers. The the lateral rotating around that point, a water supply
steel towers, also called spans, have wheels that rotate system, such as an open channel or hose, is provided over
continuously around a centre pivot point. The speed of the whole length, along which the lateral travels. Therefore,
movement varies from tower to tower. The closer the tower the lateral travels linearly as it irrigates. As a result this
is to the centre of the pivot the slower the wheels move. system irrigates rectangular fields. The fields, however, have
to be free of obstructions. This system has to be brought
Centre pivots vary in length depending on the design area back to the starting point once it reaches the end of the
and can irrigate up to 120 ha. Centre pivots vary in height; irrigated field. Figure 15 shows a linear-move lateral
they can be of low, standard or high clearance (from 3-5 m). irrigation system, taking water from a water supply ditch as
The laterals can be fitted with end guns to irrigate irregular it moves forward.

Figure 15
Linear-move lateral system (Source: FAO, 1982)

22 – Module 1
 Module 1: Irrigation development: a multifaceted process

Traveling irrigators Gun sprinklers can also be hose-pulled during irrigation, as

shown in Figure 11. In the latter case, the irrigating
One of the most recent variations of the continuous-move
machine can be self-hauled or pulled by the pipe supplying
systems is the continuous travel wheel, whereby the lateral,
the water. In contrast to the gun travelling irrigators, the
mounted on wheels, moves continuously while irrigating. A
boom with low-pressure nozzles is comparable to the
long flexible hose provides the lateral with water from the
centre pivot system and has been successfully used for the
main pipe. The lateral is a gun or a boom with low-pressure
irrigation of several crops grown on different soils.
sprayers, mounted on a wheeled irrigation machine. Figure
16 illustrates the components of a cable-drawn machine
and the typical layout.

Figure 16
Cable-drawn travelling irrigator and layout (Source: FAO, 1982)

Field layout of a machine moving automatically between irrigation stations

Module 1 – 23
Irrigation manual

3.1.3. Localized irrigation systems irrigation system. It is a capital-intensive system with built-
Localized irrigation is a system for supplying filtered water in management that requires very little but skilled labour.
(and fertilizer) directly onto or into the soil. The water is The main advantage of localized irrigation is its potential to
distributed under low pressure through a pipe network, in reduce water requirements and achieve a very high
a pre-determined pattern, and applied as a small discharge efficiency, while at the same time increasing crop yield and
to each plant or adjacent to it. There are three main quality. The system has been successfully used on tree and
categories of localized irrigation: vegetable crops, and high yields attributed to it. Localized
Y drip irrigation, where drip emitters are used to apply irrigation provides the means for very frequent irrigation,
water slowly to the soil surface daily if needs be. Hence it is particularly suitable for light
shallow soils, irrespective of slope, and for shallow-rooted
Y spray irrigation, where water is sprayed to the soil near
crops. It has also proved suitable for most row crops. The
individual trees
main disadvantages of localized irrigation systems are their
Y bubbler irrigation, where a small stream is applied to flood high capital cost, a susceptibility to clogging and a tendency
small basins or the soil adjacent to individual trees to build up localized salinity, especially in low rainfall areas.
A localized irrigation system consists of the head of the As such, this category of system requires careful
system that filters and controls the supply of water and management for its maintenance. Module 9 deals with the
fertilizers to the network, the plastic buried pipes that planning, design, operation and maintenance aspects of
supply the water to the laterals, the polyethylene laterals, localized irrigation systems.
usually 16-20 mm in diameter, that supply the water to the
emitters, and the emitters that discharge the water to the 3.2. Irrigation efficiencies
pre-determined points and at pre-determined flows. There is an ever-growing demand on water resources,
Figure 17 shows the basic components of a localized which emanates from an increasing human population.

Figure 17
Basic components of a localized irrigation system (Source: FAO, 1997b)

24 – Module 1
 Module 1: Irrigation development: a multifaceted process

This means that there is increasing competition for the use The overall efficiency, also known as project efficiency (Ep),
of water for agricultural, industrial, domestic and comprises conveyance efficiency (Ec), field canal efficiency
environmental purposes. This calls for more efficient use of (Eb) and field application efficiency (Ea). According to FAO
finite water resources in order to minimize conflict (1992):
between the sectors. This section provides some basic
Y Conveyance efficiency (Ec) is the ratio of the water
information that can be used by planners for the selection
received at the inlet of a block of fields to the water
of an irrigation system based on levels of their efficiencies.
released at the headwork
For more precise information the reader is referred to
literature dealing more specifically with this subject. Y Field canal efficiency (Eb) is the ratio between water
received at the field inlet and that received at the inlet
In the process of applying irrigation water to crops, water of the block of fields
losses occur. These losses have to be taken into account
when calculating the gross irrigation requirements of an Y Field application efficiency (Ea) is the ratio between
irrigation project. This can be done through the use of an water directly available to the crop and that received at
efficiency factor, which has to be estimated at the planning the field inlet
stage. Different types of irrigation systems have different Y Project efficiency (Ep) is the ratio between water made
levels of efficiency. The higher the irrigation efficiency, the directly available to the crop and that released from the
larger the area that can be irrigated from a given finite water headwork, or Ep = Ec x Eb x Ea.
source, and the less the leaching of nutrients and damage to
Conveyance and field canal efficiencies are sometimes
the soil the more environmentally friendly the irrigation
combined and called distribution system efficiency, Ed,
system. The water that is saved can be used for other
where Ed = Ec x Eb. Field canal and field application
productive purposes.
efficiencies are also sometimes combined and called farm
efficiency, Ef, where Ef = Eb x Ea.
Table 2
Conveyance, field canal and field application efficiencies (Adapted from: FAO, 1992)

Irrigation System and Type Of Efficiency USDA US (SCS) ICID/ILRI

Conveyance efficiency (Ec)
- Continuous supply with no substantial change in flow 0.9
- Rotation supply in projects of 3 000-7 000 ha and rotation areas of 70-300 ha, with
effective water management 0.8
- Rotational supply in large schemes (> 10 000 ha) and small schemes (< 1 000 ha) with
respective problematic communication and less effective management:
Based on predetermined schedule 0.7
Based on advance request 0.65
Field canal efficiency (Eb)
- Blocks larger than 20 ha : unlined 0.8
: lined or piped 0.9
- Blocks up to 20 ha : unlined 0.7
: lined or piped 0.8
Field application efficiency (Ea)
- Surface methods
light soils 0.55
medium soils 0.70
heavy soils 0.60
Graded border 0.60-0.70 0.53
Basin and level border 0.60-0.80 0.58
Contour ditch 0.50-0.55
Furrow 0.55-0.70 0.57
Corrugation 0.50-0.70
- Subsurface Up to 0.80
- Sprinkler : hot dry climate 0.60
: moderate climate 0.70 0.67
: humid and cool 0.80
- Rice 0.32

Module 1 – 25
Irrigation manual

The conveyance efficiency is affected by several factors Table 4 shows some typical field application efficiencies of
among which are size of irrigated area, size of rotational well-managed sprinkler irrigation systems. The efficiencies
unit, number and types of crops grown, type of conveyance are based on the type of sprinkler irrigation system as well
system and the technical and managerial facilities for water as the type of climate.
control. The field canal efficiency is affected by the way the
infrastructure is operated, type of soils in respect of seepage Table 5 presents project efficiencies (Ep) that can be used
losses, size of canals and irrigated blocks. Distribution for calculating gross irrigation requirements for localized
system efficiency is particularly influenced by the quality of irrigation systems.
technical and organizational operations. Farm efficiency is
dependent on the operation of the main farm delivery Table 5
system and the irrigation skill of the farmers. Tables 2, 3, 4 Project efficiencies for localized irrigation systems
(Adapted from: Rainbird International, 1980)
and 5 present typical irrigation efficiencies according to the
experiences of four different references. Climate Project efficiency
Ep*
Table 2 shows the conveyance, field canal and field Hot dry 0.85
application efficiencies for different irrigation systems, as Moderate 0.90
proposed by different institutions under different Humid 0.95
conditions of water conveyance and distribution
* Assuming no losses in the distribution system (Ec and Eb = 1)
infrastructure and management.
Each type of irrigation system affects the means used for
Farm irrigation efficiencies of sprinkler irrigation systems water conveyance and distribution. For this, the conveyance
vary under different climates. FAO (1982) proposed the (Ec) and the field canal efficiencies (Eb), and thus the
figures of farm irrigation efficiencies provided in Table 3 on distribution system efficiency (Ed), vary between
the basis of climate. pressurized and non-pressurized systems. It is, however,
Table 3
mainly the field application efficiency (Ea), which varies
Farm irrigation efficiencies for sprinkler irrigation in
considerably from one type of irrigation system to another.
different climates (Adapted from: FAO, 1982) Generally, localized irrigation systems are the most efficient
(Ea is 85-95%), followed by sprinkler irrigation systems (Ea
Climate/Temperature Farm irrigation efficiency
Ef *
is 60-85%) and surface irrigation systems (Ea is 55-80%).
On the basis of this, a localized irrigation system could
Cool 0.80
irrigate 12-42% (95/85 x 100 to 85/60 x 100) more area
Moderate 0.75
than a sprinkler irrigation system and 19-55% (95/80 x
Hot 0.70
100 to 85/55 x 100) more area than the surface irrigation
Desert 0.65
system.
* Assuming no losses in the distribution system (Ec and Eb = 1)

Table 4
Field application efficiencies for well-managed sprinkler irrigation systems (Source: Keller and Bliesner, 1990)

Systems and environmental conditions Field application

efficiency Ea
Moving and set systems with excellent uniformity in cool or humid climates and low winds 0.85
Typical efficiency for moving systems in most climates and winds; and set systems with medium to
high application rates and good uniformity in most climates and low winds 0.80
Typical efficiency used for average set systems in most climates and winds; and for moving systems
in desert climates and high winds 0.75
Set systems with high application rate in the desert climates with high winds or low application rates
in other climates with high winds; travellers 0.70
Set systems with moderately low application rates in desert climates and high winds or low
application rates in high desert climates and high winds 0.65
Set systems with low application rates with small drops operating in low desert climates and medium
to high winds; and gun or boom sprinklers 0.60
Key for set systems:
1) Low application rate : 2.5-5.0 mm/hr
2) Medium application rates : 5.0-10 mm/hr
3) High application rates : over 10 mm/hr

26 – Module 1
 Module 1: Irrigation development: a multifaceted process

In discussing the sprinkler field application efficiencies 4. Capital and labour

(Ea), there is generally good agreement in the data 5. Energy
published by different sources. Therefore the designer can
use any of the sources, depending on which one describes 6. Social aspects and policies
local conditions best. There are, however, differences 7. Socio-economic aspects
among application efficiency values provided by different
sources, especially for the surface irrigation systems. This is 8. Health aspects
attributed to the different climatic, soils and management 9. Environmental aspects
conditions prevailing in the different countries. It also
makes the availability of local data very important. An analysis, based on the above factors, should be carried
out and promising alternative systems should be designed
Looking at the overall project efficiency (Ep) and assuming (feasibility study). After that, an economic and financial
an Ec of 0.9 for lined canal and continuous flow and an Eb analysis should be undertaken in order to determine the
of 0.8 for lined canals, the Ep for surface irrigation systems most economically and financially viable alternative for
would be between 0.40 (0.9 x 0.8 x 0.55) and 0.58 (0.9 x adoption. The economic and financial analysis is covered in
0.8 x 0.8). The Ep for pressurized systems, assuming an Ec Module 11.
and Eb of 1, would be between 0.60 (1 x 1 x 0.6) and 0.85
(1 x 1 x 0.85) for sprinkler irrigation systems and between 3.3.1. Water
0.85 (1 x 1 x 0.85) and 0.95 (1 x 1 x 0.95) for localized
irrigation systems. This simple calculation shows that under A number of critical questions related to water need to be
localized irrigation the irrigated area can be doubled as addressed to facilitate irrigation system selection:
compared to surface irrigation. The increase in area for 1) What is the cost of delivering the water at the needed
sprinkler irrigation can be over 50%. flows from the source to the farm and what irrigation
system would go well with that cost?
The efficiency of an irrigation system is dependent on the
level of management during operation as well as on the level 2) Is the flow large enough for surface irrigation? If not, is
of built-in management in the system. In general, sprinkler there a need to adopt a more efficient irrigation system
and localized irrigation systems have better built-in or would it be desirable to reduce the area planned for
management than surface irrigation systems. Therefore, they surface irrigation?
can apply water for pre-determined duration, thereby 3) Is the flow available at the needed quantity throughout
achieving high irrigation efficiencies. This is especially the the growing season and if not how does that affect the
case for automated irrigation systems, but also applies to choice of the irrigation system?
simple types of sprinkler irrigation systems, such as the semi-
portable and portable systems, so long as the farmer knows 4) Would the salinity of the water affect the choice of
the duration of irrigation. Under surface irrigation it is often irrigation system?
difficult to apply water with the same degree of precision as 5) Would the sediment content of the water affect the
in the localized and sprinkler irrigation systems. choice of irrigation system?
Consequently, the systems are less efficient. However, their
efficiencies can be greatly improved if fields are regularly well Sources of water
graded, the system operator applies correct flows and if built-
in management is enhanced through system automation. The source of irrigation water can be surface water,
groundwater or non-conventional water (desalinated water,
treated wastewater, etc.). The first two types of sources of
3.3. Parameters affecting the selection of
water are the most commonly used worldwide.
an irrigation system
With the different types of irrigation at the disposal of the Surface water consists of river flows and water from dams,
irrigation engineer and the client, the next stage is to choose ponds and lakes, as well as recharge from groundwater.
which system to adopt. The choice is affected by a number River flow results from run-off and river base flow, the
of considerations, all of which need to be taken into account latter being supplied by groundwater. River flow can be a
as part of the decision-making process. These are: good source of clean water, although it may carry all sorts
of sediment, depending on the flow regime in the river and
1. Water the condition of the catchment area. It is important to
2. Soils and topography regularly measure river flow in order to establish the flow in
relation to the season and the irrigation requirements.
3. Climate and crop

Module 1 – 27
Irrigation manual

River gauging stations are established for these purposes. irrigated using this water. The use of treated wastewater is
The stations usually have enough years of data to reliably gaining popularity among southern African countries with
predict the quantities of water that can be abstracted for Namibia already using it and Botswana and Zimbabwe
irrigation purposes. In cases where there are no data, flow following suit. The increasing costs of freshwater resources
measurements would have to be carried out in order to development and/or the unavailability of freshwater
establish the amount of water that can be abstracted for resources made this alternative attractive. In view of the
irrigation from the river. Dams, lakes and ponds store water high cost of desalinization, so far this water is mostly used
for use during times of water shortage. This is often the case for domestic and industrial purposes.
where there is seasonal river flow. Proper reservoir
management studies would facilitate the development of The distance and elevation differences between the water
irrigation to the extent that the source of water can meet source and the field have a significant influence on the
the demand. Groundwater is water that is stored in choice of irrigation system. The distance affects the cost of
aquifers, which are recharged by rainfall, river flow, lakes water, which means that water has to be utilized efficiently.
and dams. As a rule, this type of water has higher As such, more water-efficient irrigation systems would have
concentrations of dissolved solids than surface water, to be adopted. The elevation difference between the source
because the recharged water dissolves and carries minerals of water and the field will dictate whether the water can be
to the groundwater table. The interrelationship between delivered under pressure. If, for example, the pressure is
groundwater and surface water is shown in Figure 18. adequate for a pressurized system without the need for
pumping, this may dictate the selection of a pressurized
Non-conventional sources of water are used where system ahead of a surface irrigation system. An example of
irrigation water is not readily available in the quantities such a case is a situation where water naturally falls from a
required and for the efficient protection of the high enough position to run sprinklers at the correct
environment. It comprises industrial and municipal sprinkler operating pressure. If pumping is unavoidable, a
wastewater, as well as desalinated seawater. Treated similar decision may be arrived at, if by adopting a less
wastewater is used to irrigate plants that can tolerate the efficient irrigation system, the benefits would not outweigh
levels of salinity in irrigation water. Lawns and grass can be the pumping costs.

Figure 18
The inter-relationship between surface water and groundwater (Source: FAO, 1995)

Level of lake or wetland

determined by groundwater
Large irrigated areas in
level. Area serves as a
plains vulnerable to rising
buffer against floods and to
groundwater levels as the
recharge aquifers
water table has a low
hydraulic gradient

Deep well Area of high rainfall

+ recharge

Wells vulnerable
to saline intrusion
if water table falls

Spring
River seepage
recharges Sea
groundwater
River base flow
supplied by Wells control water table
groundwater but may recirculate
Key progressively more saline
Water table water. Over pumping may
cause saline intrusion
Direction of groundwater flow

28 – Module 1
 Module 1: Irrigation development: a multifaceted process

Water quantity moisture (field capacity minus permanent wilting point)

The available discharge from the source and the timing are and the infiltration rate of the soils. The available soil
very important. Small discharges would suit an irrigation moisture affects the frequency of irrigation and therefore
system that incorporates frequent applications with small the irrigation method to adopt. The infiltration rate affects
quantities of water. Large discharges would suit systems that the length of run and size of borders, furrows and basins as
require irrigation with higher quantities of water. The well as the application rates from sprinkler and localized
seasonality of water supply also influences the choice of the irrigation systems. Generally, coarse textured soils have high
irrigation system. For example, seasonal limited water intake rates and low soil moisture storage capacities. They
supplies may dictate the adoption of the most efficient therefore impose shorter lengths of run on surface
systems in order to maintain a desirable cropping pattern irrigation systems (implying more canals and higher costs),
for a set area. Distribution systems, based on rotational but they can accommodate high water application rates.
delivery, provide large intermittent flows, thus favouring the They also require more frequent water applications. Hence,
selection of surface irrigation, where large irrigation depths light soils favour the adoption of sprinkler or localized
are normally applied, rather than sprinkler or localized irrigation. The reverse is true for heavier textured soils.
irrigation systems. When the water supply is from Textural characteristics may also influence the traction
underground resources, the optimum well yield will be a ability of heavy irrigation systems such as centre pivot
deciding element not only for the size of the scheme, but sprinkler irrigation systems.
also as to whether this flow can directly satisfy the required
flows for surface irrigation. Additional cost for on-farm Soil depth and profile
storage reservoirs also influences the choice of the Soil depth and profile influence the water storage capacity of
irrigation system. the soils and therefore the irrigation frequency. Deep,
uniform medium soils of good structure permit high storage
Water quality of water to sustain plants for long periods between
Both the chemical compositions of the water and the irrigations. However, a lot of shallow soils, often with a depth
sediment load can influence the choice of irrigation of no more than 30 cm, are being developed for irrigation in
method. The presence of certain elements, like sodium the region. At times, such soils may be of light texture
(Na), Chlorine (Cl) and Boron (B), beyond a certain level, obliging very frequent irrigation. While the first type of soils
can cause leafburn and defoliation under sprinkler can be irrigated either with surface or sprinkler or localized
irrigation. Similarly, the total concentration of salts in the irrigation systems, the use of surface irrigation on shallow
water affects the leaching requirements. Hence furrow light soils can cause serious surface runoff and drainage
irrigation for certain crops may not be the ideal system problems. Stratification of soils can have substantial influence
under these circumstances. Generally, poor quality water on the water movement through the soils as well as on the
should be utilized more frequently and in larger amounts water storage capacity of the soils, hence its effect on design
than good quality water. This affects the choice of the parameters and costs of the system.
irrigation system. The sediment load of the water
determines the filtration requirements of a drip irrigation Drainage and soil salinity
system and the selection of the appropriate dripper, hence Drainage of irrigated soils, whether natural or by provision
its applicability under certain conditions. Similarly, of the needed facilities, is an essential complement to
sediments increase the wear of pumps and other irrigation. Drainage, in combination with adequate
components of sprinkler irrigation systems. It is always irrigation scheduling, allows for the leaching of excess salts
advisable to carry out water quality tests before a decision and water from the plant root zone in order to maintain the
is made to adopt the one system or another. right soil nutrients and water balance. Surface and
subsurface characteristics of the soil will affect the ability of
3.3.2. Soil and topography a soil to drain excess water away. Better-draining soils will
A number of soil factors affect farm irrigation system suit irrigation systems that have a lot of drainage water, such
selection. These are soil texture and structure, soil depths as surface irrigation systems. The reverse is true for poorly
and profiles, drainage and soil salinity. drained soils. Such soils would require systems with less
drainage water, for example localized irrigation systems.
Within this context, irrigation systems that can provide a
Soil texture and structure
built-in mechanism for controlled water management can
Soil texture and structure affect the selection of the farm significantly reduce the drainage requirements and
irrigation system through their effect on the available soil therefore affect the project cost as a whole.

Module 1 – 29
Irrigation manual

Soil salinity is another consideration in selecting the seeds requires very frequent and light water applications. In
appropriate irrigation system. Soils with salinity problems this case, sprinkler or localized irrigation may be suitable,
require leaching which, depending on the salinity level, especially if the soils are light. The fruit quality of a number
would be required before and/or during cropping. Certain of crops, such as tomatoes and cucumbers, is negatively
systems, such as furrow systems, do not provide for the affected when the fruits rest on wet soils. In this case,
basic requirements of uniform leaching and may even furrow and drip irrigation are preferable to sprinkler and
promote the concentration of salts within the most active basin or borderstrip irrigation.
part of the root zone depth.
Ponding of water promotes diseases at the neck of trees
such as citrus. In this case, systems applying water away
Topography
from the tree trunk, such as drip and furrow irrigation are
Topography is one of the most important elements that preferable.
affect the irrigation system selection process. Of particular
importance are the location and elevation of the water Under warm and/or desert climates cooling may be
source relative to the field, land slopes and uniformity. Land required for certain crops, especially in some stages of their
slopes may limit the selection of surface irrigation systems growth. In this case a sprinkler irrigation system may be the
as it affects the length of run and the labour required for the best alternative. By the same token, in certain climates
operation of the system. Generally, surface irrigation where frost is a problem, the sprinkler irrigation system, if
systems require uniform field slopes within the 0-5% so designed, may be used for frost protection of part or all
range. Steep lands are not favourable for surface irrigation. of the area under irrigation.
This is because a lot of land levelling, at a high cost and the Some crops are sensitive to the way water is applied to
possibility of removing fertile topsoil, will have to be done. them. Systems which wet the whole crop, as does sprinkler
If fertile soils are removed, higher fertilizer quantities will irrigation, may introduce undesirable consequences such as
have to be applied to the crop, at a higher cost. Sprinkler leaf burn, fruit spotting and deformation, crown rot etc.
and localized irrigation systems can cope with much steeper These considerations would influence the choice of the
lands than surface irrigation systems. Micro-relief will affect irrigation method for such crops.
the land grading requirements for surface irrigation.
Shallow sloping lands would favour systems that require
3.3.4. Capital and labour
limited or no land grading.
The availability and cost of capital and labour for the
3.3.3. Climate and crop irrigation development and for the operation of the
irrigation system are also major elements that influence the
The cropping pattern for a project should be such that the selection of the irrigation system. In general, the costs of
selected crops can be successfully grown under the irrigation systems increase with the level of sophistication of
prevailing climate and soil conditions. Furthermore, these water control means and the provision of components
crops should be marketable at economic prices. It is reducing the labour requirements. However, the cost of the
therefore necessary that cultivating practices for these crops drainage system increases as the water control means of the
should be well understood and the planned irrigation irrigation system decrease. When there is a shortage of
system should be compatible with these practices as well as labour or the available labour is relatively unskilled or
with the physical constraints prevailing at the farm. expensive, systems that have low labour requirements are
Paddy rice, for example, requires partial submergence of usually selected.
the rice plants for most of the growing period. Therefore,
surface irrigation using basins, either flat level or extremely 3.3.5. Energy
well graded, would be required for this purpose. The energy requirement of the different alternatives under
As a rule, most vegetable crops have a shallow effective root consideration is another important criterion in the
zone depth and respond better to low moisture depletion irrigation system selection process. Studies carried out in
levels. Consequently, irrigation systems that can provide Washington State (USA) on the energy requirements of the
small amounts of water at short intervals are preferred. In different systems, including the energy required for the
this respect it should be pointed out that through the manufacturing, transport and installation of the various
introduction of localized irrigation to these crops farmers irrigation systems, have shown that these requirements
in several countries of the Near East and Africa have increase in the following order: surface, drip, sprinkler.
reported yield increases of up to 100%. Germination of Nevertheless, it should be born in mind that surface

30 – Module 1
 Module 1: Irrigation development: a multifaceted process

irrigation generally requires more water because of lower have a considerable influence upon the irrigation method to
irrigation efficiencies, and thus may require more energy if be adopted. This can be achieved through participatory
it is necessary to pump the water (see Module 5). From approaches to irrigation development, where the final user
both an economic and environmental point of view, design of the system is involved in all planning processes through
options that utilize the minimum possible energy to implementation (see Chapter 1).
requirements are preferable.
Women
3.3.6. Social aspects and policies
Experience shows that in many countries women
contribute up to 70% of the labour required at smallholder
Historical tendencies
irrigation projects. At the same time they are not adequately
In developing countries, where resettlement of people represented at irrigation planning meetings. Instead, men
from a dryland farming background to irrigated land is attend these meetings in large numbers and make decisions
practiced, the usual dilemma of choosing the appropriate on behalf of women. An irrigation method that requires a
irrigation method for people without past experience lot of labour will only serve to worsen the burden of the
often emerges. Not infrequently is the decision in favour smallholder woman. Therefore, the process of choosing an
of surface irrigation with the justification of simplicity of irrigation system should ensure that women participate as
operation and maintenance by unskilled people. fully as possible and, if needs be, the system should avoid
Unfortunately, this decision, usually biased because of past being too labour intensive. In this respect, training and
historical reasons, does not take into consideration the exposure of both men and women to different technologies
basic element of water management. Surface irrigation during participatory planning will facilitate more active
does not have a built-in mechanism for water participation of women. In some cases focus group
management. Using their own judgement, the irrigator discussions are advisable.
will apply what they consider the right depth of irrigation
water. It must be remembered that, as a rule, in dryland Institutional influences and policies
farming better yields are obtained during the years of
better rains. Hence, the psychology of the farmer is that Conditions outside the immediate sphere of irrigation, and
the more water applied to the crops the greater the yields for that matter agriculture, may influence the type of
should be. It is therefore of paramount importance to irrigation system adopted. Such conditions are very
either use, to some extent, systems with built-in water complex and difficult to quantify. Land tenure issues, water
management elements or to train the farmers in the water rights, financial incentives by government, taxation and
management aspects of surface irrigation. For people other regulatory and legal issues are some of the important
without past experience, irrigation is a very difficult task conditions that should be understood right from the start of
that may result in very low application efficiencies, the selection process. If, for instance, certain irrigation
drainage problems and waterlogging. system components are not readily available in the country
or region and require substantial foreign currency to
In Zimbabwe, the Nyanyadzi and Exchange irrigation import, such irrigation technologies may not be adopted
schemes are cases in point. Very low irrigation efficiencies, easily where foreign currency is in short supply. At the same
and waterlogging problems in the latter, arose through poor time, many irrigation systems are financed by outside
water management and inadequate maintenance. donors and lenders. This may result in specific irrigation
Therefore, the need for skilled people to operate and technologies being precluded or preferred at the expense of
maintain surface irrigation systems cannot be all other criteria, because of the policies and attitudes of the
overemphasized. More recently, water scarcity, donors.
environmental considerations and the increasingly high cost
of water development have led to the need for better water Irrigation development is usually part of the national policy
management at farm level, the use of more efficient on development, which may also influence the type of
irrigation systems and the tendency to use treated irrigation system to adopt. As an example, governmental
wastewater for irrigation. policies in some countries may encourage more
employment in agriculture in order to reduce the
unemployment problems. This may lead to reluctance to
Farmer or farmer group preferences
adopt labour-saving irrigation technologies. On the other
Irrigation can be an individual or a community enterprise. hand, where availability and reliability of labour are limited,
The irrigation system to be designed should lend itself to systems that can reduce the labour requirements may be
the preferences of the user(s). Therefore, the user should advised.

Module 1 – 31
Irrigation manual

Institutional aspects are especially important in developing In many parts of Eastern and Southern Africa two
countries, as the size of the land holding may limit the choice waterborne diseases are cause for concern: malaria and
of different types of irrigation systems. A very small parcel of bilharzia. It is therefore necessary to avoid or modify systems
land, where a number of crops are grown at the same time, that promote these diseases. In this respect, surface irrigation
would be difficult to irrigate using a sprinkler irrigation with unlined canals provides ideal breeding grounds for snails
system. A surface irrigation system or localized irrigation that carry the bilharzia parasites. Through the introduction
system may be more appropriate instead. of concrete-lined, free-draining canals the risk from these
diseases can be substantially reduced. The adoption of
The durability of the equipment may be another important pressurized irrigation systems, such as sprinkler and localized
consideration, especially for small farmers with limited irrigation, reduces the risks further. This is because no
financial resources, or who are situated in areas remote drainage system is required and water is pumped from well
from major centres. below the water surface, where the bilharzia parasite is not
common. However, when going into the water themselves
3.3.7. Socio-economic aspects people are exposed to the disease. The trend of treated
Experience shows that under smallholder conditions, up to wastewater reuse for irrigation adds another dimension to
80% of irrigation development cost is the cost of water the selection of an irrigation system in view of the additional
resources development, such as the construction of a small hazards from the diseases such as parasitic worms, typhoid,
to medium size dam. These costs have been increasing cholera and salmonella. Health issues are dealt with more in
substantially since the best sites for dam construction have detail in Chapter 4.
already been developed. Consequently, the cost per m3 of
water is growing. In parallel to this development, the 3.3.9. Environmental aspects
population pressure on land is growing to the extent that The environmental impact of different irrigation systems has
marginal lands are being put to cultivation, resulting in land to be taken into consideration when selecting an irrigation
degradation and dam siltation, making the cost of irrigation system. What should happen with the drainage water?
water even higher. Should it be disposed of in a nearby land depression, causing
One of the arguments for the necessity of irrigation ideal conditions for mosquito breeding and thus malaria for
development is to transform the subsistence farmer into a the people of the project? Should it be discharged into the
commercial farmer, moving into the mainstream of the same stream from where it was originally extracted, thus
economy of developing countries, hence the need to increasing the salinity and chemical pollution downstream?
accommodate as many smallholders as possible in irrigation Or should alternative systems with built-in water
development. In this respect it should be noted that in management and thus minimum drainage effluent be
Zimbabwe most successful smallholder irrigation schemes adopted? How would the one or the other choice affect
have long waiting lists of individuals who would like to enter fishing in the river on the short and long run?
the scheme when an existing member is no longer These are some questions, that emerge if one is to avoid
interested in irrigation and leaves. negative environmental and health impacts of irrigation
Looking at both the high cost per unit volume of water and development and ensure long term benefits and
the need to satisfy the high demand for irrigation, systems sustainability of irrigation. In order to predict
with higher efficiencies proved to be the tool for addressing environmental impacts of irrigation development, an
this matter, both in terms of economics as well as in terms Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) should be carried
of social and political desirability. As such, they deserve out prior to the establishment of a project and be used as
serious consideration in the process of selecting an one of the criteria to approve the implementation of the
irrigation system. project and to select the irrigation system.
When planning irrigation projects, one should always keep
3.3.8. Health aspects in mind the importance of biodiversity. The ecosystem is a
Often the issue of health risks related to one or another self-contained and balanced system of inter-dependent
irrigation system is overlooked and the most sensitive part living organisms and their physical development. A change,
of the population (women and children) is negatively necessitated by infrastructure development, will
affected. Since rural women are the major users of unavoidably have consequences on the living organisms and
irrigation infrastructure, the sensitivity of the different their diversity. This is what the EIA seeks to establish and
technologies to health aspects should be analyzed and taken minimize. More detailed information on EIA can be found
into consideration during the decision-making process. in FAO (1995).

32 – Module 1
 Module 1: Irrigation development: a multifaceted process

Within a river catchment, there are upstream and Looking at Table 6, presenting a potential efficiency for
downstream water users. There are habitats alongside the surface irrigation of 60% combined with low capital cost
river where a diversity of species derive their livelihood. is misleading. In Southern Africa, the cost of surface
River basin planning is important in order to minimize irrigation systems for smallholders is 20-40% higher than
within one catchment the negative impact of one project the drag-hose sprinkler irrigation systems, because of
on another and on living organisms. Good planning and concrete lined canals and land grading in the case of
environmental management will protect the environment. surface irrigation. Regarding the overall efficiency, even
As an example, Figure 19 shows some of the effects of with lined conveyance and field canals, it generally does
reduced water quality within a river system. Environmental not exceed 50%.
issues are dealt with more in detail in Chapter 4.
Looking at the labour requirements of surface and sprinkler
irrigation systems, they appear to be almost identical.
3.4. Methodologies used in the selection Experience in Zimbabwe, however, has shown that it takes
of an irrigation system six hours to irrigate one hectare under borderstrip
A number of criteria are used in selecting irrigation irrigation while the same area under drag-hose sprinkler
systems. Some of the most common (as explained in the irrigation would only take one hour at peak water demand.
previous sections) include: the efficiency of the system, the Again, today there are various types of sprinkler irrigation
capital investment required, the suitability to different systems to suit different soil and labour conditions.
crops and different soils, the labour requirements, and the
Referring to Table 7, one gets the impression that the
operation and maintenance cost. Field and Collier
design and construction of surface irrigation schemes is
(undated) provide two classes of factors: technical factors
simple. This is contrary to what practice has demonstrated.
and scheme development factors. Tables 6 and 7 present
To establish the length of run and the appropriate stream
their selection criteria.
flow, bearing in mind that most soils are not uniform
Unfortunately, these criteria are based on the infield horizontally or vertically, requires experience because of the
irrigation method and do not consider irrigation systems unknown factors. Constructing lined canals and carrying
where conveyance and distribution of water through out land levelling are equally complex and precise
various means is included. Moreover, Table 6, while processes.
differentiating between different types of surface irrigation,
The design of sprinkler irrigation systems is rather straight
lumps together all types of sprinkler irrigation systems,
forward, based on well-established engineering processes,
hence the classification of high energy demand. Today, there
and their construction in most cases amounts to trenching
are sprinklers operating at 10-15 metres (1-1.5 bar) at the
and pipe fitting.
nozzle outlet, very close to drippers’ energy requirements.

Table 6
Technical factors affecting the selection of irrigation method (Source: Field and Collier, undated)

Irrigation Crops Soils Labour Energy Potential Capital

method (hrs/ha irrigated) demand efficiency (%) cost
Surface: 60 Low
- basin All crops Clay, loam 0.5-1.5 Low
- border All crops except rice Clay, loam 1.0-3.0 Low
- furrow All crops except rice and Clay, loam 2.0-4.0 Low
sown/drilled
Sprinkle All crops except rice Loam, sand 1.5-3.0 High 75 Medium
Trickle Row crops, orchards All soils 0.2-0.5 Medium 90 High

Table 7
Scheme development factors affecting the selection of irrigation method (Source: Field and Collier, undated)

Irrigation method Design Construction Operation Maintenance

Surface Simple Simple Complex Simple
Sprinkle Complex Complex Simple Complex
Trickle Complex Complex Simple Complex

Module 1 – 33
Irrigation manual

Figure 19
Causes and impacts of reduced water quality in a river system (Source: FAO, 1995)

Natural regime with

high biodiversity
Upper catchment degradation
results in erosion causing
downstream sedimentation
Healthy wetlands
problems

Dams and weirs alter downstream

Industrial and municipal
flow patterns. They may suffer
pollutants threaten
from sedimentation
downstream users

Flood plains and wetlands no

longer flooded, reducing
groundwater recharging the
productivity of agriculture in the
area and biodiversity. Reduced
productivity displaces people

Irrigated agriculture
consumes water. The
return (drainage) flow is
more saline than the
inflow and contaminated
with agro-chemicals

Ecology increasingly less

diverse as flow is reduced
and quality falls. Natural
productivity reduced

Treatment costs rise with

worsening water quality

Coastal fisheries are threatened by

reduced water quality and
insufficient flows. Species change
with increased estuarine salinity

34 – Module 1
 Module 1: Irrigation development: a multifaceted process

Keller and Bliesner (1990) provide a summary of the major can be maintained at the farm level. However, advanced
institutional factors affecting the selection of different skills are required. Shop indicates the need for local
irrigation system types, for use in developing countries merchant with limited facilities for repairs. Agency
(Table 8). indicates facilities with specialized equipment and skills to
keep the irrigation equipment in operation, including
Divisibility refers to the suitability of the technology to engine-driven pumps.
smallholdings, which are common in developing countries.
The category of Total divisibility refers to the technology Risk is a category addressing the issue of potential crop
that can fit economically to any size of land. Partial failure because of breakdowns in the system. The low risk
divisibility refers to the technologies that can be adapted to category is used for systems not vulnerable to breakdown at
smallholdings with difficulty or at high cost. The last farm level. The medium level risk is used for pressurized
category, No divisibility, refers to technologies that are not systems that can still operate even if some parts of the
adaptable to smallholdings. equipment at farm level can malfunction. The high risk
level refers to systems requiring a high degree of filtration
Maintained by is a category that gives a measure of the and to systems vulnerable to breakdowns at farm level. A
physical sustainability of the system. It indicates who can breakdown in a critical stage of the crop development needs
operate and maintain the system. Farmer is used for easily to be addressed immediately. Time-consuming repairs may
maintained equipment. Grower is used for equipment that cause the complete failure of a crop.
Table 8
Factors affecting the selection of modern irrigation systems for use in developing countries (Source: Keller and
Bliesner, 1990)

Method & Divisibility Maintained by Risk Management and O&M Ruggedness

Type Skill Effort
Surface: canal feed
Basin Total (1) Grower Low Master 5 Lasting
Border Total (1) Farmer Low Master 6 Lasting
Furrow Total (1) Farmer Low Medium 10 Lasting
Surface: pump/pipe feed
Basin-Level Partial (1) Shop Medium Master 3 Robust
Border Partial Shop Medium Master 3 Robust
Furrow Partial (1) Shop Medium Master 6 Robust
Sprinkler
Hand-move Total Shop Medium Simple 9 Durable
End-tow Partial Shop Medium Medium 5 Durable
Side-roll Partial Shop High Medium 6 Durable
Side-move No Agency High Master 5 Fragile
Hose-fed/pull Total (1) Farmer Medium Simple 10/7 Durable
Travelling gun Partial Agency High Master 4 Sturdy
Centre pivot No Agency High Complex 1 Sturdy
Linear-move No Agency High Complex 2 Sturdy
Sprinkler solid set
Portable Total (1) Shop Medium Medium 5 Durable
Permanent Total (1) Farmer Medium Medium 1 Durable
Localized point-source
Drip Total (1) Grower High Complex 2 Fragile
Spray Total (1) Grower Medium Complex 2 Durable
Bubbler Total (1) Grower Low Complex 4 Robust
Hose-basin Total (1) Farmer Low Simple 10 Robust
Localized line-source
Reusable Total (1) Grower High Complex 5 Fragile
Disposable Total (1) Grower High Complex 3 Fragile
(1) well-adapted for irregular shape fields

Module 1 – 35
Irrigation manual

Management, Operation and Maintenance (O&M) properly. Effort refers to the time required to manage,
of on-farm irrigation systems require skill and effort related operate and maintain the system. It is given in hours per
to the type of system. Under Skill reference is made to the hectare per month.
complexity of management required in order to achieve
reasonable application efficiencies. The nature of the skills, The last category, Ruggedness, indicates the durability of
the level of support for services, and spare parts to keep the the distribution and on-farm equipment. Lasting is used
system in good working order fall also in this category. for surface irrigation systems that are canal-fed. As a rule,
Simple indicates elementary skills. Medium indicates these systems do not break down. Robust systems are
considerable skill for the proper operation and those with few mechanical or intricate parts. They also do
management of the system. Master refers to considerable not break down as a rule. Durable indicates systems that
practical field experience to manage the flows and achieve require some spare parts and service facilities, but seldom
the expected efficiencies. Complex implies sophisticated break down. They also do not require very careful
technical skills to operate and service the equipment handling. Sturdy is used for systems that require careful

Table 9
Additional factors affecting the selection of irrigation systems for developing countries

System and Soils Crops Potential Labour Energy Capital Design and Operation Maintenance
type efficiency1 demand demand cost construction
(hrs/ha
irrigated)
Surface: Clay,
loam
* Gravity supplied
- unlined canals 30% 6 Low Low Moderately Complex Simple but
complex labour intensive
Basin All
Border All except rice
Furrow All except
closely-spaced
crops
- lined canals 45% 6 Low High Complex Complex Simple,
moderately
labour intensive
Basin All
Border All except rice
Furrow All except
closely-spaced
crops
* Pump supplied

- lined canals 45% 6 High High Complex Complex Moderately

complex,
moderately
labour intensive
Basin All
Border All except rice
Furrow All except
closely-spaced
crops
Sprinkler: Most
* Semi-portable All except rice 75% 3-4 High Moderately Relatively Simple Moderately
and drag-hose high simple complex
* Centre pivot and All except rice 90% 0.5 Medium Medium Complex Simple Complex
lateral move
Localized: All
* Drip, spray, All except 90% 0.5 Medium High Moderately Simple Moderately
micro-sprinkler closely-spaced complex complex
crops (under
drip)

1 Refers to the overall or project efficiency, which includes conveyance, field canal and application efficiencies

36 – Module 1
 Module 1: Irrigation development: a multifaceted process

handling and maintenance to continue functioning, such as Having gone through all the criteria, one has to rank each
irrigation machines. Fragile systems, like drip, require promising system against the various parameters discussed
proper handling and considerable spare parts, as they have in order to prioritize options for screening, the preparation
delicate components. of detailed designs and cost estimates. The relative
importance of each parameter in deciding which system to
While this is a more detailed methodology, still it does not adopt varies from case to case.
incorporate the areas of capital cost, energy requirements,
etc. Table 9, based on experience in the Middle East and Economic considerations will play an important role in the
Africa, provides additional information to complement the final system selection. Some of the data required to carry
criteria of Table 8. out a financial and economic analysis of the pre-selected
options include interest rates, labour cost, land rents, water
3.5. Conclusion cost, energy costs, as well as crop production costs of each
of the irrigated crops. The other data required include the
The selection of on-farm irrigation systems is a complex capital costs of the irrigation infrastructure, the life and
process whereby technical, socio-economic, environmental costs of different irrigation system components, and the
and health elements are involved. The analysis of all facts labour and energy required for the maintenance of each
related to these elements is a necessary process through system under consideration.
which a viable solution can be found on a case by case basis.

Module 1 – 37
 Chapter 4
Health and environmental aspects of irrigation development

Irrigation water may carry pathogens of communicable environmental impact assessment (EIA) is the planning tool
diseases for human beings. It can also provide the right used to assess the potential effect of a project on the
environment for the breeding and propagation of their ecology of an area. It provides planners and decision-
vectors. The creation of open water bodies and irrigation makers with vital information about the effects of planned
and drainage infrastructure can lead to the introduction of projects. Irrigation projects modify river hydrology, water
disease vectors in areas where they did not exist before, or and air quality, soil properties and salinity, erosion and
encourage a rapid increase in their original densities. The sedimentation and the entire ecology within and around the
high human population densities associated with these project locality (see Section 4.4).
projects create an environment conducive to the
proliferation of communicable diseases. Indeed, irrigation 4.1. Types of diseases related to water
may also introduce disease agents through human and ways of transmission
migration. Water-related diseases may be avoided or
reduced by good engineering practices and appropriate Table 10 presents a list of water-related diseases and a brief
environmental management. It is therefore important for description of their categories. The classification of the
planners to have a sound understanding of disease vectors, diseases is based on conditions that prevail in most
their habitats and behaviour, as this is of relevance to their developing countries where such diseases are common. The
control. conditions are:

Environmental management of water-related diseases is Y insufficient domestic water supplies, sanitation and
aimed at reducing the human-vector contact through sound solid waste disposal services
environment control measures, such as proper location of Y inadequate housing and lack of hygienic conditions
villages, provision of safe drinking water and toilets. It is
also equally important during irrigation scheme planning to Y general lack of good health due to poor economic
focus on ecological changes that come about because of the circumstances
project. Apart from changing land use patterns around the Y increase in the number of vector habitats resulting
project, an irrigation project also has an effect on the from development of water resource projects such as
biodiversity of the catchment in which it is located. An irrigation schemes

Table 10
Environmental classification of water-related infections (Adapted from: ILRI, 1994)

Category Some of the infections/diseases Mode of transmission

1) Faecal-oral (water-borne * Diarrhoeas and dysenteries (amoebic Through contaminated drinking water
or water-washed) dysentery, cholera)
* Fevers (typhoid)
* Hepatitis A
2) Water-washed (skin and * Skin sepsis Through poor personal hygiene and
eye infections; other) contact with contaminated water
3) Water-based (penetrating * Schistosomiasis (bilharzia) Through an aquatic invertebrate
skin; ingested) * Guinea worm organism (snail)
4) Water-related insect vector * Malaria By insects that depend on water for
(biting near water; * Lymphatic filariasis (elephantiasis) their propagation
breeding in water) * Onchocerciasis (river blindness)
* Japanese encephalitis (brain fever)
5) Infections * Ascariasis (roundworm) Through inadequate/infective
* Anchylostomiasis (hookworm) sanitation

Module 1 – 39
Irrigation manual

According to ILRI (1994) about 200 million people in the week at temperatures between 30°C and 32°C and two
tropics are infected by bilharzia. According to FAO (1999) weeks at temperatures between 20°C and 25°C. It has to be
the same number of people are infected with malaria and remembered that malaria is responsible for high morbidity
between 1 and 2 million people die of the disease annually. and mortality in tropical and sub-tropical countries of the
Most cases of these diseases occur in Africa. In order of world.
decreasing importance globally, the water-related vector-
borne diseases shown in Table 10 (category 3 and 4) are 4.1.2. Bilharzia
listed as follows:
Human beings are infected with bilharzia when they make
Y Malaria contact with water that has been contaminated by infected
Y Schistosomiasis, also known as bilharzia aquatic and semi-aquatic snails. These snails are used as
intermediate hosts in the life cycle of the schistosoma, the
Y Japanese encephalitis, also known as brain fever parasite causing bilharzia. The interruption of the life cycle
Y Lymphatic filariasis, also known as elephantiasis can be used as a way of controlling the schistosoma and
hence the disease. Some of the characteristics of snails,
Y Onchocerciasis, also known as river blindness
which can be used as key control pointers in irrigation
Some of these diseases are, of course, locally more engineering design for vector control, are the following:
predominant. Brain fever occurs in epidemic outbreaks a) Semi-aquatic snails, such as oncomelania, may survive in
with high mortality rates among children. It is most drying water bodies even where water is present for only
common in irrigated rice production in South, Southeast three months of the year. They are adapted to ditches,
and East Asia. Elephantiasis is mainly an urban disease but irrigation canals, drains, marshes and rice fields.
is also linked to irrigated lands in Central Africa and weed-
infested reservoirs as well as latrines in South and Southeast b) Snails prefer dense vegetation, which protects them
Asia. River blindness is a common disease in West and from direct sunlight and water currents, and moderately
Central Africa as well as Central America. polluted water with faeces or organic material.
c) Snails can tolerate a wide range of pH, from 5-10.
This chapter will not go into details about all the diseases
described above. It will deal with only two major diseases, d) Snails do not tolerate:
malaria and bilharzia, in more detail since they are very – water velocities of about 0.6 m/s or more for flows
common to irrigation schemes, are globally the major of 1 to 50m3/sec (Table 11)
diseases and are of major concern to Africa. Knowledge of
– turbulent waves
the favourable conditions for the hosts of the two categories
– depths greater than 1.5 m
of diseases helps in considering the engineering and
environmental measures necessary to take into account in
scheme design and operation. The measures are 4.2. Disease preventive measures
categorized under disease preventive measures, which relate Surface irrigation projects may pose more disease-related
to design considerations, and disease post-construction problems than sprinkler irrigation systems. This is due to the
control measures, which relate to environmental fact that the infrastructure of surface irrigation schemes can
management safeguards in scheme operation. These present more disease vector habitats compared to the closed
measures are described in section 4.2 and 4.3 respectively. pipes used in sprinkler irrigation systems. This is attributed
to the nature of surface irrigation infrastructure. However,
4.1.1. Malaria both sprinkler and surface irrigation systems may be
Malaria is caused by protozoan organisms of the genus associated with mosquito breeding sites, if there is over-
Plasmodium. The plasmodial parasites are transmitted to application of water that leads to the ponding of water in the
human beings by the female anopheles mosquito through fields. The following sections will deal with health safeguards
mosquito bites. Water is an essential component of the mostly related to surface irrigation systems, because this is
mosquito environment. Anopheles mosquitoes breed on where most health and environmental problems occur.
sheltered edges of lakes, ponds, rivers, reservoirs and
canals. Weed, in combination with water, provides an ideal 4.2.1. Hydraulic measures to prevent diseases
habitat. There are opportunities during the design and construction
The difference in time between deposition of mosquito of irrigation projects to incorporate health safeguards in
eggs and the emergence of the flying adult is about one order to reduce the risk of infection. These include:

40 – Module 1
 Module 1: Irrigation development: a multifaceted process

Y Increase of water velocities in canals and drains and, design velocities used for devices that flush mosquitoes in
where possible, elimination of night storage reservoirs natural streams in Asia and the Caribbean Islands are 0.4-
Y Canal lining 0.5 m/s for intermittent discharges, which is lower than the
velocity required for immobilizing snails.
Y Free draining hydraulic structures
The higher velocities are desirable and should be designed
Y Good drainage systems for wherever possible. Structures within the canal system,
Y Land levelling such as night storage dams, tend to lower velocities in canals
and should therefore be avoided wherever possible. Besides
Y Proper irrigation scheduling and water application
which, and more importantly, these structures can offer
open water bodies conducive for vector borne diseases.
Water velocity However, in the case of unlined canals care should be taken
Low water velocities in canals and drains create a good that no erosion because of too high a velocity occurs in the
habitat for parasites and vectors. To dislodge a snail from a canals. The experience of Mushandike irrigation scheme in
canal or other surface, a drag force must be produced on its Zimbabwe provides more information with regards to
shell to pull the snail from its position. According to ILRI velocities in concrete lined canals and structures (Thomson
(1994), laboratory research carried out on the et al., 1996; Chimbari et al., 1993). A canal gradient of
Biomphalaria glabrata snail, common in the Western 0.2% was selected for the standard size of secondary canal.
Hemisphere, indicated that a velocity of 0.94 m/s would This gave a maximum water velocity of 0.85 m/sec.
completely dislodge all sizes of snails from smooth solid
surfaces and a velocity of 0.36 m/s would do the same on Canal lining
loose granular surfaces. Generally, on smooth surfaces the
From the engineering point of view, the main reason for
snails were pulled loose from the surface at velocities
lining canals is to improve the conveyance and distribution
around 0.60 m/s. This was considered a dislodging velocity.
system efficiencies by eliminating or minimizing water
The snails would be completely immobilized at a velocity of
seepage.
0.20-0.30 m/s. These results were compared with static
force tests which showed that a velocity of 0.33 m/s would From a vector point of view, the major advantages of canal
immobilize snails, while a velocity of 0.65 m/s would cause lining are:
dislodgment.
Y it allows for increased water velocities
From these findings, mean velocities that could produce Y if well maintained, it discourages rooted weed growth
immobilization or dislodgment were calculated. Table 11
presents the estimated velocities for immobilizing snails in Y the lower seepage reduces ponded water and
a wide range of channel geometrics. At values below the waterlogging
ones given the snails will be immobilized. Y lined canals dry faster than unlined canals
On average, snails do not tolerate velocities of about Y hard canal surfaces discourage sheltering by snail
0.6 m/s and above, depending on the surfaces they cling to vectors
and canal discharge. These velocities can be used as Y it facilitates easier control of vectors by water
guidelines for design. It has also been established that the management and chemicals

Table 11
Mean velocities in trapezoidal channel for controlling Bilharzia snails in the Western Hemisphere (Source: ILRI,
1994)

Canal discharge (m3/s) Immobilizing mean velocities in the canal(m/s)

1 0.58
5 0.67
10 0.71
20 0.75
30 0.78
50 0.81

Module 1 – 41
Irrigation manual

Figure 20
Typical cross-section of trapezoidal field canal for smallholder irrigation schemes

Table 12
Flows through a standard Agritex canal

Bed width Longitutional Flow Cross-sectional Velocity

(m) slope (m3/s) area (m2) (m/sec)
0.25 1:1000 0.058 0.127 0.46
0.30 1:1000 0.068 0.142 0.48
0.35 1:1000 0.077 0.157 0.49
0.40 1:1000 0.087 0.172 0.51
0.45 1:1000 0.097 0.187 0.52
0.50 1:1000 0.108 0.202 0.53
0.25 1:300 0.105 0.127 0.83
0.30 1:300 0.123 0.142 0.87
0.35 1:300 0.140 0.157 0.89
0.40 1:300 0.158 0.172 0.92
0.45 1:300 0.177 0.187 0.95
0.50 1:300 0.195 0.202 0.97

Canal lining alone does not automatically increase water attained and sufficient water depth maintained.
velocities to the desirable level for vector control. The
velocities also depend on the longitutional slope of the Free draining hydraulic structures
canal. Table 12 shows the effect of canal slope on velocities
for concrete-lined trapezoidal canals constructed by the Structures retarding flow and not allowing complete
Department of Agricultural, Technical and Extension draining are good habitats for bilharzia snails and
Services (Agritex) in Zimbabwe for its smallholder mosquitoes. Examples of such structures are duckbill off-
irrigation projects. take weirs and structures with sunken stilling basins, such
as distribution boxes (see Module 7). Most of these
The steeper the canal the faster the water moves and structures can be substituted with free draining structures,
therefore the less favourable the habitat. Comparing Tables which means that there is no standing water under normal
11 and 12 reveals that there could be a problem with snails working conditions. These improved structures are not
for the smaller canals at 1:1000 slope whereas the same necessarily more expensive. For example, the duckbill weir
problem is eliminated by constructing the canals at 1:300 could be replaced by a free draining off-take structure, as
slope. However, it has to be remembered that the general shown in Figure 21. This type of structure, however,
slope of the area largely dictates the canal slopes. requires a drop of at least 0.35 m and is therefore
Nevertheless, by using canal embankment combined with unsuitable for flat land, unless the upstream canal elevation
drop structures, the objective of high velocities can be is artificially raised, which is expensive.

42 – Module 1
 Module 1: Irrigation development: a multifaceted process

Figure 21
Free draining off-take structure

Drop structures are very common in surface irrigation Land levelling

schemes. Small drops do not necessarily need stilling Land grading is done to even out land to allow for more
basins. However, large drop structures should be designed efficient use of irrigation water. It also removes depressions,
to dissipate excess energy. Rather than using a sunken basin, which would be potential breeding ground for mosquitoes
a stilling basin flush with the downstream canal and with and bilharzia snails. The design of irrigation schemes,
block baffles to dissipate energy and induce the hydraulic especially surface schemes, should incorporate calculations
jump is proposed. More details on drop structures are of the necessary cuts and fills for land levelling. It has to be
discussed in Module 7. noted, though, that land levelling is expensive and can lead
to removal of the fertile topsoil if not done properly.
Drainage system
Surface irrigation systems require drainage systems to 4.2.2. Measures to reduce human-vector contact
remove excess irrigation water. Drainage channels are a Minimizing the human-vector contact in the following ways
favourable habitat for the mosquito parasite. If the drainage can reduce the transmission of the disease vector.
system is well-designed and maintained, the hazard can be
reduced. Taking into account the life cycle of the mosquitoes,
Location of villages
the design of the drainage system should cater for the
disposal of the water before the mosquito completes its Plot holders in smallholder irrigation schemes and farm
larvae cycle. The recommended design time for draining off labourers in commercial irrigation schemes are particularly
water from drains for mosquito control is one and two weeks vulnerable to water-related diseases, especially if their
respectively for the two temperature ranges mentioned in villages are located too close to open water bodies. Villages
Section 4.1.1. Drainage systems for snail control should should be located at least one kilometre away from open
remove water in one to two months, which means that a water bodies such as canals, drains and night storage
drainage system designed for mosquito control will suffice for reservoirs. In order for villagers to accept this scenario, a
snails. This criterion can be used to size the drains during safe water supply should be provided close to the
design. The drainage system should be designed in such a way homesteads so as to discourage the farmers from using
that field drains lead to collector drains at the bottom end of irrigation and drainage water for bathing and other
the field where water is then delivered completely outside the domestic purposes. It has to be acknowledged that the
irrigated area. In the absence of flowing rivers in the vicinity siting of villages in this manner may not always be possible.
of an irrigation scheme, the drainage water can be re-used for In this case other disease control measures, such as
production purposes. chemical control, would have to be employed.

Module 1 – 43
Irrigation manual

Provision of domestic water of pesticides and herbicides requires considerable

Boreholes, equipped with hand pumps or motorized understanding on the part of the user. Moreover, they may
pumps, are generally considered to provide safe drinking have adverse effects on non-target organisms and may limit
water. The official recommendation in a country like the use of water for some time after application. In some
Zimbabwe is one borehole per 20 families. The boreholes cases, new agricultural pests or vectors may be triggered by
should not only be provided near the villages, but are also the application of pesticides.
needed within the irrigated area, in order to discourage In light of the above, integrated pest management strategies
farmers from using canal and drain water while in the and programmes should be drawn up in such a way that
irrigated area. The boreholes should have adequate vectors can be monitored and early warning systems for
drainage so as to avoid the accumulation of water in ponds disease outbreaks be put in place (see Module 3). There
and muddy places. They should be fenced in order to should be close liaison with health authorities on this.
prevent animals from drinking water from any wet areas
around the boreholes. Washing slabs should be provided 4.3.2. Physical control
and connected to the drainage facilities.
The control measures that are within the domain of
Pit latrines engineering are physical control measures. These are geared
towards the reduction of silt, aquatic weeds and other
It is imperative to provide and locate a number of ventilated vegetation using manual or mechanical methods.
pit latrines within the scheme area. In Zimbabwe it is Knowledge about the types of weeds helps in establishing
recommended that one toilet unit be provided for every 6 how to control them. For the purpose of this module, it
ha or for every 50 people. Pit latrines should also be suffices to mention that there are four categories of aquatic
provided in the villages. weeds: submerged weeds, free-floating weeds, floating-
leafed weeds and emergent weeds. Figure 22 shows a
Cattle troughs schematic presentation of these weeds growing in canals.
Cattle troughs should be provided at strategic places outside Depending on the area and type of weed, the density of the
the irrigation scheme to discourage farmers from taking weeds in a canal will dictate when weeding should be done.
their cattle to dams, irrigation canals and drains. The Since canal siltation often takes much longer than weed
troughs could be designed, wherever possible, in such a way infestation, weed clearing will have to be done more
that they could utilize gravity or manual pumping to fill up frequently than maintenance for silt removal. The process
in order to avoid energy costs. A provision should be made of irrigation system maintenance for silt removal also
for periodic flushing of the troughs. removes weeds.
The irrigation system, once established, will require
4.3. Disease post-construction control
maintenance so as to discourage the formation of water
measures
bodies that would otherwise become habitats for snails and
There are a number of post-construction measures that can mosquitoes. Canals, drains, night storage reservoirs and other
be applied in order to reduce diseases related to water. related hydraulic infrastructure have to be cleaned of silt and
These include biological, chemical, physical and weeds regularly. For this, a maintenance programme has to be
environmental controls. The environmental issues will be drawn up. The maintenance programme for vector control is
discussed in Section 4.4. a part of the overall maintenance of irrigation infrastructure.
It will be discussed in detail within the context of the
4.3.1. Biological and chemical control operation and maintenance of irrigation schemes in the
modules dealing with surface irrigation (Module 7), sprinkler
Biological control is normally established by introducing or
irrigation (Module 8) and localized irrigation (Module 9).
increasing biological control agents within the target area.
These agents increase at the expense of disease agents. Pressurized irrigation systems, in view of the piped
Once biological control is established it is self-perpetuating. distribution of water and the absence of open water
It is not, however, effective against weeds and considerable surfaces at field level, have the inherent advantage of
skill is also required in utilizing this technique. controlling the vectors of diseases related to water. The
absence of drainage systems in this type of irrigation,
Chemical control measures are an effective means of
combined with better water application, is added
controlling parasites, but are often expensive and can lead
advantage. However, major outbursts of pipes become
to environmental degradation if not well applied. The use
potential health hazards when left unattended.

44 – Module 1
 Module 1: Irrigation development: a multifaceted process

Figure 22
Schematic presentation of weed types (Source: University of Zimbabwe, 1995)

4.4. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Management & : This involves drawing up an
Monitoring environmental action plan based on the
According to FAO (1995), an EIA is a formal process for
mitigation options assessed as well as
predicting environmental consequences of human development
institutional requirements for
activities and planning appropriate measures to eliminate or
implementation.
reduce adverse effects and augment positive effects. An EIA is
therefore a management tool for planners and decision-makers Auditing : This is a process of carrying out an
that complements the other engineering and economic environmental audit, based on
considerations. EIA comprises the following steps: experiences gained after project
implementation.
Screening : This leads to the decision whether or not
a particular project warrants a full EIA to Some of the important effects of irrigation schemes that
be carried out. It depends on project emerge in an EIA are briefly discussed in the following
size or site specific information. sections.
Scooping : A process of determining the most
critical issues to study. It has to involve 4.4.1. Hydrology
community participation. Irrigation schemes change the hydrology of rivers and
Prediction & : The central part of an EIA intended to groundwater due to their consumptive use. The ecology of
Mitigation look at different realistic and affordable the area, prior to the project, may not be able to cope with
mitigation options. changes that may result from new irrigation projects or the

Module 1 – 45
Irrigation manual

rehabilitation of the old ones. The changes in river salinity. At irrigation schemes, salts carried in irrigation water,
hydrology also have an impact on the users downstream. as well as fertilizers, pesticides and groundwater may increase
Therefore, present and future users of the water need to be soil salinity. The accumulation of salt leads to irreversible soil
clearly defined and matched to the current and future base damage. Therefore, proper planning and use of irrigation is
flows within a given river catchment. The lowering of the essential for sustainable irrigation development.
water table also affects other users, as well as flora and
fauna, especially in wetlands. Continued, uncontrolled 4.4.4. Biodiversity
mining of groundwater can have severe economic and
environmental consequences and should be given particular By changing the land use pattern of the immediate and
prominence during planning. surrounding areas, irrigation schemes have a major impact
on the biodiversity of the river or groundwater in their
respective catchment areas. The EIA of potential irrigation
4.4.2. Water quality
schemes should assess the effects of the scheme on
Water is essential for human beings, agriculture, industry mammals, fish, reptiles, insects and other endangered
and the environment. Polluted water may contain species that may be affected by the change in their habitat.
intolerable levels of toxic substances for human beings, Wetlands and plains are among some of the most
animals and plants. As the hydrological regime changes, so productive lands in the world. They support a wide range
does the water quality. Agrochemicals used in irrigated crop of species, including waterfowl and migratory birds, and
production and chemicals discharged from industry into besides being a buffer to reduce floods, they are ideal for
watercourses have harmful effects on the environment. relatively cheaper water purification facilities and also
Proper planning has to be put in place to minimize these protecting the coast from erosion. Wetlands require
effects. The reader is referred to FAO (1995) for guidelines consistent recharge of fresh water. However, if the inflow is
on water quality for irrigation. saline or reduced, both of which may result from poorly
planned irrigation and other projects upstream, this will
4.4.3. Soil properties and salinity have devastating effects on soil fertility not to mention the
fresh water needs of the people, fish, birds, animals and
Irrigation is associated with intensive crop production, which other species whose lives are based on the wetlands (FAO,
has a marked effect on soil fertility, erodibility and possible 2002).

46 – Module 1
 Chapter 5
Checklists for the socio-economic, agro-technical, health and
environmental impact assessments of irrigation development
Below, non-exhaustive checklists for socio-economic, agro- Y Have farmer interests groups been formed, for
technical, health and environmental impact assessment are example through Irrigation Management Committees?
given. More information on checklists can be found in Field Y For each identified critical issue or potential conflict
and Collier (1998), which deals with checklists to assist area have alternative ways to reduce or avoid the
preparation of small-scale irrigation projects in sub- expected conflicts by using participatory approaches
Saharan Africa. been studied?
Y If the impacts of the new construction are not
5.1. Checklist for the socio-economic
acceptable or viable from a social aspect has the project
impact assessment of irrigation
been cancelled? Who has the authority to decide upon
development continuation or cancellation?
In order to facilitate quick reference to the socio-economic
impact assessment of irrigation development, the following 5.2. Checklist for the agro-technical
non-exhaustive checklist can be used as a guide: assessment for the selection of an irrigation
Y Has a PRA been applied? system
Y Will the project involve a change of living conditions In order to facilitate quick reference to the agro-technical
for the residents? If yes, have these been mapped and assessment for irrigation system selection, the following
documented? non-exhaustive checklist can be used a guide:
Y Have traditional preferences been considered when Is the irrigation system adapted to the following agro-
designing the system? technical characteristics at the site:
Y Is the planner aware of all the groups’ expectations Y Water resources: accessibility, quantity and quality?
of/from the project?
Y Soils: soil texture, structure, profiles and depths,
Y Are the potential conflict areas mapped? salinity and drainage?
Y Is the land tenure situation taken into account for men Y Topography: slope?
and women farmers?
Y Climate and crop: top or root watering crops, shallow
Y Are all persons or groups affected by the scheme fully rooted crops, etc.?
aware of the new development and their new roles?
Y Capital and labour: availability and cost?
Y Are all the responsibilities, obligations and rights clear
for all parties? Are they in writing and signed? Y Energy: availability and cost?

Y Have time, labour and financial constraints for all For each question for which the answer is NO, study and
parties been taken into account in the proposed present alternative technical solutions to adapt the system.
activities?
5.3. Checklist for the health risk
Y Have women farmers’ needs been taken into account
and/or how do the proposed activities affect women’s assessment of irrigation development
time and labour? In order to facilitate quick reference to the health risk
Y Have all parties had opportunity to express their assessment of irrigation development, the following non-
opinions? exhaustive checklist can be used a guide:

Y Have all the parties’ opinions been documented? Will the project:
Y Is there any proof that peoples’ opinions have been Y Lead to an increase in favourable breeding sites for
considered and incorporated in the planning? water-related diseases?

Module 1 – 47
Irrigation manual

Y Involve change in drinking water quality? Y Are relevant departments within the Ministry of Health
Y Increase transmission of diseases through the animal- and other appropriate health sector institutions involved
vector contact? and consulted at the earliest stage of the project?
Y Increase the transmission of diseases through the Y What is the level of understanding of preventive
human-vector contact? measures and knowledge of how diseases are
transmitted?
Y Involve the use of toxic substances?
Y Do the residents have access to health extension
For each question for which the answer is YES, go to workers and treatment facilities?
Table 13 to find a solution to mitigate or reduce the Y Has a person responsible for monitoring been
damages. appointed?
Other important issues to consider regarding health Y If so, are they sufficiently qualified to handle the
parameters are: functions of the job?
Table 13
Management and mitigating steps for public health risks

Potential negative impacts Mitigating measures

Public health risks • Minimize increase in water-related diseases and vulnerability of rural communities within
and around projects
• Introduction or increase - Line all unlined canals or use pipes in the delivery and distribution system, in order to minimize
in water-related diseases water seepage, as standing water would be a habitat for disease vectors
(schistosomiasis, malaria, - Incorporate free draining structures in the design of the water delivery, conveyance and field
etc.) and vulnerability of canal system
rural communities within - Install gates at canal ends to allow for flushing
and around projects - Fill up or drain depressions along canals and roads or in and around irrigated area to
discourage water from ponding
- Maintain drainage system by regular de-silting and weeding. Level irrigated area to avoid
ponding of water during irrigation
- Regularly de-silt and weed night storage reservoirs and canals and weed canal banks
- De-silt and weed other hydraulic structures of the irrigation system, such as division boxes,
weirs, flumes, drops etc.
- Replace bitumen on canal joints to reduce water seepage through canals
- Repair canal embankments, canals and other structures
- Where possible, fluctuate water levels in the night storage dams in order to desiccate aquatic
snail and anopheles mosquito larvae
- As much as possible allow canals to dry regularly, by the rotating water supply between them
in order not to keep them continuously wet.
- Carry out disease prophylaxis
- Treat diseases
• Injury or death associated - Enforce safety regulations relating to construction
with accidents such as - Use qualified machine operators and adhere to regulations regarding use and disposal of
during construction, and hazardous materials
drowning in canal, night - Use appropriate technology
storage reservoir, etc. - Protect people from structures that could pose dangers for example, by fencing reservoirs
and canals in which humans, especially children, and animals could drown
Pollution of water and soil
• Contamination of and - Protect wellheads from potential contamination:
accumulation of toxic (a) Periodically inspect and maintain acceptable well construction guidelines as needed
concentrations of heavy (b) Install backflow prevention devices and non-return valves
metals and agrochemicals (c) Stay at least 30 m away from well when mixing, loading and storing agrochemicals
in surface water, (d) Periodically monitor well quality by sending water samples for quality tests in order to
groundwater and soil ensure adherence to recommended standards
(e) Know site-specific variables affecting aquifer vulnerability
- Manage irrigation to minimize transport of chemicals, nutrients or sediment from soil surface
or root zone:
(a) Schedule irrigation according to crop water needs and soil moisture depletion, and apply
water accordingly
(b) Upgrade or maintain irrigation equipment and system to improve water application efficiency
(c) Time the leaching of soluble salts to coincide with low residual soil nitrate levels
(d) Reduce water application rates to ensure no runoff or deep percolation occurs during or
immediately after agrochemical application

48 – Module 1
 Module 1: Irrigation development: a multifaceted process

Potential negative impacts Mitigating measures

- Manage nitrogen applications to maximize crop growth and economic return while protecting
water quality:
(a) Sample soil to at least 0.6 m or the crop rooting depth in order to determine the residual
NO3 - N
(b) Establish the yield versus N application rate for the previous 5 year period at least
(c) Take account of all N sources in determining the N fertilizer requirement. These sources can
be organic matter and previous crop residues, irrigation water nitrate, soil nitrate and manure
(d) Use slow-release N fertilizers and nitrification inhibitors as required
(e) Split N application into as many applications as is economically and agronomically feasible
(f) Avoid fall application of N fertilizers, especially on sandy soils and vulnerable aquifers
(g) Prepare a yearly nitrogen management plan for each crop
- Employ pesticides judiciously and minimize off-target effects:
(a) Provide thorough training to all applicators of chemicals and possibly certification prior to use
(b) Select pesticides based on site and management variables to minimize potential groundwater
contamination
(c) Make sure that applicators of chemicals know the characteristics of the application site,
including soil type, depth to groundwater and erosion potential
(d) Compare chemical leaching hazards, persistence and toxicity to the specific conditions to
determine suitability of the pesticide at that location
(e) Inspect, calibrate and maintain application equipment on a regular basis
(f) Minimize pesticide waste and storage by purchasing and mixing only enough chemicals to
meet needs. Utilize refillable containers to minimize container disposal problems
- Maintain records of all pesticides and fertilizers applied:
Keep records on:
(a) Irrigation water analysis
(b) Soil tests results
(c) Projected crop yields
(d) N fertilizer recommendations
(e) Fertilizers and/or manure applied
(f) Amount of irrigation water applied
(g) Actual crop yields
(h) All pesticides applied including: brand name, formulation, registration, amount and date
applied, exact location of application, name, address, and certification number of applicator
(i) Records should be kept for 3 years at least
- Manage phosphorus requirements for crop production to maximize crop growth and minimize
degradation of water resources:
(a) Implement standard SCS (any local) soil erosion practices and structures
(b) Carry out soil tests of tillage layer and apply fertilizer according to soil test recommendations
(c) Take account of all P from manure and other sources in determining P application rate
(d) Spread grass filters around erosive crop field to catch and filter P in surface runoff
(e) Incorporate surface applied P into soil
- Utilize Integrated Pest Management (IPM) approach in pest control decision-making:
(a) Monitor pest and predator populations
(b) Select varieties that are resistant to pest pressures
(c) Time planting and harvesting dates to minimize pest damage
(d) Rotate crop sequence to break up pest cycles
(e) Spot treat or band pesticides instead of applying broadcast treatment
(f) Utilize beneficial insects and other biological controls
• Transport of pathogens - Animal wastes should be properly collected, stored and applied at agronomic rates for crop
resulting from use of production in order to avoid discharge to surface or ground water. This can be done as follows:
excreta as fertilizer (a) Analyze manure for nutrient content and percent dry matter (see if there are recommendations
for this)
(b) Reduce N fertilizer according to the amount of available N in the manure
(c) Avoid manure applications on saturated soils and incorporate it after application

Module 1 – 49
Irrigation manual

5.4. Checklist for the Environmental Impact planners and communities can use during the
Assessment (EIA) of irrigation develoment development and operation of irrigation projects. The
following checklist is an example of the questions that
The guidelines on how to carry out an EIA are well-
need to be addressed during the planning of an irrigation
documented in other references such as FAO (1995) and
project. Table 14 provides potential negative impacts and
the World Bank Guidelines on Environmental Impact
their mitigating measures.
Assessment. Thus they do not need elaboration here.
This section is intended to provide general information Will the project:
on some of the important aspects that must be addressed
Y Have any impacts on sensitive biological areas
by an EIA, as well as the potential negative impacts of
susceptible to erosion or pollution, for example
irrigation projects and their mitigating measures. The
wetlands and fresh drinking water sources? Is there a
information is provided in the form of checklists, which
risk of eutrophication?

Table 14
Management and mitigating steps for soil degradation

Potential negative impacts Mitigating measures

• Waterlogging • Minimize and control waterlogging through:
(a) Regulating the water application to avoid overwatering
(b) Installating and maintaining an adequate drainage system, including installing a sub-
surface drainage system where the need arises
(c) Using lined canals or pipes to prevent seepage
(d) Choosing efficient irrigation systems, for example sprinkler or drip, at design stage
• Increase in soil salinity, • Management strategies for reducing salinization and its effects on crops are:
alkalinity, sodicity, acidity (a) Leaching of salts by regular flushing
(b) Using proper irrigation schedules with leaching requirements incorporated (normally 10-20%
added onto the irrigation requirement), or allowing for leaching in rainy season
(c) Installing an adequate drainage system
(d) Changing tillage techniques
(e) Adjusting cropping patterns through the cultivation of crops with salinity tolerance and
avoiding monocropping
(f) Incorporating soil ameliorates, such as incorporating gypsum in irrigation water to reduce
sodium content of soils
(g) Safe disposal of salty drainage water into unused land (if such land is not threatened) or
evaporation ponds (where impacts can be contained)
(h) Using good quality water
• Soil loss/accumulation • Minimize soil erosion in irrigated lands through careful design (considering field size, stream size
due to water erosion in (drop size), soils, slope and field layout) and by:
irrigated lands (a) Using lined canals or pipes for water conveyance
(b) Providing adequate drainage and soil conservation structures in irrigated lands
(c) Selecting the correct stream flow for furrows, borders and basins
(d) Using the correct command between field canals and the irrigated land, usually between 15
and 30 cm
(e) Using plastic or other materials to reduce the impact of water coming from the siphons onto
the irrigated land
(f) Using siphons, checks, gates, and canal escape structures for water application, control
and disposal
(g) Selecting sprinklers with an application rate less than the infiltration rate of the soil for use for
that type of soil
(h) Land levelling and construction of conservation structures
(i) Ensuring proper cut and fill operations through water course embankments
(j) Establishing vegetation in cleared areas after irrigation construction work
• Soil erosion due to • Measures include:
intensified human activity (a) Well-planned settlement to avoid surpassing carrying capacity of surrounding area
in surrounding areas such (b) Allowance for villages, livestock, fuel wood, and vegetable gardens within or around irrigation
as more rainfed scheme.
agriculture, increase in
livestock and need for
firewood
• Loss of soil fertility

50 – Module 1
 Module 1: Irrigation development: a multifaceted process

Y Contribute to a change of soil structure or fertility? Y Involve risk for unintentional spreading of pollution
Y Contribute to salinization of soils or waterlogging? beyond the controlled project area through air, water
or the food chain?
Y Have large impact on the availability of surface water
and groundwater, at local and regional scale? Is there a Y Involve unskilled people handling hazardous
risk of groundwater mining? Or salt intrusion? chemicals?

Y Contribute extensively to pollution of land and water, Y Increase the use of fossil natural resources?
in the short term and long term? Other important issues to consider are:
Y Have considerable impact on and change areas with Y Has a person responsible for monitoring been
unique or sensitive species of vegetation? appointed?
Y Imply an evident increase in the use of chemicals, such Y What is the level of understanding of the residents
as fertilizers and pesticides? regarding environmental causes and effects at global,
Y Involve use of chemicals/products that do not regional and local scale?
decompose through natural processes? Y Does the area have any zones of vegetation or trees to
prevent soil erosion?

Module 1 – 51
 Chapter 6
Principles and guidelines on the preparation of feasibility
studies for irrigation projects
Feasibility studies provide the means for assessing 6.1.1. Climate
developmental options for investment, in this case The most important climatic data are rainfall, maximum
investment in irrigation. A feasibility study for irrigation and minimum temperatures, maximum and minimum
development would assess the physical aspects of land, relative humidity, wind and sunshine hours.
water and climate, and evaluate crop production potential
and cropping programmes within the context of the Climate is an important factor in crop production.
physical aspects. The same study reviews and assesses Different crops have different requirements in terms of
alternative engineering options in terms of benefits and temperature, humidity and light. Also, occurrence of frost
costs, operation and maintenance, compatibility with the at certain times may exclude a number of crops from the
available land and water resources, their impact on the cropping programme. All in all, the analysis of climatic data
environment, the health of the users and the social life and with respect to crop production is needed before a
welfare of the irrigators. Finally, market potentials and cropping programme can be prepared.
access to markets are critically reviewed through such
studies and the financial and economic aspects of the Accurate estimates of crop water requirements also rely
development are evaluated. In summary, the feasibility heavily on the availability of accurate meteorological data.
study is expected to provide options for the client with Errors of only 20% in crop water requirement estimates
recommendations for the best option combining technical can significantly affect the economics of the project,
feasibility, financial and economical viability and social especially in Africa where the water development cost is
desirability and environmental sustainability. high. Hence the need for long-term accurate
meteorological data, especially long-term rainfall data.
For irrigation projects, the feasibility study is expected to
cover the following areas: 6.1.2. Land
1. Climate and natural resources The topography of the land when combined with the soil
2. Agriculture characteristics will provide the means of assessing the
irrigability of the land and select the most suitable areas for
3. Credit and marketing irrigation. In this respect, soil and topographic surveys,
4. Engineering aspects of the project discussed in detail in Modules 2, provide the means for this
assessment.
5. Social aspects of the project
6. Organization and management aspects of the project 6.1.3. Water
7. Health and environmental aspects of the project Long-term data of river flow and water quality are needed
8. Economic and financial analysis to assess the potential of the water resources. In the
absence of hydrological data, rainfall records or flows of
In the previous chapters the multifaceted process of nearby streams are used for estimates. In the case of
irrigation development has been discussed. This chapter groundwater resources, hydrogeological studies are carried
briefly outlines the presentation of this process thought the out and records from existing wells and test wells are used
elaboration of a feasibility study. to establish long-term and short-term yields of the aquifer
(Module 2).
6.1. Climate and natural resourses
Nevertheless, irrespectively of water availability, the right to
As a rule, climate and the assessment of the potential and using the water should be investigated. This is becoming
availability of natural resources (land and water) are among very important with the establishment of water boards,
the first areas to be addressed in the preparation of a water strategies and policies as well as water legislation in
feasibility study. many countries in Africa. Hence, a water right should be
obtained from the relevant authorities that permits the use

Module 1 – 53
Irrigation manual

of the water. Since the use of transboundary water 6.2.3. Proposed agricultural system
resources is bound by agreements between the states Based on the climate and the natural resources potential,
sharing the same river basin as well as international law, the crops are selected for consideration and alternative
feasibility study should deal with such matters as and when cropping programmes and rotations are developed for
they arise. discussion with the smallholders. The cultural requirements
Wherever a new scheme is planned, existing established of each crop and expected yields should be elaborated and
demands for water upstream and downstream should be the crop water requirements estimated for alternative
investigated and taken into consideration. A formal system cropping programmes. Crop budgets for these crops will be
of water rights might be in operation, or local people may prepared and presented later on in the feasibility study,
have an agreement by traditional custom over the way in under financial and economic analysis. The marketing
which water for irrigation is allocated. Proposed changes in potentials of these crops will also be discussed under the
water demand must be fully discussed with the national relevant chapter of the study.
authority responsible for regulating abstraction (Field and
Collier, 1998). 6.3. Credit and marketing
Water quality and flow rates are very important for the As a rule, irrigated crop production is a high-input high-
selection of crops to be grown and the irrigation method to output system. Smallholders therefore need to procure
be adopted. As such they should be included in the water seeds, fertilizers and chemicals in order to optimize their
resources surveys to be undertaken. Of particular production system. However, the poor cash flow from
importance is the potential siltation of water reservoirs and conventional rainfed farming is too low for such an
the need to protect the catchment areas, in order to avoid investment. Consequently, the need for credit is great
the rapid decline in the yield of dams. indeed. It is therefore necessary that the study reviews
potential options and makes recommendations under the
prevailing land tenure in the scheme.
6.2. Agriculture
As irrigation development aims at agricultural production The choice of crops to be grown and the cropping patterns
the engineering works should be designed for this purpose. influence the field layout and irrigation method. However,
The objective is not the conveyance of water but the the choice of crops as well as the cropping programmes are
irrigation of crops. Thus the engineering approaches used influenced by their marketing potentials. Therefore, an
should be considered as part of a broader system (irrigated assessment of the existing markets and transport system
crop production) for which the designed scheme will be and road infrastructure, as well as their potential for
constructed to serve. development, should be made. Market prices, transport
costs and farm prices must be predicted, as related to the
expected increased volume of production. Processing
6.2.1. Existing farm practices
and/or storage facilities should be considered as part of a
The existing agricultural practices are assessed to analyze marketing strategy.
the without-project situation. Data is gathered from the
baseline socio-economic survey. The data is aggregated to 6.4. Engineering aspects
reflect the average production cost and gross margins and
incorporated in the financial and economic analysis. The This part of the feasibility study covers the rehabilitation
same surveys will provide information on the availability of and/or extension of existing irrigation schemes, as well as
family labour for use under rainfed farming and irrigation the development of new schemes. It deals with the water
in the future, and assess the need for hired labour. development, the distribution system, the water storage and
control structures and measuring devices, the on-farm
6.2.2. Land tenure
irrigation works and the drainage. For these and other
engineering works preliminary designs are made and cost
The land tenure for smallholders varies from country to estimates prepared.
country in Sub-Saharan Africa. In some countries
smallholders have the right to use the land, while in others The same chapter of the feasibility study discusses water
smallholders have title deeds of their land. How one or the duties as relate to the water availability, the selection of the
other type of land tenure affects the various aspects of the on-farm irrigation system and drainage requirements.
project should be elaborated in the feasibility study. Engineering aspects are covered in detail in Modules 7, 8
and 9.

54 – Module 1
 Module 1: Irrigation development: a multifaceted process

6.5. Social aspects selection of inexperienced contractors on the basis of a

cheaper offer does not always cost less. Delays from one
The project’s objectives and expectations can not be
contractor can have snowball effect on other contractors,
realized unless farmers’ considerations on benefits and
and the on project as a whole.
costs, feasibility and desirability and their priorities in life
match that which the project requires of them. At times,
smallholders’ priorities differ from the project’s priorities. 6.6.2. The organization of operation, maintenance
Hence the need to assess the acceptability and desirability and management
of the farmers to participate in the development of the Irrigation development, especially in sub-Saharan Africa, is
irrigation scheme. The nature of the population must be very costly. It is therefore necessary for this investment to
understood in order to match the rate of development with be utilized productively as soon as possible. Thus, provision
the absorptive capacity. Elements such as the level of should be made from the feasibility study stage onwards for
literacy, farming knowledge and skills, past experience with the needed trained engineers, agronomists and technicians
irrigation, gender issues and attitudes to change are among to be available on time. Equally important is the assessment
the several parameters to be considered when analyzing the of the farmers’ training needs, which will enable them to
social aspects of the project. make well-informed decisions and to undertake the
operation, maintenance and management of the infield part
As a rule, irrigation development brings cultural shock to a
of the system.
smallholder community. With monomodal rainfall
conditions, smallholders work for a few months in a year
6.6.3. Extension services
under rainfed conditions. In a sense they are under-
employed and have ample time to attend to their social The training of farmers and the adoption of new farming
aspects of the society. In contrast to this, irrigated crop practices is the mandate of the country’s extension
production requires almost daily attention throughout the services. However, most extension agents in sub-Saharan
year if it is to be profitable. How able the community is to Africa are not familiar with irrigated crop production.
adjust to these and other changes becomes critically Hence the need to assess the level of extension know-how
important and should be thoroughly discussed with the and provide for the training needs of the extension staff.
farmers. While the success of achieving the desirable results will
greatly depend on the adaptability of farmers, no effort
6.6. Organization and management should be spared in developing and implementing the
aspects of the project appropriate training for the smallholders. Establishment of
on-farm research, demonstrations, farmers’ field schools
An analysis of the structures and competence of the and the provision of advisory services with back up from
agencies or bodies responsible for the organization and specialists are some of the means to be considered.
management of the project is necessary. A number of
problems or difficulties should be expected to arise during
the planning, construction and operation of a fairly large
6.7. Health and environmental impact
project. Hence the need for the presence or establishment assessment
of competent agencies to manage the planning and Very often the health and environmental aspects of
implementation of the project. irrigation development are not given deserved attention in
the feasibility studies. Water-related diseases affect the
6.6.1. The organization of planning and construction health of the irrigators and thus the overall performance of
the scheme. Measures to reduce such problems through
The planning and construction of a smallholder irrigation
engineering and other solutions should be incorporated in
scheme involves several stakeholders. Rural authorities,
the feasibility study. The impact of irrigation development
traditional leaders, farmers, relevant Department or
on the environment is equally important, as it affects the
Ministry at central level, consultants and contractors are the
quality of the water resources and thus downstream water
major stakeholders. At times, sub-contractors are also
users as well as the ecosystem at large. For details the reader
involved with the construction of some parts of the project.
is referred to Chapter 4.
Hence the need for a competent agency to coordinate and
supervise the work of all involved in the planning and
implementation of the project. The same agency, through 6.8. Economic and financial analysis
established procedures, would be responsible for the Economic and financial analyses are carried out in order to
selection of the contractor and sub-contractors. As a rule, appraise a project. The economic analysis provides the

Module 1 – 55
Irrigation manual

justification for an irrigation development. The financial Chapter 5 : Water resources

analysis evaluates the project’s capability to repay the Chapter 6 : Climate
investment and the operation costs of the project. In other
words, the economic analysis assesses the economic Chapter 7 : Agriculture
viability of different alternatives and assists with the Chapter 8 : Irrigation
selection of one. The financial analysis evaluates different
financial alternatives with respect to interest rates, Chapter 9 : Social environment
repayment schedules and length of the loan period. For Chapter 10 : Credit and marketing
more details the reader is referred to Module 11.
Chapter 11 : Engineering requirements

6.9. Presentation of the feasibility study Chapter 12 : Health and environmental impact analysis

Following is an outline of the content of a feasibility study Chapter 13 : Organization, maintenance and management
for smallholder irrigation development: Chapter 14 : Capital cost
Chapter 1 : Summary Chapter 15 : Operation and maintenance cost
Chapter 2 : Background Chapter 16 : Economic and financial analysis
Chapter 3 : Location Chapter 18 : Conclusions and recommendations
Chapter 4 : Land resources

56 – Module 1
 References

Chancellor, F.M. and Hide, J.M. 1996. Smallholder irrigation: Ways forward. Guidelines for achieving appropriate scheme design.
Volume 1: Guidelines. 91 p. Volume 2: Case studies. 92 p. Draft Report OD 136. HR. Wallingford. Volume 1. 91 p.
Chimbari, M., Chandiwana, S.K., Ndlela, B., Ndhlovu, P.D., Chitsiko, R.J., Thomson, A.J. and Bolton, P. 1993. Schistosomiasis
control measures for small irrigation schemes in Zimbabwe. Final report on monitoring at Mushandike irrigation scheme.
Report OD 128. HR Wallingford. 82 p. + appendices.
FAO. 1982. Mechanized sprinkler irrigation. FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper No. 35. By L. Rolland. Rome. Italy. 409 p.
FAO, 1985. Irrigation methods. Irrigation water management training manual No. 5. By C. Brouwer, K. Prins, M. Kay and M.
Heibloem. Rome, Italy.
FAO. 1989. Guidelines for designing and evaluating surface irrigation systems. FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper No. 45. By
W.R. Walker. Rome. Italy. 137 p.
FAO. 1991. Water harvesting: a manual for the design and construction of water harvesting schemes for plant production. By Will Critchley
and Klaus Siegert. Rome, Italy. 133 p.
FAO. 1992. Crop water requirements. FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper No. 24. By J. Doorenbos and W.O. Pruitt. Rome.
Italy. 144 p.
FAO. 1995. Environmental impact assessment of irrigation and drainage projects. FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper No. 53.
By T.C. Dougherty and A.W. Hall. Rome, Italy. 75 p.
FAO. 1996. Development of a national watershed management programme. Prepared by T. Marghescu. Rome, Italy.
FAO. 1997a. Assessment of the socio-economic impact of irrigation development on smallholder farmers: Case studies of Hama-Mavhaire,
Hoyuyu 5 and Nyadire irrigation schemes. Prepared by Rabson Dhlodhlo. FAO-SAFR. Harare, Zimbabwe. 28 p.
FAO. 1997b. Small-scale irrigation for arid zones: principles and options. FAO Development Series No. 2. Rome. Italy.
FAO. 1998. Socio-Economic And Gender Analysis Programme (SEAGA): Sector Guide Irrigation. Prepared by: Eva Jordans. Rome, Italy.
This document is also available in FAO Land and Water Digital Media Series No. 12: Irrigation Guidelines.
http://www.fao.org/ag/agl/
FAO. 1999. Comparative assessment of the malaria and schistosomiasis risks associated with surface and sprinkler irrigation schemes in
Zimbabwe. (in preparation)
FAO. 2000. Socio-economic impact of smallholder irrigation in Zimbabwe. Case studies of ten irrigation schemes. FAO-SAFR. Harare,
Zimbabwe. 142 p.
FAO. 2001. Participatory Training & Extension in Farmers’ Water Management (PT&E-FWM). FAO Land and Water Digital Media
Series No. 14. http://www.fao.org/ag/agl/aglw/farmerwatertraining
FAO. 2002. Wetland development and management in SADC countries. Proceedings of a sub-regional workshop, 19-23 November
2001, Harare, Zimbabwe. Editors: Karen Frenken and Isiah Mharapara. FAO-SAFR, Harare. 190 p.
Farmelectric Handbook. Pumping and Irrigation: A guide to the design of simple pumping systems. Warwickshire. 61 p.
Field, W.P. and Collier, F.W. undated. Guidelines for water management and irrigation development. HR. Wallingford, Institute of
Hydrology. FAO/DFID/ICID. 169 p.

Module 1 – 57
Irrigation manual

Field, W.P. and Collier, F.W. 1998. Checklist to assist preparation of small-scale irrigation projects in sub-Saharan Africa. ICID, HR
Wallingford, DFID, FAO. This document is also available in FAO Land and Water Digital Media Series No. 12:
Irrigation Guidelines. http://www.fao.org/ag/agl/
ILRI. 1994. Health and irrigation; incorporation of disease-control measures in irrigation, a multi-faceted task in design, construction,
operation. By Oomen, J.M.V., de Wolf, J. and Jobin, W.R. ILRI Publication 45. Volume 1. Netherlands. 304 p.
Kay, M. 1986. Surface irrigation: systems and practice. Bedford. 141 p.
Keller, J. and Bliesner, R. 1990. Sprinkle and trickle irrigation. Chapman and Hall, New York. 739 p.
Rain Bird International. 1980. Design manual drip irrigation systems.
Rockstrom, J. 1996. Green water security for the food makers of tomorrow: windows of opportunity in drought prone savannas. RELMA.
Savva, A. 1998. Study assesses socio-economic impact of Hama Mavhaire – largest of three FAO developed schemes. A paper in Farming
World Magazine, February 1998. Harare. 2 p.
Thomson, A.J., Chimbari, M., Chandiwana, S.K., Ndlela, B. and Chitsiko, R.J. 1996. Control of schistosomiasis: a practical guide
for irrigation development. Report OD/TN 78. HR Wallingford. 37 p.
University of Zimbabwe. 1995. Management of weeds in irrigation and drainage workshop, 8-9 March 1995. Research project by
Water, Engineering and Development Centre (WEDC), Loughborough University of Technology and Agricultural and
Rural Development Association (ARDA). Harare.

58 – Module 1
 Irrigation Manual
Module 2

Natural Resources Assessment

Developed by

Andreas P. SAVVA
and
Karen FRENKEN

Water Resources Development and Management Officers

FAO Sub-Regional Office for East and Southern Africa

In collaboration with

Samuel SUNGURO, Hydrologist Consultant

Lee TIRIVAMWE, National Irrigation Engineer, Zimbabwe

Harare, 2002
 Contents
List of figures xi
List of tables xii
List of abbreviations xiii

1. INTRODUCTION 1
1.1. Definitions 1
1.2. Resources assessment 2

2. LAND TOPOGRAPHY AND TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEYS 3

2.1. Topographic survey methods 3
2.2. Survey equipment and material 4
2.2.1. Accessories for survey instruments 4
2.2.2. Additional material for setting out the area and marking the stations 8
2.2.3. Materials for recording the data 8
2.3. The theodolite 8
2.3.1. Components of a theodolite 8
2.3.2. Setting up a theodolite 10
2.3.3. Selecting benchmarks 11
2.3.4. Reading and recording 11
2.3.5. Reading the angles 12
2.3.6. Measuring horizontal angles 13
2.3.7. Measuring vertical angles 14
2.3.8. The stadia system 14
2.3.9. Calculating horizontal distances, vertical heights and reduced levels 15
2.3.10. Accuracy 18
2.4. The level 18
2.5. Tacheometric survey using the theodolite 18
2.5.1. The reconnaissance survey 19
2.5.2. Station marking 19
2.5.3. The actual survey 19
2.5.4. Data processing 20
2.5.5. Plotting 27
2.5.6. Checking the theodolite 31
2.5.7 General remarks 33
2.6 Grid surveys 33
2.6.1. Setting out the grid 33
2.6.2. Checking the level instrument 35
2.6.3. The actual grid survey 36
2.6.4. Plotting 42
2.6.5. Use of pegs during implementation 42
3. SOILS AND SOIL SURVEY 45
3.1. Field observations 45
3.1.1. Soil pit description 45
3.1.2. Augering 46
3.1.3. Soil sampling 46
3.1.4. Infiltration test 47

3.2. Laboratory analysis 47

Module 2 – iii
 3.2.1. Mechanical analysis 47
3.2.2. Water-holding capacity or total available moisture 48
3.3. Soil map and soil report 50

4. SURFACE WATER RESOURCES 53

4.1. Water yield levels 53
4.2. Rivers 53
4.3. Dams and reservoirs 54
4.3.1. Sedimentation 54
4.3.2. Dam yields 56

5. GROUNDWATER RESOURCES 63
5.1. Groundwater resources and the hydrologic cycle 63
5.2. Groundwater occurrence 64
5.2.1. Aquifers 64
5.2.2. Aquifer types 66
5.3. Groundwater resources development 67
5.3.1. Groundwater exploration 67
5.3.2. Water wells 68
5.3.3. Collector wells 70
5.3.4. Groundwater resources evaluation 71
5.4. Pumping tests 72
5.4.1. The principle 72
5.4.2. Definition of terms 73
5.4.3. Hydraulic properties of confined aquifers 74
5.4.4. Hydraulic properties of leaky and unconfined aquifers 75
5.4.5. Recovery tests 76
5.4.6. Slug tests 76
5.4.7. Well performance tests 77
5.5. Groundwater recharge 79
5.5.1. Water balance equations 79
5.5.2. Chloride mass balance technique 79
5.5.3. Groundwater level fluctuations 80
5.5.4. Environmental isotopes 80
5.6. Groundwater management 80
5.6.1. Groundwater models 80
5.6.2. Lowering groundwater levels 80
5.6.3. Conjunctive use of surface water and groundwater 80
5.6.4. Groundwater monitoring 80

REFERENCES 83

iv – Module 2
 List of figures
1. A level instrument with accessories 4
2. Aluminium tripods used with levels and theodolites 4
3. Plumb bob and its use 5
4. Holding and placing a ranging rod 5
5. Setting out a straight line using ranging rods 6
6. Surveying staffs 6
7. A level plate and its use 6
8. Single prismatic square 7
9. Setting out a right angle using a single prismatic square 7
10. Setting out a perpendicular line using a double prismatic square 7
11. Wooden (timber) pegs 8
12. Essential features of a theodolite 8
13. The Wild T2 universal theodolite and its components 9
14. Turning the foot-screws 10
15. Levelling of the theodolite 10
16. Reading the angles, using a Wild T2 universal theodolite 12
17. Reading the angles, using a Sokkisha TM20H theodolite 13
18. Reading the angles, using a Zeiss THEO 020B theodolite 13
19. Angle projection 13
20. Principle of two axes 14
21. Vertical angle measurement 14
22. The stadia system 15
23. Calculating the horizontal distance 16
24. Calculating the vertical height 16
25. Calculating the reduced level 17
26. Tilting level 19
27. Automatic level 20
28. A closed traverse or polygon 21
29. Coordinates of point P 22
30. Bearings for part of a traverse 23
31. Traverse with read internal angles, using the 360° graduation 24
32. Part of a traverse and coordinates 25
33. Traverse of four stations and calculation of coordinates 26
34. Plotting with a protractor 30
35. Interpolation between two reduced level points using graph paper 30
36. Adjustment of an inclined vertical reticle line 31
37. Face left and face right readings 32
38. Horizontal adjustment of the vertical reticle line 32
39. Vertical adjustment of the horizontal reticle line 32
40. Adjusting the optical plummet 33

Module 2 – v
Irrigation manual

41. Setting out of grid points 34

42. Reading grid points with the use of a measuring tape 35
43. Error experienced when setting out grid lines 35
44. Checking the level instrument 36
45. Prinicple of staff reading 36
46. The field survey methodology 37
47. Elimination of error due to disparallelism 39
48. Contour map 42
49. USDA soil texture triangle 47
50. Soil texture class determination, using the USDA soil texture triangle 48
51. Two methods for generalizing soil texture classes 48
52. Typical pF curves for silty clay and loamy fine sand 51
53. Streamflow hydrographs 54
54. Sedimentation in a reservoir created by a dam 55
55. Trap efficiency 56
56. Yield curves for dams with storage ratios greater than 0.5 61
57. The hydrologic cycle 63
58. Systems representation of the hydrologic cycle 64
59. Development of deposits (unconsolidated sedimentary aquifer) in a flood plain 65
60. An idealized sandstone aquifer (consolidated sedimentary formation) 65
61. Schematic illustration of groundwater occurrence in carbonate rock with secondary permeability
and enlarged fractures and bedding plane openings 65
62. Various types of aquifers 66
63. Schlumberger VES electrode configuration 68
64. Continuous slot wire wound screen in an unconsolidated formation 69
65. Collector well located near a surface water body 71
66. Drawdown in a pumped aquifer 72
67. Drawdown curves for aquifers with high or low transmissivity and storativity values 72
68. Drawdown versus time for 3 piezometers, located at 30, 90 and 215 metres from a pumping well 75
69. Various head losses in a pumped well 77
70. Hydrograph showing continuous groundwater level decline 81

vi – Module 2
 List of tables
1. Topographic survey instruments and materials 4
2. Example of recording 12
3. Layout of a spreadsheet for calculating coordinates, using 360° graduation 28
4. Calculation of station coordinates, using a spreadsheet (360° graduation) 29
5. Extract of Nabusenga irrigation scheme (Zimbabwe) field survey data from the survey notebook:
recording using the rise and fall method 40
6. Extract of Nabusenga irrigation scheme (Zimbabwe) field survey data from the survey notebook:
recording using the height of line of collimation method 41
7. Example of a soil pit description 46
8. Typical basic infiltration rate 47
9. Range of available moisture contents for different soil types 50
10. Available moisture for different soil types 50
11. Example of hydrological data from Gwayi catchment in Zimbabwe 58
12. Yield/live storage rations 59
13. Estimate of the water balance of the world 64
14. Optimum groundwater entrance velocity through a well screen 70
15. Guidelines to range of water level measurements in a pumping well and in piezometers 73

Module 2 – vii
 List of abbreviations
A Area
AM Available Moisture
BM Benchmark
BS Back Station
CA Catchment Area
CV Coefficient of Variation
D Distance
D Bulk density
DC Dam Capacity
DS Dead Storage
E Error or misclosure
E Evaporation
EF Evaporation Factor
EI Evaporation Index
EPD Equivalent Pore Diameter
FC Field Capacity
FS Forward Station
H Height
HP Hewlett Packard
Hz Horizontal angle
I Current
IS Intermediate Station
K Hydraulic conductivity
K Constant
L Length
MAI Mean Annual Inflow
MAR Mean Annual Runoff
P Precipitation
PVC Polyethylene Vinyl Chloride
PWL Pumping Water Level
PWP Permanent Wilting Point
Q Discharge
R Rainfall
R Recharge
R Resistance
R Runoff
RL Reduced Level
RO Reference Object
S Staff intercept
SA Sediment Allowance

viii – Module 2
 Module 2: Natural resources assessment

SC Sediment Concentration
SM Sediment Mass
SM Soil Moisture
SMT Soil Moisture Tension
SR Storage Ratio
SV Sediment Volume
SWL Static Water level
T Transmissivity
TBM Temporary Benchmark
U Live storage capacity of dam
UNEP United Nations Environment Programme
V Velocity
V Vertical angle
V Vertical height
V Volume
VES Vertical Electric Sounding
WA Water Availability
WHC Water Holding Capacity
WP Wilting Point
X X coordinate
Y Y coordinate

Module 2 – ix
 Chapter 1
Introduction

Land is not regarded simply in terms of soil and topography, includes major forms such as a plain, plateau, or mountain,
but encompasses features such as underlying superficial and minor forms such as a hill, valley, slope, esker, or dune.
deposits, climate and water resources, as well as the plant Taken together, the landforms make up the surface
and animal communities that developed as a result of the configuration of the earth.
interaction of these physical conditions (FAO/UNEP,
1999). The results of human activities, reflected by changes Landscape: Landscape is a distinct association of
in vegetative cover or by structures, are also regarded as landforms, as operated on by geological processes (exo- or
features of the land. Changing one of the factors, such as endogenic), that can be seen in a single view.
land use, has potential impacts on other factors, such as Topography: Topography encompasses the relief and
flora and fauna, soils, surface water distribution and contours of a land surface.
climate. Changes in these factors can be readily explained
by ecosystem dynamics, and the importance of their Land cover: Land cover is the observed (bio)physical
relationships in planning and management of land cover on the earth’s surface (Di Gregorio and Jansen,
resources has become increasingly evident. 1998).
Land use: Land use is characterized by the arrangements,
1.1. Definitions activities and inputs by people to produce, change or
Land and land resources: Land and land resources refer maintain a certain land cover type (Di Gregorio and Jansen,
to a delineable area of the earth’s terrestrial surface, 1998). Land use defined in this way establishes a direct link
encompassing all attributes of the biosphere immediately between land cover and the actions of people in their
above or below its surface, including those of the near- environment.
surface climate, the soil and terrain forms, the surface Land surveying: Land surveying deals with the
hydrology (including shallow lakes, rivers, marshes and measurements of land and its physical features accurately,
swamps), the near-surface sedimentary layers and and the recording of these features on a map. It is
associated groundwater and geohydrological reserve, the concerned with three main activities, namely measurement
plant and animal populations, the human settlement of length, levelling, and angular measurements. Land
pattern and physical results of past and present human surveying comprises geodetic surveying, topographic
activity, such as terracing, water storage or drainage surveying, photogrammetry, cadastral surveying,
structures, roads, buildings, etc. (FAO/UNEP, 1997). hydrographic surveying and engineering surveying.
Soil: Soil is a three-dimensional body, occupying the Land levelling: Land levelling is the process of measuring
uppermost part of the earth’s crust, having properties the difference in elevation between two or more points.
that differ from the underlying rock material as a result of
interactions between climate, living organisms (including Land evaluation and land classification: Land
human beings), parent material and relief over periods of evaluation is the process whereby the suitability of land
time. Distinctions are made between ‘soils’ in terms of for specific purposes, such as irrigated agriculture, is
differences in internal characteristics and/or in terms of the assessed (FAO, 1985a). Land evaluation involves the
gradient, slope-complexity, micro-topography and selection of suitable land and suitable cropping, and of
stoniness and rockiness of surface. ‘Soil’ is a narrower irrigation and management alternatives that are
concept than ‘land’, soil is one of the attributes of land physically and financially practicable and economically
(Euroconsult, 1989). viable. The main product of land evaluation is a land
classification that indicates the suitability of various kinds
Landform: Landform refers to any physical, recognizable of land for specific land uses, usually depicted on maps
form or feature on the earth’s surface, having a with accompanying reports.
characteristic shape, and produced by natural causes; it

Module 2 – 1
Irrigation manual

1.2. Resources assessment This module deals with the natural resources assessment
and particularly concentrates on topography and
Land evaluation and classification for irrigation purposes is
topographic surveys (Chapter 2), soils and soil surveys
a multidisciplinary undertaking involving soils scientists,
(Chapter 3), surface water resources (Chapter 4) and
hydrologists, irrigation specialists, environmentalists,
groundwater resources (Chapter 5).
sociologists, extensionists, agricultural economists, etc. For
an in-depth study of land evaluation for irrigated agriculture Other aspects, like climate, environment, health and socio-
the reader is referred to FAO (1985a). economic aspects, economic and financial appraisal,
irrigation engineering, are covered in other modules.

2– Module 2
 Chapter 2
Land topography and topographic surveys

Land topography is often a major factor in irrigation their land development costs. Topographic data are also
evaluation as it may influence the choice of irrigation required in the case of flood hazard and the design of
method, drainage, the type of erosion, irrigation efficiency, flood protection measures and for the design of surface
costs of land development, size and shape of fields, labour or subsurface drainage.
requirements, range of possible crops, etc.
Irrigation designs require contour intervals that should
Four aspects of topography that have a special bearing on normally be not more than 0.5 m, and an appropriate map
irrigation suitability are slope, micro-relief, macro-relief scale is required. Very detailed topographic data are
and position (FAO, 1985a): required for many irrigation structures, especially along
routes of probable canals and drains.
Y Slope: Slope may affect the following factors: intended
methods of irrigation, erodibility and erosivity,
cropping pattern, mechanization problems, exposure 2.1. Topographic survey methods
to wind, etc. Slope limitations vary greatly from Topographic surveys aim at describing the land topography.
country to country. Critical limits for different A topographic survey should always be carried out for the
methods of irrigation are given in Module 1 and preparation of a contour map, which will serve as the basis
Module 7. for the design of any irrigation scheme. Two widely used
Y Micro-relief: This term applies to minor surface methods of topographic surveying are the tacheometric
undulations and irregularities of the land surface. survey (Section 2.5) and the grid survey (Section 2.6).
Estimates of grading and levelling requirements will When dealing with small surface irrigation systems, with
depend on whether surface, sprinkler or localized small differences in elevation, a grid survey is
irrigation techniques are used. The information recommended. For pressurized irrigation systems
required for an assessment of land grading costs (sprinkler, drip, etc.), the tacheometric method is usually
includes: cut and fill, the total volume of earth moved, used. As a rule, grid surveys require more time in the field
the depth of cut, distance of transport, soil conditions and less in calculations, while the time requirements for the
and desired precision of the final grading and type of tacheometric method are the opposite.
equipment available. Details on land levelling are given While formerly only analogue instruments were available for
in Module 7. Topsoil depth and subsoil quality may tacheometric surveys, at present digital instruments are more
limit the amount of grading that is advisable, or greatly readily available on the market. The main difference between
increase the cost if it is necessary to conserve and later an analogue and a digital instrument is the read-out method.
respread the topsoil. Some subsoils are unproductive at Instead of an operator having to note down a reading from a
first, but gradually rehabilitate with irrigation and measuring staff, a digital instrument is able to take an
fertilizer or organic matter applications. automatic reading using barcodes on the staff, which is
Y Macro-relief: Permanent topographic features where definite for every segment, and calculate the corresponding
slopes change frequently in gradient and direction may height. It is able to do this in just a few seconds and removes
influence the choice of irrigation method, field sizes the possibility of a reading error by the operator. Readings are
and shape, and land development costs. automatically recorded on a PC-card.
Y Position in relation to command area and accessibility: The For training purposes, this Module will deal with the
elevation and distance of the water source often affects analogue instruments and will explain the manual
the ‘irrigable’ land area in gravity-fed schemes. The calculations as well as some basic programmes that can be
area commanded may be increased by pumping, or by used for the calculations. The reason for this is that a person
constructing tunnels, inverted siphons and other who knows how to work with an analogue instrument will,
structures through natural or human-made barriers, or in general, also be able to work with a digital instrument,
by reservoir construction. Topographic data are often while the inverse is not necessarily the case. Although some
used in evaluating the infrastructural alternatives and of the equipment explained in this Chapter is no longer

Module 2 – 3
Irrigation manual

produced, such as the Wild T2 theodolite, it is still available Table 1

in most government departments in the region and will be Topographic survey instruments and materials
still used in the future by irrigation engineers and surveyors. Instrument/materials Survey method
This is another reason for describing this type of equipment Tacheometry Grid
in detail in this Chapter.
Theodolite x
Level (automatic, dumpy,
2.2. Survey equipment and material tilting, etc.) x
Tripod x x
The following equipment and materials are needed to
Plumb bob x
conveniently carry out a topographic survey:
Ranging rods x x
Y The survey instrument (theodolite or level instrument) Staff x x
plus accessories (tripod, plump bob, ranging rods, staff, Measuring tape x x
level plate, measuring tape, prismatic square) Prismatic square x
Steel and wooden pegs x x
Y Equipment and materials for the reconnaissance survey
Hammer x x
and for setting out the area, marking the stations and
Cement, stone, sand x x
installing the benchmarks (plumb bob, ranging rods,
Picks and shovels x x
measuring tape, prismatic square, steel and wooden
Bucket x x
pegs, cement, stone and sand, picks and shovels,
White paint x x
buckets, white paint, hammer)
Notebook, ruler, pencil,
Y Materials for recording the data (ruler, pencil, sharpener, sharpener, calculator x x
notebook, preferably a pocket calculator as well)
Table 1 lists the survey equipment and materials and the Figure 1
survey method associated with each one of them. A level instrument with accessories
(Source: Eijkelkamp, undated)
Some of the equipment and materials are briefly described
in the following sections. The theodolite and the level
instrument are described more in detail in Section 2.3 and
2.4 respectively.

2.2.1. Accessories for survey instruments

Figure 1 gives an overview of accessories for a survey
instrument.

Tripod
The tripod is the three-legged support on which the survey
instrument is mounted (Figure 1 and 2). When setting up,
the legs of the tripod are extended until the tripod head is
roughly at eye level. Then the legs are spread so that the tips

Figure 2
Aluminium tripods used with levels and theodolites (Source: Leica, 1993)

4– Module 2
 Module 2: Natural resources assessment

form a regular triangle on the ground, after which the normally painted with alternate red and white bands of 0.5
tripod legs are firmly fixed into the ground. m length each. They are tipped with a pointed steel shoe to
enable driving them into the ground. The correct way to
Plumb bob hold a ranging rod is to keep it loosely between thumb and
index finger, about 10 cm above the soil (Figure 4a). When
The plumb bob consists of a piece of metal (the bob) the observer indicates that the ranging rod is in the right
attached to a string (Figure 3). It is used to check whether position, the person holding the rod loosens it. The sharp
a level instrument or prismatic square is centrally located bottom point leaves a mark on the soil exactly where the
above a point, for example a peg, or to check whether rod has to be placed. Once in place, it should be checked if
objects are vertical (Figure 4). On a theodolite the optical it is vertical, for example with a carpenter level or a plumb
plummet replaces the plumb bob (Section 2.3). (Figure 4b). Ranging rods are used for sighting in straight
lines, marking points, etc. Figure 5 shows how they are
Ranging rod used to make a straight line. After fixing the position of two
Ranging rods are straight round poles, usually 2, 2.5 or 3 m rods (A and B), by using a survey instrument for example,
long and made of wood or metal (Figure 1 and 4). They are other rods (C and D) are used to continue setting out other
points on that straight line.

Figure 3
Plumb bob and its use (Source: FAO, 1985b)

Figure 4
Holding and placing a ranging rod (Source: FAO, 1985b)

a) Holding a ranging rod b) Placing a ranging rod

Module 2 – 5
Irrigation manual

Figure 5
Setting out a straight line using ranging rods (Source: FAO, 1985b)

The measuring staff another to compress or elongate. Most modern designs are
Measuring staffs used in topographic surveys are usually manufactured in aluminium alloys. They have a centimetre
between 3 and 5 m long. There are folding staffs, which can graduation and readings from the staff can be estimated at
be unfolded and folded into 1 m sections, and there are 1 mm. The upper 5 cm (5 x 1 cm) of the 10 cm interval
telescopic staffs, consisting of parts that can slide over one are connected by a vertical band to form an E-shape,
natural or reversed (Figure 6). The graduations of the first
metre length are coloured black on a white background,
Figure 6 while the graduations of the second metre length are
Surveying staffs (Source: Leica, 1993) coloured red on a white background (Figure 1). The two
colours are repeated alternately for the subsequent metres.

Level plate
A level plate is a small steel plate with sharp points at the
bottom (Figure 7). It can be used to give a firm surface for
the measuring staff to ensure that the elevation does not
change when turning the staff during a change point.

Figure 7
A level plate and its use (Source: Leica, 1993)

6– Module 2
 Module 2: Natural resources assessment

Measuring tape
Figure 8
Measuring tapes are made of steel, linen or synthetic
Single prismatic square (Source: FAO, 1985b)
material. They are available in lengths of up to 100 m, with
graduation in centimetres and metres. Tapes are used to
measure distances. It is important that measuring tapes are
wiped clean before rewinding into their cases.

Prismatic square
A prismatic square consists of a metal frame with a handle
in which one prism (single prismatic square) or two prisms
(double prismatic square) are fitted. They are used to set
out right angles and perpendicular lines. Figure 8 shows a
single prismatic square. With the single prismatic square
one can fix right angles (Figure 9). The two prisms of the
double prismatic square make it possible to look, at the
same time, at a right angle to the left, a right angle to the
right and straight ahead through openings above and below
the prisms. This makes it possible to see the baseline and

Figure 9
Setting out a right angle with a
single prismatic square (Source:
FAO, 1985b)

Figure 10
Setting out a perpendicular line with a double prismatic square (Source: FAO, 1985b)

Module 2 – 7
Irrigation manual

the perpendicular line at the same time, therefore no hammer if necessary (Figure 11). They are used for
assistant is needed to check whether the operator is indicating points in the field that require more permanent
standing on the baseline (Figure 10). or semi-permanent marking, for example the benchmarks
(steel pegs) or points of a grid (wooden pegs).
2.2.2. Additional material for setting out the area
and marking the stations Cement, concrete stone, sand, picks, shovels, paint

Pegs and hammer

These materials are used to make benchmarks and
permanent points on the baseline (grid survey) and survey
Pegs are made of steel, timber, or straight tree branches. stations (tacheometric survey).
The length should be 40 to 60 cm and they should have a
sharp point to ease them being driven into the soil, with a 2.2.3. Materials for recording the data
Notebooks, rulers, pencils, sharpeners, pocket calculator
Figure 11
are used for the actual recording of data during the field
Wooden (timber) pegs
survey.

2.3. The theodolite

2.3.1. Components of a theodolite

The theodolite is an instrument used to measure both
horizontal and vertical angles. It consists of the following
main parts: a fixed base with tribrach, a movable upper part
and a telescope (Figure 12). It is one of the most important
instruments used in survey work. Different types of
theodolites are available from different manufacturers, but
they all have basically the same components, as shown in
Figure 12 and 13, and the main ones are described below.

Figure 12
Essential features of a theodolite
(Source: Wild Heerbrugg, undated)

8– Module 2
 Module 2: Natural resources assessment

Figure 13
The Wild T2 universal theodolite and its components (Source: Wild Heerbrugg, undated)

Carrying handle

Micrometer knob
Optical sight

Vertical clamp Focussing sleeve

Telescopic eyepiece Reading microscope

Vertical drive Selector knob for Hz and V cicles

Plate level

Horizontal clamp

Horizontal drive

Detachable tribrach
Circular bubble
Optical plummet

Y The base, with the tribach, is fixed on the tripod with are milled and the lower plate screws are serrated. If
one clamping screw. The theodolite is centered over the lower plate is clamped and the upper plate is free,
the station by means of a plumb bob or a built-in optical rotation in azimuth (horizontal) gives different readings
plummet. Rough levelling-up of the base is done with on the horizontal scale. If the lower plate is free and the
the circular bubble, by means of three foot-screws (see upper plate is clamped, rotation in azimuth retains the
Section 2.3.2). The tribrach supports the remainder of horizontal scale reading, thus the horizontal circle rotates.
the instrument. Many instruments have the facility for Y The telescope, attached to the tilting axis, can be aimed in
detaching the upper part of the theodolite from the any direction in space, by means of rotations about its
tribrach, which is useful when transporting the standing and tilting axes. Fine pointing to a particular
theodolite. target is achieved by using the clamps and the slow
Y The lower plate carries the horizontal circle, which can be motion screws.
rotated independently of the base. Y Also attached to the tilting axis is the circle reading
Y On the upper plate, or alidade, which is rotatable about microscope, the micrometer knob or screw, and the vertical
the vertical or standing axis, the two standards for the circle. The vertical circle usually has an index level so that
horizontal or trunnion or tilting axis, bearing the it can be oriented correctly, in relation to the
telescope (with the sighting axis) and the vertical circle, are horizontal, before a vertical angle is read.
fixed. The alidade also contains the reading (system) Y The focusing sleeve or screw is attached to the main frame
index of the horizontal circle. of the telescope just in front of the eyepiece.
Y The plate level, or alidade tubular level, is used for more Y The side of the main telescope, viewed from the
accurate levelling-up after the rough levelling-up has eyepiece, containing the vertical circle is called the face.
been done using the circular bubble at the base.
Y When the main telescope is rotated about the tilting axis
Y The upper plate and lower plate each have separate clamps from one direction to face in the opposite direction, it
and slow motion drives or screws. The upper plate screws is said that it has been transmitted.

Module 2 – 9
Irrigation manual

2.3.2. Setting up a theodolite firmly pressed into the ground to avoid any further
First of all, the tripod is set up over a station, normally a peg movement as the surveyor moves around it or when heavy
containing a steel rod or a nail at the centre. The legs are traffic passes nearby. The machine is leveled roughly by
placed at an equal distance from the peg and their height moving the tripod legs up or down until the bubble of the
adjusted to suit the surveyor. The tripod head should be circular level is centered. When doing fine levelling the
made as level as possible by eye. foot-screws (Figure 12) are rotated as shown in Figure 14.
First, two foot-screws are turned simultaneously in
After the tripod has been set up, the theodolite is carefully opposite directions. After that, the third screw is turned.
taken out of its case, its exact position being noted to assist
in replacement, and is securely attached to the tripod head. The fine levelling of the machine is carried out as follows
The theodolite should always be held by the standards, not (Figure 15):
by the telescope. 1. Looking from the top, the alidade is rotated until the
The theodolite is then centered roughly over the station plate level is located between two foot-screws, as in
with the optical plummet by shifting two legs of the tripod, Figure 15a. These two foot-screws are turned until the
leaving one on the ground. The tripod legs must then be plate level bubble is brought to the centre of its run.
The levelling foot-screws are turned in opposite
directions simultaneously, as shown in Figure 14,
Figure 14
remembering that the bubble will move in a direction
Turning the foot-screws
corresponding to the movement of the left thumb.
2. The alidade is turned through 90° clockwise (Figure
15b) and the bubble centered, again using the third
foot-screw only.
3. The above operations are repeated until the bubble is
centered in both positions a and b.
4. The alidade is now turned until it is in a position 180°
clockwise from position a, as in Figure 15c. The
position of the bubble is noted.
5. The alidade is turned through a further 90° clockwise,
as in Figure 15d, and the position of the bubble is again
noted.
6. If the bubble is still in the centre of its run for both step
4 and 5 above, the theodolite is level and no further
adjustment is needed. If the bubble is not central it
should be off-centre by the same amount in both step
4 and 5. This may be, for example, 2 divisions to the
left.

Figure 15
Levelling of the theodolite

10 – Module 2
 Module 2: Natural resources assessment

7. To remove the error, the alidade is returned to its The base is fixed by locking the serrated screw with yellow
initial position (Figure 15a). Again using the two foot- dot while pointing north at 00°00'. Use the compass on
screws located at each side of the plate level (seen the side of the theodolite to locate North. If there is no
from above), the bubble is placed in such a position compass, point the telescope approximately to the North.
that half the error is taken out, for example 1 division
to the left. Unlock the alidade with the milled screw and shoot a
number of reference objects (RO), such as the corner of a
8. The alidade is then turned through 90° clockwise as in house, tank, electricity pole, etc., and note down the angle.
Figure 15b and half the error is again taken out.
Shoot the forward station or fore sight (FS) and note all
9. Step 7 and 8 are repeated until half the error is taken readings: the three hair (horizontal line) readings, the
out for both positions. vertical angle and the horizontal angle. It is good practice to
10. The alidade is now slowly rotated through 360° and the read the horizontal angle last, as this angle should remain
plate level bubble should remain in the same position. the same when moving the machine (see below).
11. Loosen the clamping screw, which fixes the theodolite After shooting all necessary points (a grid of 20 m x 20 m
onto the tripod, and center with the optical plummet. is appropriate for irrigation system designs), read back to
Check again if it is still level. If not, repeat the steps the RO and check for mistakes. Then shoot the FS again,
starting from 1. carry the bearing as explained below, and continue the
Miscentering is often an important source of mistakes, so survey, starting with the station from where the machine
the above steps should be carried out very carefully. was moved and which is now the back station or back sight
(BS).
Next, parallax should be eliminated by accurately focusing
the cross hairs (lines) against a light background and Carrying the bearing comprises the following steps (see also
thereafter focusing the instrument on a distant target. Section 2.5.4):
a. Leave the alidade fixed to the lower plate (locked)
2.3.3. Selecting benchmarks b. Unlock the base by opening the serrated screw with
All topographic surveys should start from a benchmark, the yellow dot, so that the theodolite can turn free on
either permanent or temporary. Permanent benchmarks the tribrach. The same horizontal angle noted when
(BM) are points of known elevation with reference to a viewing the FS can still be read.
national grid (and linked to the mean sea level). Temporary c. Detach the theodolite from the tribrach and place it
benchmarks (TBM) can be used as reference points for back in its case.
surveys. They are established as local reference points for a
particular survey and can either be related or unrelated to d. Pick up the tripod and move to the FS.
the national grid of elevations. They should be cast in e. Center and level the theodolite above this new station
concrete with dimensions of at least 30 cm x 30 cm x as explained earlier.
60 cm (length x width x depth). A pin, for example a steel
f. Transit the telescope (face right) and shoot the BS so
rod of 10 mm diameter, is embedded in the centre of the
that the vertical hair is on the centre of the staff.
benchmark and is used to put the staff on for the actual
reading. If present near the area to be surveyed, a BM with g. Lock the base and do the fine adjustment with the slow
known height can be used to give a height to the TBM. If motion serrated base-screw, until the vertical hair is
there is no BM in the vicinity, the TBM can be given an exactly in the centre of the staff.
arbitrary value, for example 100.00 m. It is not h. Transit the telescope, unlock the alidade (with the
recommended to choose 0.00 m as value for the TBM in milled screw) and swing the alidade 180°. Point again
order to avoid negative heights of field points. at the BS with the vertical hair on the staff. Always try
to have the vertical hair coincide with the centre of the
2.3.4. Reading and recording lower part of the staff, ensuring a more accurate
It is important to measure the height of instrument (from positioning of the peg.
the red dot at the trunnion or tilting axis to the top of peg). i. Fix the alidade and fine adjust with the slow motion
This should be done first, as it is easy to forget about it milled screw.
afterwards when one has gone through a number of
readings.

Module 2 – 11
Irrigation manual

Table 2
Example of recording

Instrument Shooting Hair reading Vertical angle Horizontal angle Remarks

position at Lower Middle Upper
BM1
(height of P1 1.00 2.00 3.00 90.51.15 241.01.50 FS
instrument is Intermediate 1.00 1.50 2.00 90.13.10 200.11.20 field edge
135.5 cm) Intermediate 0.50 1.00 1.50 90.04.00 191.10.20 tree
. . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
P1 1.00 2.00 3.00 90.51.15 241.01.50(a) FS
P1
(height of BM1 1.50 2.50 3.50 89.09.45 61.01.50(b) BS
instrument is P2 1.00 1.90 2.80 89.10.20 250.40.30 FS
140.0 cm) Intermediate 0.40 0.80 1.20 89.00.10 80.25.00 Anthill
. . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
P2 1.00 1.90 2.80 89.10.20 250.40.30 FS
(a) should be equal to (b) minus (or plus) 180°

The reading of the horizontal angle should exactly read the focus. The horizontal (Hz) or vertical (V) circle is then
horizontal angle from the previous station to the present selected using the selector knob. The Hz and V reading
station plus 180° or minus 180°. Table 2 gives an example circles are distinguished by the colour of the windows.
of the recording of the readings for two stations. Yellow is for the Hz circle and white is for the V circle. The
method of reading is the same for both circles. The
2.3.5. Reading the angles estimation of reading is 1". Figure 16 shows the reading for
the 360° model (a) and for the 400g model (b).
Different theodolites can have different methods of
readings. In addition to the method given for the Wild T2
Circle reading method of the Sokkisha TM20H
theodolite (which is the theodolite that has been described
Theodolite
as an example in Section 2.3.1), two other examples are also
given below. Minutes (') and seconds (") are read by turning the
adjustment screw until the single hair moves exactly in
Circle reading method of the Wild T2 Universal between the double hairs of the horizontal angle reading
Theodolite or the vertical angle reading. The graduation value of the
reading scale is 10" and the estimation of the reading is
The eyepiece of the reading microscope is turned until the 5".
circle graduation lines (top window of Figure 16) are in

Figure 16
Reading of the angles, using a Wild T2 universal theodolite (Source: Wild Heerbrugg, undated)

a. Hz = 94°12'44" (360° graduation) b. Hz = 105,8224g (400g graduation)

12 – Module 2
 Module 2: Natural resources assessment

Circle reading method of the Zeiss THEO 020B

Figure 17 theodolite
Reading of the angles, using a Sokkisha TM20H
theodolite
Both the horizontal and vertical angles are read
simultaneously without adjustments (Figure 18). The
graduation value of the reading is 1' and the estimation of
the reading 10".

2.3.6. Measuring horizontal angles

An angle formed by the points APB will be indicated by the
angle formed by the points A'PB' when projected on to a
map (Figure 19).

Hz = 327°29'10"
All geodesy calculations are done in the horizontally-
projected plane. Thus one is interested in the angle A'PB'.
A theodolite is an instrument that can be used to measure
Only one angle is read at a time. For example, in Figure 17 angles in the horizontal plane.
only the horizontal angle is read. In order to make the
vertical angle reading, the adjustment screws have to be As explained in Section 2.3.1, the theodolite has a
used again to move the single hair of that angle to read in telescope, rotating around the horizontal or tilting axis
between the double hairs. (called the second axis). The telescope and the second axis
can rotate together around the vertical or standing axis
(called the first axis) (Figure 20).

Figure 18
Reading of the angles, using a Zeiss THEO 020B theodolite

a. Hz = 217°06'20"

b. V = 93°03'00"

Figure 19
Angle projection

Module 2 – 13
Irrigation manual

Figure 20
Principle of two axes

Furthermore, there is a horizontal plate with divisions in The vertical circle sits on the side of the telescope,
degrees, perpendicular to the first axis. A reading device or perpendicular to the second axis and rotates with the
scale is connected to the first axis and rotates around it, telescope around this axis. In nearly all theodolites one
together with the telescope and second axis, over the reads zenith angles, which means that pointing
horizontal plate. perpendicularly upwards is 0° and horizontally is 90°.
With the theodolite located at point P (Figure 19), it will As explained in Section 2.3.6, all points read with the
make no difference if one shoots A or A'. Also, when theodolite are plotted on a map as the horizontal projection
turning the telescope around the vertical axis to shoot B, it of these points. If a vertical angle is involved when reading
does not make a difference if one shoots B or B'. In other a point, the horizontally projected distance from the
words, when shooting points A and B, the difference theodolite to that point will not equal the distance of the
between the two readings on the horizontal plate is the line of sight or slope distance. The difference is larger when
angle between the two horizontal projections of these the vertical angle is close to 0° and smaller when the vertical
points (angle at A' minus angle at B'). angle is close to 90°.
In the particular case where, for example, a sprinkler
2.3.7. Measuring vertical angles
irrigation system has to be implemented on sloping land
Besides measuring horizontal angles, theodolites are also (areas going up to 4-5% slope), the total length of the pipes
equipped to measure vertical angles. Angles can be read to be ordered based on the distances calculated from the
from the vertical circle (Figure 21). topographic map will be less than when calculated on the
real slope distance. At the same time, friction losses will be
Figure 21 slightly underestimated. However, by allowing
Vertical angle measurement contingencies on the total bill of quantities and on the total
dynamic head of the system, this difference will be taken
care of.

2.3.8. The stadia system

When looking through the telescope, three horizontal hairs
(or lines) can be noticed (lower, middle and upper). The
lower and upper hairs are called stadia lines. Stadia lines
intersect the image of the staff and define a fixed angle. The
distance between the hairs is fixed and is called stadia
interval. When viewed through the telescope, the stadia
hairs cover a certain length S on the staff. The value of S

14 – Module 2
 Module 2: Natural resources assessment

Figure 22
The stadia system

i = Stadia interval
S = Staff intercept
f = Focal length
c = Distance of object glass to instrument axis
o = Outer focal point
D = Horizontal distance from instrument to staff
d = Horizontal distance from outer focal point to staff

depends on the horizontal distance D between the f

With = stadia constant K, and f + c = constant C,
instrument and the staff (Figure 22). In this case the staff is i
read with a horizontal line of sight.
the formula can be written as:

2.3.9. Calculating horizontal distances, vertical

Equation 3
heights and reduced levels
D = KxS+C
Horizontal distance
The horizontal distance D can be calculated from the For most theodolites K = 100 and C = 0, resulting in:
following equations, which are derived from Figure 22.
Equation 4
From the similar triangles, it follows:
D = 100 x S
Equation 1
The middle hair divides S into two equal distances, which
d f gives the possibility of verifying the readings. A difference of
=
S i 2 to 10 mm between the top and lower half intercept is
and: acceptable, but more than 10 mm indicates an error that
needs to be checked.
Equation 2
Obviously, multiple height differences between the staff
d = D - (f + c) position and the instrument will make it impossible to read
the staff with a horizontal line of sight. The telescope then
Combining Equation 1 and 2 results in the following: must be rotated over the second axis and the vertical angle
recorded.
D - (f + c) f
= In order to calculate the horizontal distance D in such
S i
cases, the equations below have been derived from Figure
or:
23.
f
D = x S + (f + c)
i

Module 2 – 15
Irrigation manual

Figure 23
Calculating the horizontal distance

Equation 5
Figure 24
D = L x sinϑ Calculating the vertical height
Where:
L = 100 x S'
S' = S x sinϑ

Therefore:

L = 100 x S x sinϑ

It should be noted, however, that this is only true when ϑ

is close to 90°. It is then assumed that the upper and lower
lines of sight are parallel to the middle line. Therefore: keep
ϑ between 85° and 95°.

Substituting for L in Equation 5 gives:

Equation 6 1
Since: cotϑ = , therefore: V = d x cotϑ
tanϑ
D = 100 x S x sin2ϑ
cosϑ
Substituting cotϑ = results in:
D is the reduction of the slope distance L to the required sinϑ
horizontal distance (Figure 23). However, Equation 6 is
cumbersome for manual calculations. Therefore, for angles Equation 7
between 85° and 95°, where sin2ϑ is almost 1, Equation 6
cosϑ
again reads like Equation 4, or D = 100 x S. Thus, a V = Dx
maximum error of 0.76% is accepted (= 2 x (sin90 - sinϑ
sin85) x 100).
Substituting the formula for D (Equation 6) in Equation 7
Vertical height results in the following:

The reduction of the vertical angle is also needed (Figure cosϑ

V = 100 x S x sin2ϑ x
24). sinϑ

From Figure 24 it can be derived that: V = 100 x S x sinϑ x cosϑ

D D 1
Tanϑ = or V = Since: sinϑ x cosϑ = sin2ϑ, it follows:
V tanϑ 2

16 – Module 2
 Module 2: Natural resources assessment

Equation 8 Substituting for V (Equation 8) in Equation 9 gives the

following:
100
V = x S x sin2ϑ
2 Equation 10

100
Reduced level H = x S x sin2ϑ + Hi - h
2
Strictly speaking, the reduced level refers to the elevation of
a point relative to the mean sea level. For example, if the Sin 2ϑ gives a negative sign when ϑ is more than 90°, which
elevation of a point P in relation to a benchmark is 5 m and occurs when viewing downhill. In such cases the term
if the reduced level of the benchmark, which is the elevation (100/2 x S x sin2ϑ) becomes negative.
of the benchmark above the mean sea level, is 10 m, then
If the reduced levels are included in Equation 10, Equation
the reduced level of P, which is the elevation of P relative to
11 results:
the mean sea level, is 5 + 10 = 15 m. However, in reality
it is not always possible to link the elevations of the area to Equation 11
be surveyed to the mean sea level. This is the case when
there is no point available, of which the reduced level (the RLs = RLi + Hi ±
100
x S x sin2ϑ - h
elevation above sea level) is known. In that case, a fictive 2
elevation can be given to a benchmark, for example 100 m, Where:
and the elevation of point P relative to the elevation of that RLs = Reduced ground level at the staff
benchmark can be measured. If the difference in elevation position (m)
between P and the benchmark is 5 m, then the elevation RLi = Reduced ground level at the
(reduced level) of P is 100 + 5 = 105 m. instrument position (m)
Hi = Height of the instrument (m)
From Equation 8 one can derive the formula for the S = Stadia hair interval or staff intercept (m)
calculation of the reduced levels of the points related to the ϑ = Vertical angle in degrees (°),
theodolite position (Figure 25). minutes ('), seconds (")
h = Middle hair reading (m)
The difference in height between the ground level at the
theodolite position (RLi) and the ground level at the staff
Equation 11 holds for theodolites where the stadia constant
position (RLs) is represented by H and:
K equals 100. If this is not the case, the correct constant K
H + h = V +Hi should be put, which will change the number 100/2.
or: Equation 11 is the formula used in calculating reduced
levels after a tacheometric survey.
Equation 9

H = Hi + V - h

Figure 25
Calculating the reduced level

Hi = Height of instrument
h = Middle hair reading

Module 2 – 17
Irrigation manual

2.3.10. Accuracy non verticality of the staff, etc., all contribute to the
Normal theodolites have enough accuracy for all angular misclosure one can experience when plotting
measurements needed for the preparation and the traverse of the benchmarks or stations. Horizontal
implementation of irrigation schemes. angular misclosure will be discussed in detail in Section
2.5.3.
For altimetry (height measurements), goniometry
(horizontal angle measurements) and telemetry (distance 2.4. The level
measurements), several sources of error have to be
considered. Sources of error include the inaccuracy Level instruments are available in many different models
inherent in the instrument, the graduation of the staff, the with different features, accuracy, etc. Two types commonly
verticality of the staff, the inclination, the distance, the mis- used to take the elevation readings of points in the field are
centering of the theodolite as well as the staff, weather the tilting level (Figure 26a) and the automatic level (Figure
conditions and the human eye. 27a). The main difference between the two types is the
tilting screw of the tilting level. This tilting screw is used for
Special attention should be given to the following: horizontal adjustments of the instrument to ensure that
1. The staff reading: if the stadia constant is 100 and the there is a horizontal line of sight. The automatic level has an
smallest graduation estimated on the staff is ± 1 mm, automatic compensator, which is a mechanism that
there will be ± 10 cm (= 100 x 1 mm) uncertainty in automatically gives a horizontal line of sight because of the
the horizontal distance. For distances over 100 m, the gravitational force on the compensator.
estimation of the staff intercept will not be any better If the level instruments have horizontal circles one could set
than ± 5 mm, resulting in ± 50 cm of uncertainty in out horizontal angles without resorting to the theodolite or,
the horizontal distance. This is the reason why reading in the case of right angles, to prismatic squares. Thus, such
distances should be kept below 100 m, especially for level instruments could be used to set out the grid. From
the stations. If conditions allow, for example favourable the above it can be concluded that the tilting level is more
weather, intermittent readings could go up to 150 m. laborious to use than the automatic level, and is therefore
2. Non-verticality of the staff and telescope inclination: a becoming less popular.
combination of both can amount to a serious error.
After mounting either of the instruments on a tripod, one
Therefore, the persons who hold the staff should be
has to exactly centre the bubble of the circular level with the
instructed to keep staffs vertical and the telescope
levelling screws (Figure 27b and Figure 14). Two levelling
inclination should be kept within ± 5° from the
screws are turned at the same time. The one nearest to the
horizontal line of sight.
circular level should be turned anti-clockwise and the
3. The vertical angle: this takes into consideration what has opposite one should be turned clockwise. When centered,
been described under (2) and asks for telescope the vertical line of the instrument is actually vertical. The
inclination less than ± 5° from the horizontal line of automatic level is now ready for use. The tilting level still
sight. If, for example, the actual vertical angle is 85°, needs horizontal adjustment. Looking through the
which is wrongly read as 84º, the reading error of 1° telescope eyepiece the coincidence reading level appears on
results in the following horizontal distance error: the left of the field of view (Figure 26b). To centre the level
For 85°: D = 100 x S x sin285 = 99.24 x S one has to coincide the tips of the split bubble with the
tilting screw. Now the tilting level is also ready for use.
For 84°: D = 100 x S x sin284 = 98.91 x S
Error: (99.24 - 98.91) x S = 0.33 x S 2.5. Tacheometric survey
If the actual angle is 80° but misread as 79°, the error Tacheometry stands for the Greek word meaning ‘fast
would increase to 0.62 x S. measure’. ‘Fast’ because heights and distances between the
In general, it is accepted that for a distance measured ground marks are obtained by optical means only, as such
by the stadia method an error of ± 0.3% will be eliminating the slower process of measuring by tape.
acceptable (30 cm per 100 m) and that errors on The instrument used for tacheometric surveys is the
height differences will be within ± 4 cm. theodolite, which has been described in Section 2.3. The
4. The horizontal angle: miscentering of the theodolite, too following sections describe the sequential procedure of
long reading distances, shimmering due to hot carrying out tacheometric surveys.
temperatures, miscentering the staff on top of the peg,

18 – Module 2
 Module 2: Natural resources assessment

Figure 26
Tilting level (Source: Kern & Co, undated)

1
4

2 4 1 5

5
2 6
3 6 7
3 8

7 9

8
10

a. Components

1. Spirit level mirror 1. Telescope objective

2. Telescope eyepiece with diopter scale 2. Reflecting surface
3. Tilting screw 3. Horizontal circle
4. Telescope objective 4. Spirit level mirror
5. Focussing knob 5. Telescope eyepiece with diopter scale
6. Horizontal slow motion screw 6. Circular level
7. Tripod head 7. Tilting screw
8. Fastening screw 8. Circle reading magnifier
9. Tripod head
10. Fastening screw

Not centered Centered

b. Coincidence bubble of a tilting level

Module 2 – 19
Irrigation manual

Figure 27
Automatic level (Source: Leica, undated)

7 8
6

2
9

1 3
5
10

11
3

12

a. Components

1. Base plate 1. Observation prism of circular level

2. Horizontal circle 2. Peep sight
3. Functioning control 3. Focussing knob
4. Eyepiece
5. Adjusting screw cover
6. Circular level
7. Centering point
8. Peep sight
9. Objective
10. Focussing knob
11. Fine motion adjustment screw
12. Levelling screw

b. Centering circular bubble of an automatic level

20 – Module 2
 Module 2: Natural resources assessment

2.5.1. The reconnaissance survey control surveying, used to determine the horizontal points
The reconnaissance survey is one of the most important or rectangular coordinates of control points. There are two
aspects of any surveying operation and must always be types of traverses:
undertaken before any angles or distances are measured. Y Open traverse: a traverse that does not close on a
The aim of the reconnaissance survey is to familiarize known point. Such a traverse cannot be checked and
oneself with the area and to locate suitable positions for should therefore be avoided
stations. Often people neglect this process, leading to
Y Closed traverse: a traverse that starts from one
wasted time and inaccurate work later. An overall picture of
coordinated point and closes on another coordinated
the area is obtained by walking all over the site, even more
point or on its starting point, forming a polygon
than once. If plans or maps of the area (or aerial
(Figure 28)
photographs) exist, these should be consulted. Stations
should be set out such that each of them can be shot from
as many other stations as possible, while sufficient survey Figure 28
detail can be obtained from them. The maximum shooting A closed traverse or polygon
distance should not exceed 100 m and the distances
between stations should be, as much as possible,
approximately equal. For most sites, a polygon traverse is
usually sited around the perimeter of the area at points of
maximum visibility (Figure 28).
The stations should be located on firm, level ground so that
the theodolite and tripod are supported adequately. It is a
good habit to draw a sketch of the traverse more or less to
scale. The stations should be labelled with reference letters
or numbers. Always indicate clearly the position of a
station, as in pasture for example, it can be difficult to
relocate them even after only a few hours. The station angles and distances should be recorded in the
survey notebook. It is important that each round of
2.5.2. Station marking observations from a station is completed by closing back to
After the reconnaissance survey, stations have to be marked. the initial point sighted (see the example in Table 2). The
The marks must be semi-permanent or permanent (usually first and last reading should be compared to verify that the
cast in concrete), not easily moved, and clearly visible. position of the theodolite has not changed. After the
traverse survey, the data of the traverse stations should be
For intermediate stations, wooden pegs are used, which are plotted and the correctness checked. Using the 360°
hammered into the ground until the top of the peg is graduation, a simple field calculation to check on the
almost even with the ground level. If it is not possible to correctness of the horizontal angles is as follows:
drive the whole length of the peg into hard ground the,
– The sum of the internal angles α of a closed traverse is:
excess above the ground should be sawn off. Too long pegs
Σα = (2 x n - 4) x 90°
are often easily knocked off.
– The sum of the external angles ϕ of a closed traverse is:
More permanent stations require marks set in concrete and Σϕ = (2 x n + 4) x 90°
labelling in white paint. It is good practice to make a sketch
of all the benchmarks or stations on a traverse in order to Where n is the number of stations.
check if the traverse can close.
As an example, the angular misclosure of the traverse in
Figure 28 is checked. The sum of the surveyed angles in the
2.5.3. The actual survey figure is 718° and the number of angles is 6. Using the
The position of a point on the ground can be established if equation for the internal angles:
its angle and distance from another already established
point are measured. During the actual survey this process is Σα = (2 x 6 - 4) x 90° = 720°, thus the angular
extended to successive stations. The resulting series of misclosure is 2°
connected lines, of which the angle and distance are known,
is called a traverse. Traverse surveying is a method of

Module 2 – 21
Irrigation manual

The allowable misclosure, E, can be calculated as follows: and plotting. However, even when using computer
software to calculate reduced levels and to plot
Equation 12
topographic maps, it is still good practice to plot by hand
E = S x √n
the positions of the stations used for the traverse so that
any angular mis-closure can be detected in time.
Where: Normally this should been done in the field to avoid
E = Allowable misclosure detecting errors back at the office, which would require
n = Number of traverse stations returning to the project area.
S = Smallest reading interval on the theodolite (")
Since often people in the field or in remote areas have no
The smallest reading interval on the theodolite is 10", thus computer facilities, all computations have to be done
the allowable misclosure is: manually, with the help of a pocket calculator. For this, in
the sections below the manual data processing is explained
E = 10” x √6 = 24"
more in detail.
The allowable misclosure being 24", it can be concluded Although all the calculations explained below can be done
that the misclosure of 2° is not acceptable. with any calculator, it can be a laborious exercise.
Therefore, programmable calculators can be very useful.
When the readings are within the allowable error, the
Examples of simple programmes to calculate distances and
difference between observed and calculated values is
reduced levels are given in Annex 1 at the end of this
divided equally between angles, i.e. added to (in case of
chapter for Hewlett Packard HP15C, HP42S and Texas
negative angular misclosure) or subtracted from each of the
Instruments T1-60 calculators.
observed angles.
Only when the traverse survey is in order should the Calculation of reduced levels and distances
intermittent readings begin to be taken. The theodolite is
For each point read with the theodolite, the reduced level
again set up over a station and all necessary readings are
is calculated with Equation 11 and the horizontal distance
taken, including the neighbouring stations and the points in
with Equation 6. If the line of sight is nearly horizontal,
the selected spacing. Where applicable, the survey should
Equation 4 can be used instead of Equation 6.
also include the reading of special features (graves, anthills,
etc.), existing infrastructure (roads, canals or pipe layouts),
water sources, etc. Calculation of coordinates
During the survey, horizontal angles (α or ϕ) and
2.5.4. Data processing distances (D) are read. With this information the
coordinates of a Point P (XP, YP) can be calculated. The
Once all the fieldwork is finished, reduced levels and
coordinates of a point give the relative position of that
distances and coordinates have to be calculated, and
point to x and y-axes (Figure 29). In the field angles are
distances and angles plotted.
read, but for the calculation of the coordinates the bearing
For those who have access to computers, software is (β) is required, which is an angle related to a fixed axis
available to facilitate and speed up the process of reducing system (Figure 29).

Figure 29
Coordinates of point P

22 – Module 2
 Module 2: Natural resources assessment

The coordinates XP and YP from Figure 29 can be The instrument is then moved to station P and read back
calculated using the following equations: to station O. This can be done by carrying the bearing
(Section 2.3.3) or the return view can be made 0°. The
Equation 13 latter method makes it a bit easier to calculate the bearing,
but there is less possibility to check possible errors. After
XP = LOP x sinβ
viewing back, the angle between the legs PO and PQ, is
read. This could be either the external angle ϕ or the
and:
internal angle α of the polygon, but once one of them has
been chosen, the same angle (either external or internal)
Equation 14
should be followed throughout the actual survey to avoid
YP = LOP x cosβ confusion.
Where: From the above, the coordinates for point P can be
XP = x-coordinate of point P (m) calculated since the bearing βOP is known. The next step is
YP = y-coordinate of point P (m) to find the bearing P to Q or βPQ. From Figure 30 it
LOP = Distance of point P from the origin O follows that:
or the length of the straight line OP (m)
β = Bearing or angle of OP relative to the Equation 15
y-axis
βPO = βOP + 180°
LOP and β are obtained from field measurements using the
theodolite. Equation 16

As discussed earlier, it is rare that the whole field can be βPQ = βPO + ϕP
surveyed from one station. Thus a traverse has to be made
(Figure 30). The starting point will be station O. The zero These equations can be used for the calculation of the
reading is set to the north if there is a compass, otherwise bearing for every station. Note that external angles of the
it can be set to any direction, which from then onwards polygon should be used, since that was the direction chosen
will coincide with one of the axes, normally the y-axis, (see above). Figure 31 shows a case where the internal
during future plotting. The angle reading to station P, βOP angles of the polygon are read.
is also the bearing of point P from O. This bearing is used
to determine the coordinates of point P, as illustrated in
Figure 30.

Figure 30
Bearings for part of a traverse

Module 2 – 23
Irrigation manual

Figure 31
Traverse with read internal angles, using the 360° graduation (not to scale)

Example 1

Figure 31 shows a traverse for which the internal angles were read. Calculate the bearings at each point.
The external angles can be calculated as follows:
external angle ϕ = 360° - internal angle α

The bearing from A to B is read in the field as βAB = 60°

The bearing from B to A is calculated as follows: βBA = βAB + 180° = 60° + 180° = 240°

The bearing from B to C is calculated using Equation 16 as follows: βBC = βBA + ϕB

Therefore:
βBC = 240° + (360° - 90°) = 510°

If, at any time in the process of computation, the value of a bearing calculated is greater than 360º, the appropriate
multiple of 360º should be subtracted from it. Similarly, if the values turn out to be negative the appropriate multiple
of 360° should be added.
Thus, the corrected value of βBC will then become:
βBC = 510° - 360° = 150°

Similarly, bearings at all the remaining stations can be calculated using these basic principles:
Bearing of C to D: βCD = βCB + ϕC = βBC + 180° + ϕC
βCD = 150° + 180° + (360° - 240°) = 450° - 360° = 90°

Bearing of D to E: βDE = βDC + ϕD = βCD + 180° + ϕD

βDE = 90° + 180° + (360° - 80°) = 550° - 360° = 190°

Bearing of E to F: βEF = βED + ϕE = βDE + 180° + ϕE

βEF = 190° + 180° + (360° - 85°) = 645° - 360° = 285°

Bearing of F to A: βFA = βFE + ϕF = βEF + 180° + ϕF

βFA = 285° + 185° + (360° - 150°) = 675° - 360° = 315°

There is a need to check the correctness of the calculated bearings by recalculating the bearing of A to B.
Bearing of A to B: βAB = βAF + ϕA = βFA + 180° + ϕA
βAB = 315° + 180° + (360° - 75°) = 780° - 360° = 420° - 360° = 60°, which is correct.

24 – Module 2
 Module 2: Natural resources assessment

Figure 32
Part of traverse and coordinates (not to scale)

After the bearings have been calculated, the coordinates can Equation 20
be determined using the measured distances between
YP = YO + LOP x cosβOP
points and the calculated bearings (see also Figure 30).
Figure 32 shows again part of a traverse. The X and Y coordinates of station P in Figure 32 thus
become:
The bearing βOP and the coordinates of point O are
XP = 0.0 + 95 x sin60° = 82.3 m
known. These data are the starting point for the calculation
YP = 0.0 + 95 x cos60° = 47.5 m
of the coordinates of point P (XP, YP).
Equation 17 Before the coordinates of point Q can be determined, the
bearing βPQ has to be calculated in the same manner as was
XP = XO + ∆XOP shown in Example 1, which gives:
Bearing of P to Q:
Equation 18
βPQ = βPO + ϕP = βOP + 180° + ϕP
YP = YO + ∆YOP = 60° + 180° + (360° - 130°)
Where: = 110°
XP = x-coordinate of point P (m)
YP = y-coordinate of point P (m)
From Figure 32 it follows that:
XO = x-coordinate of the starting point ∆XPQ = LPQ x cos(βPQ - 90°)
(first station) (m) = LPQ x sinβPQ, which is Equation 13
YO = y-coordinate of the starting point ∆YPQ = -LPQ x sin (βPQ - 90°)
(first station) (m) = LPQ x cosβPQ, which is Equation 14
∆XOP = LOP x sinβOP (Equation 13)
∆YOP = LOP x cosβOP (Equation 14) Thus Equation 13 and 14 are valid for any bearing.

Substituting for ∆XOP in Equation 17 and for ∆YOP in Thus:

Equation 18 results in: XQ = XP + ∆XPQ = XP + LPQ x sinβPQ
= 82.3 + 80 x sin110°
Equation 19
= 157.5 m
XP = XO + LOP x sinβOP YQ = YP + ∆YPQ = YP + LPQ x cosβPQ
= 47.5 + 80 x cos110°
= 20.1m

Module 2 – 25
Irrigation manual

The above calculations can easily be made with a simple closing errors are input for the calculation of the linear mis-
spreadsheet in, for example, Excel. Table 3 shows the layout closure.
of a spreadsheet programme that can be used to do the
Equation 21
calculations.
The required input data for the spreadsheet are: √δX2 + δY2
Linear misclosure =
ΣL
Y The total number of stations (column 1)
Where:
Y The station numbers (column 2) δX = Closing error in the X direction = Σ∆X (m)
Y The internal angles α or external angles ϕ between the δY = Closing error in the Y direction = Σ∆Y (m)
traverse legs (column 3) L = Length of a traverse leg (m)

Y The bearing β of the station 1 (column 4) The value of the linear misclosure is an indicator for the
Y The length of traverse legs (column 5) accuracy of the measurement of the traverse. For sprinkler
irrigation systems, the recommended value should be less
Y The coordinates of the first station (X1 in column 10 than 0.002 (1/500), while for surface irrigation it should be
and Y1 in column 11) less than 0.0005 (1/2000). If the linear misclosure is
It is possible to check the errors in the angles of the acceptable, then the closing errors δX and δY are
stations, using the spreadsheet, by simply adding them up distributed proportionally to the lengths of the different
to see if the sum conforms with the theoretical sum of legs of the traverse, using the following formulae for the x
(2 x n - 4) x 90° for internal angles or (2 x n + 4) x 90° and y coordinates:
for external angles, to be put as a formulae in the Equation 22
spreadsheet. If the difference in the sum of the measured
angles of a closed traverse and the theoretical sum, δα or ADJ∆X = δX x
L
δϕ, is acceptable it is distributed equally over the number ΣL
of stations.
Equation 23
The spreadsheet automatically calculates the coordinates X
L
and Y of all stations in the traverse through the formulae ADJ∆Y = δY x
ΣL
put in the different columns.
Where:
It also calculates closing errors δX and δY in the X and Y ADJ∆X = Factor with which ∆X needs to be
directions with the formula in the last row of the adjusted
spreadsheet. The closing error in the coordinates is the ADJ∆Y = Factor with which ∆Y needs to be
difference between the initial coordinates of the first station adjusted
and the calculated coordinates of the same station. These δX = Σ∆X

Figure 33
Traverse of four stations and calculation of coordinates

26 – Module 2
 Module 2: Natural resources assessment

Example 2

Figure 33 shows a traverse of four stations. The bearing β of station 1, the external angles ϕ of all stations and the
distances between subsequent stations L have been surveyed. The coordinates of station 1 are chosen as being
(100.00,100.00). What are the coordinates of the other three stations?
Table 4 shows the spreadsheet that has been filled in as follows:
– The number of stations is 4 (column 1)
– The external angles ϕ have been measured in the field and are recorded in the spreadsheet (column 3)
– The bearing of the point of origin β12 has to be fixed in the field and is recorded in the spreadsheet, the other
bearings can be calculated using the formulae put in the spreadsheet (column 4)
– The lengths of the traverse legs L are calculated after the measurements and recorded in the spreadsheet
(column 5)
– ∆X and ∆Y are calculated using the formulae put in the spreadsheet (column 6 and 8). The closing errors and
the linear misclosure are calculated using the formulae put in the last row. Since the linear misclosure of 0.0021
is acceptable in this case, the ∆X and ∆Y can be adjusted using Equation 22 and 23 (column 7 and 9). For
example, ∆X12 should be adjusted with:
65
0.44 x = +0.12 m
231

– Finally, the co-ordinates of different stations are calculated using the formulae put in the spreadsheet (column 10
and 11).

δY = Σ∆Y Plotting the survey data

L = Length of traverse leg for which DX
or DY have been calculated
Traverses and points can be plotted directly from observed
ΣL = Sum of all traverse leg lengths
angles and calculated distances. This is done with a
protractor. A protractor is a semicircular instrument with
If the value of δX or δY is negative, then ∆X or ∆Y should graduated markings that is used to construct and measure
be increased in order to eliminate the error, thus the values angles. The centre of the protractor is placed on a station
of ADJ∆X or ADJ∆Y are positive. If the value of δX or δY position such that the observed horizontal angle reading to
is positive, then ∆X or ∆Y should be decreased in order to a known point (usually the previous station) coincides with
eliminate the error, thus the values of ADJ∆X or ADJ∆Y are the same angle reading on the protractor (Figure 34).
negative. Keeping the protractor in place, all other horizontal angles
and distances are plotted, using a ruler for the distances.
This plotting includes all stations, intermediate points and
2.5.5. Plotting
special feature points. The advantage of this method is that
it is quick and simple. The disadvantage, however, is that
Map scale
the method is not very accurate in plotting the angles.
A suitable scale for a topographic plan may be 1: 500 to
1: 2 000 or smaller, depending on the size of the area under The surveyed points can also be plotted using the calculated
survey and the amount of detail required. The scale of coordinates. For each point the X and Y coordinates are
1:500 or 1:2 000 can be read as 1 cm on the map is equal plotted in a coordinate system. The advantage of this
to 500 cm in the field or 1 cm on the map is equal to method is that adjustments are possible before plotting, as
2 000 cm in the field respectively. It is important to use the explained earlier, thus this method is accurate. The
same units for the map and the field and only convert to the disadvantage of the coordinate method is that manual
required units once a calculation is completed. The scale of calculation of the coordinates is laborious.
a map is the ratio between distances on the map and actual The importance of indicative remarks, noted in the field for
distances on the ground. For example, 3.4 cm on a map each point, becomes clear here. Remarks like anthill,
with a scale of 1 : 2 000 means an actual distance in the contour ridge, field edge, corner, tree, road, gullies are of
field of 3.4 x 2 000 = 6 800 cm = 68.00 m. great help to reproduce a close to reality map of the area.

Module 2 – 27
Irrigation manual

Table 3
Layout of spreadsheet for calculating coordinates using 360° graduation)

No. of Station Angle (a) Bearing β Length L ∆X ADJ∆X ∆Y ADJ∆Y X Y Station

stations number (°) (°) (m) (m) (m) (m) (m) (m) (m) number
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12)
Z

1 α1 or ϕ1 X1 Y1 1
=known =known
β12 = L= ∆X = (ADJ∆X = ∆Y = ADJ∆Y =
read measured (5)xsin(4) (15)x(5) (5)xcos(4) (16)x(5)
(14) (14) X2 = Y2 = 2
2 α2 or ϕ2 X1 + Y1
β23 = (6)+(7) (8)+(9)
β12+180+ϕ2=
β12+180+(3)(b)
3 α3 or ϕ3

Sum of Closing Closing

Sum of lengths error error Linear
angles (14) (15) (16) misclosure
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
Σα or Σϕ
Should be
↓
(13)(c) ΣL δX = Σ∆X δY = Σ∆Y √δX2 + δY2
Error ΣL
δα or δϕ
↓
(13) - Σα
or - Σϕ

(a) α = internal angle; ϕ = external angle. ϕ = 360° - α

(b) If the external angle ϕ is measured, then the value in of column (3) can be used as such for the calculation of column (4). If the internal angle α is
measured and recorded in column (3), then the value of 360° minus the value of column (3) should be used for the calculation of column (4), since ϕ =
360° - α.
(c) The sum of internal angles α = (2 x n - 4) x 90° or the sum of external angles ϕ = (2 x n + 4) x 90°, whereby n = number of stations.

28 – Module 2
 Module 2: Natural resources assessment

Table 4
Calculation of station coordinates using a spreadsheet (using 360° graduation)

No. of Station Angle ϕ Bearing β Length L ∆X ADJ∆X ∆Y ADJ∆Y X Y Station

stations number (°) (°) (m) (m) (m) (m) (m) (m) (m) number
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12)
4

1 274 100.00 100.00 1

40 65 +41.78 +0.12 +49.79 -0.06

2 270 141.90 149.73 2

130 62 +47.49 +0.12 -39.85 -0.06

3 293 189.51 109.82 3

243 68 -60.59 +0.13 -30.87 -0.07

4 243 129.05 78.88 4

306 36 -29.12 +0.07 +21.16 -0.04

1 274 100.00 100.00 1

Sum of Sum of Closing Closing

angles lengths error error Linear
ϕ(1-4) misclosure
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
1 080
Should be
↓
1 080 231 -0.44 +0.23 0.0021
Error δϕ
↓
0

Module 2 – 29
Irrigation manual

Figure 34
Plotting with a protractor

The remarks should be noted on the map. Also should be scheme. Therefore, an interval of 1 m could be chosen.
put: Interpolation by eye is a rather rough method. The
1. All BMs and TBMs, their elevation and description graphical interpolation is preferred and is explained below:

2. Water sources and the elevation of the water levels Y A piece of transparent tracing paper is prepared with a
series of equally spaced and scaled horizontal lines, as
shown in Figure 35. Every tenth line is drawn heavier
Tracing the contour lines
than the others
Contour lines are traced by interpolating for every 1 m or Y The tracing paper is then laid between pairs of spot
0.5 m of height difference, depending on the requirements. heights and is rotated until the horizontal lines
For example, the contour map for a proposed sprinkler correspond to the known spot height values of the
scheme does not have to be as accurate as one for a surface points (Figure 35)

Figure 35
Interpolation between two reduced level points using graph paper

30 – Module 2
 Module 2: Natural resources assessment

Y The heavy lines indicate the positions of the contour 2. Raise the telescope slightly with the vertical fine motion
lines where they pass over the line joining the spot screw to position the target between the double vertical
heights and these positions are pricked through on to lines.
the drawing paper 3. If the target is off-centre, remove the reticle adjustment
Y The reduced levels (elevations) of all pricked points are cover. Place a small piece of plastic or wood to one side
written down and all points with the same elevation are of the capstan screw as a buffer, look through the
joined by smooth curves. For example, all pricked eyepiece and tap the screw gently to position the target
points marked 99.0 are joined at B. The vertical reticle line is now true.
As a rule, contours of different elevation do not unite. They
Horizontal adjustment of the vertical reticle line
can exceptionally unite to form one line or cross in the case
(360° graduation)
of a vertical or overhanging cliff. At steep cliffs the lines
would have to be drawn so close together that they become The difference between Face Left and Face Right readings
illegible. Furthermore, a single contour line can not split should be exactly 180°. Any slight discrepancy is caused by
into two lines of the same elevation. a lateral shift of the reticle in relation to the optical
alignment of the telescope. It is, therefore, necessary to
Contour maps can also be generated with the automatic check the difference between Face Left and Face Right
computer aided design (AutoCAD) programmes, where it readings (Figures 37 and 38):
is available.
1. Select a clear target at a horizontal distance of more
than 10 m.
2.5.6. Checking the theodolite
2. Read the horizontal angle at Face Left, for example a =
Theodolites should be checked regularly before they are
18°34'00"
taken into the field. Some simple checking procedures on
the theodolite are explained here. The nomenclature used 3. Take a second reading of the same target at Face Right
in the text can be related to Figures 12 and 13. If none of (turn both horizontal and vertical axes 180°), for
the adjustments discussed in the next sections correct the example b = 198° 34' 40".
problem, the instrument should be checked by a qualified 4. The difference between Face Right and Left angle
repair technician. readings is 180° 00' 40". The 40" in excess of the
required difference has to be eliminated.
Adjustment of an inclined vertical reticle line
a - b ± 180°
If the vertical reticle line (hair) is out of plump, inaccurate Use the formula: b +
2
readings will result. It is therefore necessary to check the to obtain the Face Right reading required, reduce the
vertical adjustment (Figure 36): excess 40" by half. In the formula a = Face Left angle
1. Select a clear target and after sighting in the usual way, reading and b = Face Right angle reading.
use the horizontal fine motion screw to position the 18° 34' 00" - 198° 34' 40" + 180°
vertical reticle line exactly on target A. 198° 34' 40" +
2
= 198° 34' 20"

Figure 36
Adjustment of an inclined vertical reticle line

Module 2 – 31
Irrigation manual

Figure 37
Face Left and Face Right readings

Figure 38
Horizontal adjustment of the vertical reticle line

5. Turn the micrometer knob to position 34' 20" at the Vertical adjustment of the horizontal reticle line
minutes and seconds index. The 198° reading at the H (360° graduation)
window will now be positioned slightly off-centre This adjustment is required for the correct determination
(Figure 38). Turn the horizontal fine motion screw to of the vertical angle (Figure 39):
re-centre the 198° reading at H. Look through the
telescope. The target will now appear slightly off-centre 1. Set up the theodolite in a level position, set the vertical
in the reticle. circle to 90°, erect a staff 20 to 40 m away and read the
position of the reticle against the staff graduations
6. To eliminate the remaining 20" excess, remove the (reading a).
reticle adjustment cover and turn the left and right
capstan screws with the adjusting pin to re-centre the 2. Transit (turn around) the telescope vertically, set the
target in the reticle. The difference between Face Left vertical circle to 270° and sight the staff to confirm that
and Right readings will now be 180°. the reticle is centred on the same graduation (reading b).

Figure 39
Vertical adjustment of the horizontal reticle line

32 – Module 2
 Module 2: Natural resources assessment

3. If readings a and b do not coincide, remove the reticle 2.6. Grid surveys using a level instrument
adjustment cover and turn the top and bottom capstan
Grid surveys are often used in areas proposed for the
screws with the adjusting pin to position the reticle
development of surface irrigation projects. This survey
halfway between the reading a and reading b
method involves the setting out of a grid of points in the
graduations.
area, for which a contour map is required. After taking staff
readings of all points in the grid and after the calculation of
Adjustment of the optical plummet the reduced levels (elevations), the elevations are plotted
1. When the theodolite is level and the surveying point and a contour map is prepared.
appears in the centre of the reticle, loosen the
During actual implementation of the proposed project the
horizontal motion clamp screw, turn the theodolite
grid pegs in the field play an important role as they give easy
through 180º and look at the surveying point again.
reference points for setting out canal alignments, for the
The surveying point should appear in the centre of the
land levelling, etc.
reticle.
2. If the surveying point is out of centre: 2.6.1. Setting out a grid
a) Correct one half of the displacement with the four
The area to be surveyed should be covered by a grid of
optical plummet adjustment screws (Figure 40 and
points at 25 to 100 m intervals for sprinkler irrigation
Figure 13). Correct the remaining half by turning
systems and 10 to 50 m intervals for surface irrigation
the levelling screws.
systems. The latter irrigation method usually requires a
b) Rotate the instrument and repeat the adjustment
closer grid, as surface irrigation schemes need land
to ensure that the surveying point is always in the
levelling, for which a more detailed contour map is needed.
centre of the reticle.
The selected grid interval also depends on the topography
of the area. For large areas with a flat topography the larger
Figure 40 grid interval of 50 m could be selected. For areas with steep
Adjusting the optical plummet slopes a closer grid should be chosen in order to reduce the
vertical distance between grid points. Once the grid interval
has been determined, the following method of setting out
the grid should be used (Figure 41).

Setting out a baseline

A baseline is set out on the ground, usually at the edge or
the centre of the area to be surveyed. It is advisable not to
site the baseline in an area that will be disturbed by the
developments, as the baseline could then be lost, through
2.5.6. General remarks land levelling for example. At distances of the chosen
The following practical remarks should be taken into interval, for example 25 m, pegs are placed in a straight
account when carrying out a tacheometric survey: line. This can be done accurately with the level instrument,
tape and ranging rods. The pegs could be numbered
Y Survey more area than required for the design
alphabetically. A number of pegs on the baseline should be
Y Surveying is a job to be carried out with precision. By cast in concrete, so that they will be permanently available.
its nature, surveying can lead, after some experience, It is advisable to take reference points, including some on
to automatism or robotism. It is at this stage that the baseline, from the (temporary) benchmark. In this way
mistakes most probably occur. Therefore regularly the grid becomes permanently fixed and can be set up again
check your numbers, angles and distances in the field before actual implementation of the project.
and make sure to close the traverse
Y There is nothing to be gained from hiding errors, as Setting out (grid points) traverses
this does not remove them. They will reappear at a later After setting out the baseline, parallel lines (traverses) at
stage when dealing with them will be much more 25 m intervals are set at right angles to the baseline using a
difficult and expensive level instrument with horizontal scale or a prismatic square.
The instrument is placed vertically above each peg on the

Module 2 – 33
Irrigation manual

Figure 41
Setting out of grid points

baseline, and then turned through an angle of 90°. Points described above). After this, the instrument is centered
are fixed on the ground with pegs at 25 m intervals along over peg H25 and the grid line A25 to N25 is set out. This
the traverse. These pegs are numbered numerically (such as process is repeated for all other lines, A50 to N50, A75 to
traverse D in Figure 41) or given a reference mark N75, etc., until the whole area is covered by a grid of pegs
according to their distance from the baseline (such as at 25 m intervals.
traverse H in Figure 41).
If a more detailed survey, with points for example at 10 m
If the traverse is very long, one has to move the level intervals, is required, the interval in the field along the
instrument along the traverse. Alternatively, ranging rods traverses could be a multiple of 10, for example 30 or
could be used for setting out the traverse once two or three 50 m, depending on the length of the measuring tape.
points on that line have been established with an Then, during the actual survey, the tape is placed between
instrument. With ranging rods in a straight line it is easy to the pegs and intermittent points are read at the correct
sight other rods on points of the traverse still to be interval as indicated with the tape (Figure 42).
established (see Section 2.3.1).
Setting out exact angles
If the length of the traverse is shorter than the length of the
baseline, using the following method could save some time For precise angle measurements or setting out exact angles,
(see traverse H in Figure 41). one should use a theodolite. However, for the setting out of
angles to establish a grid of points in the field one could use
Place the instrument exactly over a peg on and about a level instrument with a horizontal circle. It is, however,
halfway along the baseline, for example point H0, which important to set out the angles as accurately as possible. For
corresponds with point H of the baseline. After sighting the example, if an angle of 88° instead of 90° is set out, the
baseline, the instrument is turned through 90° and pegs are error becomes significant for longer lines (Figure 43).
placed at 25 m intervals on the H-Line (same procedure as

34 – Module 2
 Module 2: Natural resources assessment

Figure 42
Reading grid points with the use of a measuring tape

Figure 43
Error experienced when setting out grid lines

The error is given by the following formula: Example 3

Equation 24
If L is 50 m and α = 2°, then the error is 50 x sin2 =
Error = L x sinα 1.75 m

Where: If L is 180 m and α = 2°, then the error is 180 x sin2

= 6.28 m
Error = Deviation (m)
L = Length of traverse (m)
2.6.2. Checking the level instrument
α = Error in angle reading (°)
It is recommended to check the correctness of the level
The error in this case is the amount of deviation from the instrument before a grid survey starts. The following
intended traverse line direction. procedure should be followed in order to determine
whether an instrument is faulty (Figure 44).

Module 2 – 35
Irrigation manual

Figure 44
Checking the level instrument

1. Place the instrument exactly between the two points to 5. The fault in a level instrument can be adjusted with the
be read. adjustment screws. Reference is made to instruction
2. The difference in elevation between A and B (h) is AH booklets that are supplied with each level instrument
– BI if the level instrument is okay or AP - BQ if the on how to adjust.
level instrument is faulty. However, both readings will
give the same height difference between A and B. 2.6.3. The actual survey

3. Place the instrument on one side of both staffs (for As indicated in Section 2.6.1, a topographic survey should
example at the right of both staffs, as in Figure 44). The always start from a benchmark, such as position TBM (1)
correct reading for the difference in elevation between in Figure 41. It is not advisable to make the distance
A and B would be h = AK - BG. With a faulty level between the instrument and the staff too long. Too long a
instrument the reading would be h' = AE - BF. distance makes exact reading of the staff difficult,
especially when it is hot or windy. The basic principle of
4. Error calculation: reading a staff has been explained earlier and is shown
LE + AE = h + BF or h = LE + AE - BF again in Figure 45.
h - h' = LE + AE - BF - (AE - BF) = LE

Figure 45
Principle of staff reading

36 – Module 2
 Module 2: Natural resources assessment

Taking measurements If the centre line reading at point A is larger than that at
Using the level instrument, spot elevations should be taken point B (in which case the difference between a and b is
around all the pegs in the field. The staff should be placed positive), it represents a rise. This means that in that case
on a point that typically represents the area around the peg. the level at point B is higher than the one at point A. On the
Thus for example if the wooden peg is on an isolated other hand, if the value of a is smaller than that of b (in
anthill, do not take the elevation on top of that anthill but which case the difference between a and b is negative), it
take a level a bit away from that point. The safest way to represents a fall. This means that the level at point B is
carry out the survey is to start at a benchmark, then survey lower than the one at point A. Therefore, in order to
two to four traverses and close either on the same calculate the level at point B when the level at point A is
benchmark as where the survey started or another known known, one has to add a rise to or subtract a fall from the
benchmark in the area. It is advisable to concrete every 4th level at point A. This can be explained simply with the
to 6th peg on the baseline, which could serve as TBMs. By following expressions:
surveying a small part of the total area at a time, one can Level at B = Level at A + Rise or
avoid too much repetition in case of a large survey error. Level at B = Level at A - Fall
Figure 46 shows the principles of surveying, including
opening at a benchmark (AB), change points (CD/CE, The levels at points A and B are normally referred to as
JK/JL), intermediate points (FG and HI) and closing at reduced levels (RL) (see Section 2.3.8).
another benchmark (MN).
Thus the height level of point B is:
Methods used for recording Equation 25
The next step is to record the staff readings in a survey
hB = hA + (a - b)
notebook and calculate the reduced levels later, which is
referred to as reducing in surveying. Two methods, the rise Where:
and fall method and the height of line of collimation hB = Level at point B (m)
method, are commonly used for recording and reducing hA = Level at point A (m)
and are explained below. a = Centre line reading at point A (m)
b = Centre line reading at point B (m)
The rise and fall method
When the second centre line reading (Forward Station (FS)
From Figure 45 the centre line reading on the staff at point
or Intermediate Station (IS)) is lower than the first centre
A is a and on the staff at point B is b. Therefore the
line reading (Back Station (BS)), it represents a rise. When
difference in elevation height between A and B is given by:
the second centre line reading is higher than the first centre
hB - hA = BC = a - b line reading it is a fall.

Figure 46
The field survey methodology

Module 2 – 37
Irrigation manual

Example 4

Given: a = 2.216 m, b = 1.474 m, hA = 100.00 m (TBM elevation). What is the level at point B?
hB = 100.00 + (2.216 - 1.474) = 100.742 m

In this case a is larger than b and thus the difference between them is positive, which means a rise. This means that
the level at point B is higher than the level a point A.
Given: a = 0.749 m, b = 1.756 m, hA = 100.00 m. What is now the level at point B?
hB = 100.00 + (0.749 - 1.756) = 98.993 m

In this case a is smaller than b, thus giving a fall. This means that the level at point B is lower than the level a point
A.

The height of line of collimation method Horizontal distance

In this method, the height of the line of collimation above The difference between upper and lower stadia lines
the datum line (for example the TBM) is determined by (Figure 45) multiplied by 100 gives the horizontal distance
adding the centre line (staff) reading of the point of a in metres between the staff and the instrument.
known elevation to the RL of that point (Barnister and
Raymond, 1986). In Example 4, TBM has been established It is advisable to make the distances between the
to be 100.00 m. The centre line reading at this point, instrument and the staff, such as AD and DB in Figure 45,
referred to as a, is 2.216 m and therefore the height of the more or less equal in order to eliminate possible errors
line of collimation becomes 102.216 m (= 100.00 + when there is a deviation in the horizontal line of sight, as
2.216 m). To calculate the RL at the second point (FS or explained in Section 2.6.2 and shown in Figure 47.
IS), the staff centre line reading is subtracted from the
height of line of collimation.

Example 5

Using the same readings from Example 4, where RLA = 100.00 m, the staff centre line reading at point A is 2.216 m
and the staff centre line reading at point B is 1.474 m, what is the level at point B?
Height of line of collimation = 100.00 + 2.216 = 102.216 m
RLB = Height of line of collimation - Centre line reading at point B
RLB = 102.216 - 1.474 = 100.742 m, which is the level at point B

Also using the same readings for the second case from Example 4, where RLA = 100.00 m, the staff centre line
reading at point A is 0.749 m and where the staff centre line reading at point B is 1.7456 m, what is the level at point
B?
Height of line of collimation = 100.00 + 0.749 = 100.749 m

RLB = 100.749 - 1.756 = 98.993 m, which is the level at point B

Example 6

Stadia lines readings on point B are:

Upper hair = 1.655 m
Lower hair = 1.294 m
What is the horizontal distance between the instrument and point B?
Horizontal distance: DB = (1.655 - 1.294) x 100 = 36.1 m

38 – Module 2
 Module 2: Natural resources assessment

Figure 47
Elimination of error due to disparallelism

a. Error due to disparallelism of line of sight and horizontal line

b. Elimination of disparallelism error by equalling backward and forward distances

The actual recording and data processing same benchmark or the difference in elevation between two
known benchmarks, if one closes on a benchmark different
All levels should be written down in a clear order. Table 5
from the one at starting.
shows the field results of part of a topographic survey using
the rise and fall method. Table 6 shows the results showing The accepted error depends on the accuracy required for
a method whereby immediately reduced levels are the survey, but in general ranges from 5 to 10 x √L in mm,
calculated (height of collimation method). where L is the surveyed distance in km. In Table 5 and 6
the survey distance (L) covered is 0.40 km. The accepted
After closing on a benchmark the survey error can be
error in mm is 5 x √0.4 = 3.2 mm. An error of 3 mm is
calculated quickly by adding up all backward and forward
just acceptable.
readings. The difference should be zero if one closes on the

Example 7

Using the survey data in Table 5, calculate the reduced levels of stations 1, 2, 3 and 4, using the 'rise and fall' method.
The height of the TBM is 89.694 m.
The calculations using Table 5 are done as follows:
1) 1.740 - 0.738 = +1.002, which is positive → rise → RL1 = 89.694 (benchmark) + 1.002 = 90.696
2) 0.738 - 2.033 = -1.295, which is negative → fall → RL2 = 90.696 (previous calculated point) - 1.295 =
89.401
3) 1.630 - 1.750 = -0.120, which is negative → fall → RL3 = 89.804 - 0.120 = 89.684
4) 1.553 - 1.694 = -0.141, which is negative → fall → RL4 = 89.684 - 0.141 = 89.543

Module 2 – 39
Irrigation manual

Table 5
Extract of Nabusenga irrigation scheme (Zimbabwe) field survey data from survey book: recording using the
rise and fall method

40 – Module 2
 Module 2: Natural resources assessment

Table 6
Extract of Nabusenga irrigation scheme (Zimbabwe) field survey data from survey book: recording using the
height of line of collimation method

Module 2 – 41
Irrigation manual

Example 8

Using the survey data in Table 6, calculate the reduced levels of stations 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6, using the 'height of line
of collimation' method. The height of the TBM is 89.694 m.
The calculations in Table 6 are done as follows:
1) RL1 = 89.694 (benchmark) + 1.740 (back sight) = 91.434
2) RL2 = 91.434 - 0.738 = 90.696
3) RL3 = 91.434 - 2.033 = 89.401
4) RL4 = 91.434 - 1.630 = 89.804
5) RL5 = 91.434 - 1.750 = 89.684
89.684 + 1.553 = 91.237
6) RL6 = 91.237 - 1.694 = 89.543

Figure 48
Contour map

2.6.4. Plotting 2.6.5. Use of pegs during implementation

The results of the survey have to be plotted on a map, after Once the contour map is ready, design work for the
which the contour lines can be drawn, as explained in irrigation project is carried out. If the project is going to be
Section 2.5.5 (Figure 48). implemented soon after the survey and design phases, one
might still find the grid of pegs intact in the field, which will
play an important role in setting out canal alignments, pipe
alignments, etc. This can often be done with limited use of
theodolites or level instruments with horizontal circle as the
pegs give easy reference points.

42 – Module 2
 Module 2: Natural resources assessment

Annex 1 – R/S (read slope distance * 100)

– *
Programmes for the calculation of reduced levels in – 100
tacheometric surveys for programmable calculators
– *
commonly available
– RCL5
Programmable pocket calculator HP 15C – +
The starting point for the programme is Equation 11 for – RCL6
the calculation of reduced levels, explained in Section – +
2.3.9:
– RCL2
RLs = RLii + Hi + 0.5 [(UH - LH) x100] x sin 2A - MH – -
RL, H, UH, LH and MH are expressed in metres and A in – GTO A (read reduced level)
degrees, minutes and seconds. The reduced level of the – GP/R
station where the instrument is set up (RLi) and the height
of instrument (Hi) are constant for each reading station.
They can be stored and should be changed each time the Programmable pocket calculator HP42S
instrument is moved to another station. Before the actual programme is entered, the variables
should be stored in the memory. To run the programme,
Suppose we store RLi in cell 5 → STO 5 and Hi in cell 6
use the <XEQ> key and input the variables one by one.
→ STO 6
After every entry press <R/S) key to move to the next
The upper hair (UH), middle hair (MH), lower hair (LH) variable. The following is the basic programme and can
and vertical angle (A) are variables for each shot taken. be improved by making loops or single inputs for
They have to be entered while the programme is running. constants.
The order in which they have to be entered is:
The entering of the programme should be done as
– UH follows:
– MH – 0
– LH – STO"RLs"(create storage capacity for variables)
– A – STO"RLi"
While running the programme, the first figure to appear is – STO"Hi"
the slope distance divided by 100. The second figure is – STO"UH"
the reduced level.
– STO"MH"
The programme to be entered in the calculator is: – STO"LH"
– f LBL A – STO"AN"
– R/S (input of upper hair UH)
– STO1 – •GTO.. (following three key strokes necessary to
initiate programming)
– R/S (input of middle hair (MH)
– •PRGM
– STO2
– •PGM.FCN
– R/S (input of lower hair (LH)
– LBL"TACH" (gives programme an unique name)
– STO3
– INPUT"RL"
– R/S (input of vertical angle A)
– INPUT"HI"
– STO4
– INPUT"UH"
– →H (to read angle in decimals)
– INPUT"MH"
– 2
– INPUT"LH"
– *
– INPUT"AN"
– SIN
– RCL"AN"
– 0.5
– 2
– *
– *
– RCL1
– SIN
– RCL3
– 50
– -

Module 2 – 43
Irrigation manual

– * – =
– RCL"UH" – SIN
– RCL"LH" – STO 2
– - – (
– * – R/S (input UH)
– RCL"RLi" – *
– + – 100
– TCL"Hi" – -
– + – R/S (input UH)
– RCL"MH" – *
– - – 100
– STO"RLs" – -
– VIEW"RLs" – R/S (input LH)
– END – *
– 100
Programmable pocket calculator TI-60 – =
1. Make enough memory available by pressing <2nd – STO 1
part 6>
– )
2. Clear the programme space by pressing <2nd CP>
– RCL 2
3. To start programming press <LRN>
– *
4. In this case HI and RL1 are added and stored in 0,
– RCL 1
i.e. Hi + RL1 ? STO 0.
– ÷
5. The order in which variables have to be entered is:
– Vertical angle – 2
– UH – +
– LH – RCL 0
– MH – -
– R/S (input MH)

The programme to be entered reads as follows: – =

– R/S (read reduced level)
– R/S (input vertical angle)
– RCL 1 (read slope distance)
– 2nd DMS-DD (to change angle into decimals)
– RST
– *
– 2 To get out of the programme mode, press <LRN>again.

44 – Module 2
 Chapter 3
Soils and soil surveys

In soil science, soil texture refers to particle size or the of soil characteristics serve as the basis for soil
relative amounts of sand, silt and clay. These primary soil identification, classification and interpretation.
constituents play an important role in drainage, nutrient
fertility, compactability, elasticity, freeze-thaw behaviour, 3.1.1. Soil pit description
groundwater recharge, adsorption of pollutants, and many
other properties that are relevant to agriculture, Depending on the scale of the soil map to be drawn, a
development, planning, suitability analyses, environmental number of pit profiles have to be described, backed by a
studies, and biogeography (Byron, 1994). Soil consistency number of auger holes. At least three auger holes per ha
refers to the strength and nature of the cohesive forces should be drilled and one soil pit for each different soil type
within a soil and the resistance of the soil to mechanical if the scale does not exceed 1 : 5 000, which is normally the
disintegration, deformation and rupture. Consistency case for irrigation projects (Ministère de la coopération
depends largely on the soil texture, especially the clay française, 1980).
content. It also depends on the moisture content of the soil. Before a soil pit description can start, representative pits
Soil structure refers to the aggregation of primary soil have to be identified. A photo-interpretation map or
particles (sand, silt, clay) into compound particles or topographical map can be taken into the field where
clusters of primary particles, which are separated from the traversable survey routes identified in the office can be
adjoining aggregates by cracks or surfaces of weakness. It is checked on the ground. Doing so can reduce the amount of
characterized by the shape and size of the aggregates as well fieldwork substantially, since areas not being worth further
as by the distribution of pores brought about by this investigation can be left unsurveyed.
aggregation (Euroconsult, 1989). More detailed
information on soil texture and structure is given in Once the variation in land and soil conditions and their
Module 4. distribution are roughly understood, survey routes should
be selected as perpendicular as possible to expected
The aim of any soil survey is to produce a soil map, showing boundaries between different soil types. Surveying in
map units that are delineated on the basis of soil transitional zones and parallel to their direction should be
characteristics, as well as a soil survey report, dealing with avoided, as these zones are not representative of a given soil
land and cultural characteristics of the area under unit. Soil pits should be selected at the most characteristic
consideration. sites of the soil units and their location should be indicated
Soil surveys are, as a rule, undertaken by soil scientists. For on the topographic map for later references.
small projects, however, irrigation specialists at times may Field equipment required for a soil survey includes:
undertake the soil surveys. This chapter covers the very
basic elements of soil surveys for irrigation purposes. For an Y Munsell (colour) handbook
in-depth study on soil surveys the reader is referred to FAO Y Water flask
(1979). As individual countries may have their own systems
Y Auger
for land classification, the reader is also advised to consult
with the relevant Land Use Planning Services. Y Chisel
To judge a soil, one has to observe its profile, which is Y Towel
normally characterized by a succession of layers or Y Soil packs
horizons, describe the pits and take samples for laboratory
Y Measuring tape
analysis.
Soil pits are described using the following parameters:
3.1. Field observations depth, texture, colour, structure, permeability and limiting
material, such as gravel and crust material. These effective
The objective of the field survey is the identification of
parameters are used to distinguish the soil horizons. The
significant areas of each type of soil in an area. Descriptions

Module 2 – 45
Irrigation manual

effective depth of the soil profile is determined by the 3.1.2. Augering

biological activities visible along the depth of the soil profile, Augering is mostly used to complement information on soil
by the limiting materials and by the depth of the water pits. It is a quick way of checking the extent of the soil unit
table. around the profile. A record of the depths of the various
All this information is compiled into a form giving the layers and their estimated content of organic matter, soil
standard code description. Using the relevant land texture, colour, their estimated content of organic matter,
capability and irrigability classification system, a class can be soil texture, colour, consistency, concretions etc., are
derived. Some classifications distinguish five classes, namely sufficient for establishing changes in soil profile properties
A, B, C, S and D, with class A being the most suitable for through augering.
irrigation and class D being unsuitable for irrigation
(Thompson and Purves, 1979). 3.1.3. Soil sampling

It should be noted, however, that this classification holds In order to complete and confirm the visual field
more for surface irrigation systems than for pressurized observations, soil samples are collected. Some principles of
irrigation systems. It is based on a 5 to 6 day irrigation sampling are:
interval, the slope of the land, the water-holding capacity Y In the soil pit, each horizon is made accessible so that
and the soil permeability. Mild slopes and soils with higher samples can be taken easily. Of each horizon, at least
water-holding capacity are ranked higher. As a rule, higher two but preferably three samples are taken (totalling
depths of water application and less frequent irrigation about 1 kg of material from each freshly exposed
combined with gentle slopes are suited to surface irrigation. horizon), depending on the efficiency of the laboratory
However, the built-in management of pressurized systems
Y Each sample should be put in a sample bag and sample
combined with their flexibility for very frequent irrigation
box, clearly indicating the place name, date, soil pit
(even daily in the case of drip systems) allows irrigation of
number, horizon, depth and name of the observer.
light soils (with lower water-holding capacity) and higher
These details should appear on the box and on/in the
slopes (up to 4%). Therefore, lower irrigability classes of
bag
soil or marginal soils can be easily irrigated with these
systems. Y For mechanical analysis disturbed samples are
adequate. For determining the water-holding capacity
An example of a soil pit description is given in Table 7. undisturbed soil samples are needed and special
sampling cylinders have to be used

Table 7
Example of a soil pit description

Date 2 May 1991

Pit number 6
Position 30 m South of the gate along the access road
Vegetation, topography, Tall, fairly thick Msasa woodland. Fairly sparse grass cover. Gently undulating. Virgin
cropping history
Effective depth 70-80 cm to a gravel band on weathering rock
Profile characteristics (texture, Topsoil: Clay of crumb structure. Heavy body. 5YR3/4. Upper subsoil: Sub-angular blocky
permeability, structure, colour, clay. 2.5YR3/4. Permeability slightly restricted. Lower subsoil: Angular blocky clay. Slight
etc.) mottling. 2.5YR3/4. Permeability slightly restricted. Limiting material: Loose gravel band
20 cm thick on greenstone schist
Other features ("t" factors, etc.) Slight tendency of compaction
Land characteristics 1-1.5% slope
Erosion None visible
Wetness A little mottling above the gravel suggests slight wetness.
3F43Z/2F
Code
A-1/Gs
Class II
General remarks A representative pit of this area. A good maize soil. Derived from greenstone of the
Basement Complex. Mostly formed in situ.

46 – Module 2
 Module 2: Natural resources assessment

Y Sampling, as well as pit description, is preferably done information on infiltration rates, and especially infiltration
after the rains have finished and when the soil has tests, is given in Module 7.
dried out.
3.2. Laboratory analysis
3.1.4. Infiltration test
For the purpose of designing an irrigation system, the two
Infiltration tests are used to determine the infiltration rate most important soil analyses to be carried out are the
and the cumulative infiltration of a soil, described in mechanical analysis and the determination of the water-
Module 7. Of particular interest is the basic infiltration rate, holding capacity (WHC).
which indicates the flow velocity in a saturated soil. Typical
basic infiltration rates are given in Table 8. 3.2.1. Mechanical analysis

Table 8
Mechanical analysis serves to determine the particle size
Typical basic infiltration rates
distribution in the soil, or its texture, by sieving and
sedimentation. The sedimentation method is based on the
Soil type Basic infiltration rate law of Stokes: different sized sediment particles in
(mm/hour)
suspension have different sedimentation times. The larger
Clay 1-7 fractions will settle first, the smaller particles last.
Clay loam 7-15
Silt loam 15-25 From the results of the mechanical analysis, one can find
Sand loam 25-40 in the texture diagram, or the USDA soil textural
Sand > 40 triangle, the texture class of the soil (Figure 49).
Knowing the percentage of clay, silt and sand, lines are
drawn as shown in Figure 50 (dotted lines). For example,
The infiltration rate should always be greater that the flow a soil containing 30% sand, 30% clay and 40% sand is
rate of the sprinkler used in case of a pressurized system, in classified as a clay loam. Figure 51 shows two methods
order to avoid ponding and possible runoff of irrigation for generalizing soil texture classes (a less detailed and a
water (Module 8). In surface irrigation, it is an important more detailed one).
data directly related to the intake opportunity time. More

Figure 49
USDA soil texture triangle (Adapted from: Fitzpatrick, 1980)

Module 2 – 47
Irrigation manual

Figure 50
Soil texture class determination, using the USDA soil texture triangle

Figure 51
Two methods for generalizing soil texture classes (Adapted from: FitzPatrick, 1980)

3.2.2. Water-holding capacity or total available soil to 2 days and the maximum amount of water that a
moisture particular soil can temporarily hold. Depending on soil
Based on the data on soil texture, a first estimate of the type the soil moisture at FC is held with a tension of 0.1-
water-holding capacity of the soil can be found in the 0.3 atmosphere (bars). The lighter the soil the lower the
literature. The water-holding capacity of a soil or the soil tension.
available moisture is defined as the difference between field The permanent wilting point of a soil is the condition
capacity (FC) and permanent wilting point (PWP). where the suction force of plant roots can not overcome the
Field capacity is defined as the condition in a soil where tension of 15 atmospheres (bars) and the remaining water
free drainage of fully saturated soil took place for about 1 is held around the soil particles. Sand can store less water

48 – Module 2
 Module 2: Natural resources assessment

than clay or loam but, put under a slight pressure, sand Equation 28
releases the water more easily than clay or loam. It should
Ds
be mentioned that the structure also plays a role: well- SMv = SMw x
Dw
aggregated soil can store water in between the macro-pores
of the aggregates. Where:
SMv = Soil moisture by volume
The determination of the available moisture requires the SMw = Soil moisture by weight
determination of the FC and the PWP. They are both Ds = Soil bulk density
determined in the laboratory using the standard pressure
Dw = Water density
plate technique. Cores of soil are wetted to saturation.
Pressure would then be exerted until no more drainage Since Dw = 1, the equation is simplified to:
water is measurable. In the case of FC, the pressure would
be 0.1 atmosphere for light soils, 0.15 for medium soils and SMv = SMw x Ds
0.3 for heavy soils. In the case of PWP, the pressure will be
15 atmospheres. At the end of the test, the wet soil cores Uniform plant root development and water movement in
are weighed and oven dried at 105°C for 24 hours and then soil occur when soil profile bulk density is uniform, a
reweighed. The moisture content is then expressed as condition that seldom exists in the field. Generally, soil
percent of the dry weight of the soil: compaction occurs in all soils where tillage implements and
wheel traffic are used. Compaction decreases pore space,
Equation 26 thus decreasing root development, oxygen content, water
movement and availability. Other factors that affect bulk
Wet mass (weight) - Oven dry mass
density include plant root growth and decay, wormholes
(weight) x 100
SMw = and organic matter. Sandy soils generally have bulk densities
Oven dry mass (weight)
greater than clayey soils.
Where:
SMw = Weight moisture content Having determined the moisture content at FC and PWP,
the water-holding capacity of the soil or the total available
For irrigation purposes it is always preferable to express the soil moisture on a volumetric basis can be provided through
moisture content on a volumetric basis. Bulk volume the following expression:
consists of the volume of the soil particles (solid phase) and
Equation 29
the volume of the pores or pore space. The weight of the
bulk volume consists of the weight of the soil particles (solid SMta-v = SMv (0.1-0.3 bar) - SMv (15 bar)
phase) and the weight of the soil moisture. Porosity is
Where:
defined as the ratio of pore space to total bulk volume. To
SMta-v = Water-holding capacity by
convert the moisture content from weight basis to
volume (%)
volumetric basis, the bulk density of the soil is required,
SMv (0.1-0.3 bar) = Soil moisture by volume at
which refers to the weight of a unit volume of dry soil, FC (pF ≈ 2) (%)
which includes the volume of solids and pore space SMv (15 bar) = Soil moisture by volume at
(kg/m3). Thus, the bulk density is determined by weighing PWP (pF = 4.2) (%)
the soil contained in a certain volume. This is the reason for
sampling cores of soil. The following expression provides The SMta expressed in % can be expressed in mm/m by
the bulk density: multiplying the SMv percent by 10. Table 9 gives a range of
available soil moistures for different soils, while Figure 52
Equation 27
gives typical pF curves for sand and clay. Often Soil
Mass (weight) of dry soil
Moisture Tension (SMT) is indicated in pF, where pF is the
Ds = negative logarithm (cm water column) and 1 000 cm water
Bulk volume of soil
column is 1 atmosphere. The right y-axis of Figure 52
Where: shows the Equivalent Pore Diameter (EPD). A specific pore
Ds = Soil bulk density size distribution of a given soil determines the specific
relationship between its pF values and the corresponding
To convert the percentage of moisture from weight to moisture contents by volume, since at each pF level all
volume basis the following equation is used: pores wider than the corresponding critical EPD are empty.

Module 2 – 49
Irrigation manual

Example 9

A soil has a soil bulk density of Ds of 1.2. After drying 120 grams of wet soil in an oven at 105-110°C for 24 hours,
this soil lost 20 grams of moisture.
– What would be the moisture volumetric content of the soil?
– What would be the corresponding water depth in mm/m?
SMw = (120 - (120-20))/100) x 100 = 20%
SMv = 20 x 1.2 = 24%
Water depth = (24/100) x 1000 = 24 x 10 = 240 mm/m

Table 9
Range of average moisture contents for different soil types (Source: Euroconsult, 1989)

Textural class Field capacity Permanent wilting Water-holding capacity (WHC) WHC or
(FC) point (PWP) or available moisture available moisture
(Vol %) (Vol %) (Vol % = mm/dm) (mm/m)
Sandy 10-20 (15) 4-10 (7) 6-10 (8) 60-100 (80)
Sandy loam 15-27 (21) 6-12 (9) 9-15 (12) 90-150 (120)
Loam 25-36 (31) 11-17 (14) 14-19 (17) 140-190 (70)
Clay loam 31-41 (36) 15-20 (17) 16-21 (19) 160-210 (190)
Silty clay 35-46 (40) 17-23 (19) 18-23 (21) 180-230 (210)
Clay 39-49 (44) 19-24 (21) 20-25 (23) 200-250 (230)

Often, irrigation engineers find it convenient to use tables The differences are especially big with the heavy and light
rather than waiting for the laboratory test on the values of soils.
FC and PWP. Such an approach should, however, be
avoided. The range of available moisture within each 3.3. Soil map and soil report
textural class, as shown in Table 9, is too large to provide an
accurate design basis. The tables should be used only From the topographic map, the field observations and the
exceptionally and such tables should have been derived laboratory results, a soils map can be drawn, indicating the
from previous within-country tests. This can be more different soil types with their area, the location of the soil
greatly appreciated by comparing the figures in Table 9 pits, rock outcrops, gravel patches, etc. The soil report
with those in Table 10. comprises a general description of the area with average
slopes, indications of erosion, present vegetation, parent
Table 10
material, etc.
Available moisture for different soil types (Source: Moreover, a classification is given according to the
Withers and Vipond, 1974)
country’s soil classification as well as a standard code
Soil type Available moisture (mm/m) description.
Sand 55
Fine sand 80
Sand loam 120
Clay loam 150
Clay 135

50 – Module 2
 Module 2: Natural resources assessment

Figure 52
Typical pF curves for silty clay and loamy fine sand (Source: Euroconsult, 1989)

Module 2 – 51
 Chapter 4
Surface water resources

Cropping requires an assurance that there is enough water that the failure to supply the quoted yield of water will be 4
available at the water source throughout the growing season in 100 years or 1 in 25 years. For irrigation purposes, a risk
and that the conveyance system can provide the water to the of 10% is used, meaning that the failure to supply the
fields, adequate in volume and command. quoted yield of water will be 1 in 10 years. This is a rather
conservative figure. Worldwide, a risk of 20% for
If water availability is low, an appropriate cropping pattern agricultural use is generally acceptable, implying a failure to
and planting time has to be considered. Where possible, supply the quoted yield 1 in 5 years. Lower risk factors
crops requiring minimum water should be grown during imply lower yields, since lower yields can be supplied with
the dry season and times of peak crop water requirements less risk than higher yields. Lower yields result in lower
for different crops should be spaced and should not levels of investments in irrigation infrastructure (dam
coincide with the period of low water availability at the construction, conveyance systems, etc.), since the area that
source. can be irrigated is less. Higher risks translate into higher
The water used for irrigation can be either surface water or yields and this could act as an incentive in irrigation
groundwater. Irrigation water can be abstracted from rivers, infrastructure investment, thereby transforming the socio-
lakes, dams/reservoirs, springs, shallow wells or deep economic status of most people, in particular the
boreholes. Another source of water is the so-called non- beneficiary rural communities. However, the risk factor
conventional source of water, which includes treated should be carefully weighed against the benefits.
wastewater and desalinated seawater. Although on a very Conservative (low) risk factors lead to a lower total
limited scale, some countries in East and Southern Africa utilization of the water as less baseflow can be used (rivers)
use treated wastewater for landscape irrigation or irrigation or a greater proportion of water held in storage to carry
of non-edible crops, or they return the effluent to the water over with consequent higher evaporation losses from dams.
supply reservoir after tertiary treatment. Desalinated It should be noted, however, that the yield at 10% risk gives
seawater is not used at all yet in the sub-region in view of greater security against short-term shortages than the yield
the high cost of desalinization. It is used in some countries at 20% risk.
of the Middle East and the Mediterranean basin, though
mainly for municipal/domestic purposes. Yield versus dam capacity curves can be constructed for
various risk factors. These are asymptotic and there is an
Most countries in East and Southern Africa still have a bias optimum yield obtainable for a certain dam capacity and
towards the assessment and development of surface water any increase in dam capacity would not result in any
resources as compared to groundwater resources and this significant increase in the yield. It is thus not cost effective
has resulted in a considerable amount of surface water to over-design a dam.
information being collected.
4.2. Rivers
4.1. Water yield levels
Rivers or streams with a regular and certain minimum flow
A country like Zimbabwe is reasonably well endowed with (baseflow) are suitable for irrigation. Unfortunately, many
water. However, only a small portion of the rainfall, usually rivers in Southern Africa have short duration flash floods
less than 10%, appears as flow in the river systems, the rest during the rainy season and no or very little flow during the
being ‘lost’ to evaporation, transpiration or replenishment dry season (Figure 53). These rivers are not suited for year
of groundwater. round irrigation, unless the water can be stored in a
reservoir behind a dam.
There are considerable variations in water availability, both
within a year and over the years. To be of any value, a The hydrograph of river A shows that the base flow at 10%
constant water supply must be sustained, with a stated risk risk is 1 m3/sec, thus this flow could be diverted throughout
of failure. In Zimbabwe, a risk of 4% is generally employed the year. River B is seasonal and irrigation can only take
for primary (municipal/domestic) purposes. This means place during the rainy season between November and

Module 2 – 53
Irrigation manual

Figure 53
Streamflow hydrographs

March at a safe abstraction of about 200 1/sec. However, Many rivers carry large amounts of sediments especially
reservation for other purposes (municipal, industrial, during the rainy season. This has to be verified and, if so,
environmental) also has to be considered. the designs of the headworks have to cater for sediment
flushing arrangements to avoid it entering the canal system.
The feasibility of using rivers for irrigation can be determined
by a statistical analysis of long-term river flows. For most The stability of especially meandering rivers has to be
major rivers, these data are available from the departments or considered in order to avoid placing headworks in unstable
organizations responsible for hydrological data such as the parts of the river.
Ministry of Forestry and Water Affairs in South Africa or
National Water Authorities in other countries. 4.3. Dams and reservoirs
For most smaller rivers no flow measurements are available. Where rivers do not provide sufficient baseflow for
It is thus difficult to determine the water flow during the irrigation, storage structures could be built in order to
growing seasons. Nevertheless, a clear indication is needed, balance river flows, not only throughout the year but also
especially during the latter part of the dry season when over sequences of several years.
minimum river flow normally coincides with maximum
evapotranspiration. There are ways of obtaining some idea 4.3.1. Sedimentation
about the flow regime, such as by talking to local (preferably
elder) people, visiting the area during the dry season, The amount of sedimentation depends on many aspects,
analyzing satellite imagery data (remote sensing) and by including soil type, climate, slopes, vegetation cover,
carrying out flow measurements with current meters or deforestation, livestock, population pressure and
isotope and salt dilution methods. Whether data are management practices in the catchment area of a dam.
available or not, one has to come up with a safe water yield, Sedimentation can cause serious problems to dams,
which in turn determines the possible irrigation area. Once particularly small ones, or weirs, as the reservoirs could fill
this is known, one should apply for an appropriate water up rapidly. A simple calculation of how to determine
right or water abstraction permit from the relevant sedimentation of dams is shown later.
authority in the country. The source of all sediment is the land in the catchment area
It is equally important to have knowledge of high floods in of the dam. Sediment that enters the river system is
order to properly design diversion structures and flood transported either as bed load or as suspended load. Bed load
protection works near the river. Again, it is useful to talk to comprises the larger (sand) particles that are swept along or
the local people, who can often indicate flood marks, for close to the riverbed. This type of load accounts for
example on trees. approximately 10% of the total sediment in the river.

54 – Module 2
 Module 2: Natural resources assessment

Figure 54
Sedimentation in a reservoir created by a dam

Suspended load includes all finer particles like silt and clay. Y Catchment area (CA): This is the total land area
These materials are carried in suspension and will only settle contributing runoff into the reservoir (km2).
down when the flow is slowed down, for example in a Y Mean annual runoff (MAR): This is the average net runoff,
reservoir created by a dam (Figure 54). In general, the bed expressed as a depth of water over the dam’s
load is deposited first at the tail end of the reservoir, after catchment area (mm).
which respectively the heavier and lighter suspended
materials settle. The mean annual inflow into the reservoir (MAI) is
expressed as follows:
Sometimes fine mud settles out on top of the coarser
materials at the end of the flood season since the flow, in Equation 30
most cases, will be very much reduced. The mud is
relatively impermeable, which can cause impermeable MAI = CA x MAR
layers with no free movement of water between the layers, Where:
thus resulting in the river completely drying up during the MAI = Mean annual inflow into the reservoir
dry seasons. There are cases where small reservoirs behind (m3)
dams and weirs are filled with sand and alluvium, which CA = Catchment area behind the dam
would still allow abstraction of water, as approximately 30% (m2)
of the reservoir volume remains filled with water. In such MAR = Mean annual runoff (m)
cases, abstraction can be done through sand abstraction. A
series of screens or slotted pipes are buried below the water The trap efficiency is related to the gross storage ratio,
table in the sand and attached to a pump, which pumps the which is expressed as follows:
water from the sand. It should be noted, however, that
Equation 31
dams are not constructed to be used for sand abstraction.
Sand abstraction schemes are mostly carried out in DC
riverbeds with significant amounts of sand or alluvium. SRg =
MAI

The reservoir trap efficiency is a measure of the proportion Where:

of the total volume of sediment that is deposited in a SRg = Gross storage ratio
reservoir to that which enters the reservoir. The total DC = Gross dam capacity (m3)
volume of sediment entering a reservoir each year will be MAI = Mean annual inflow into the reservoir
the product of the sediment concentration in the water, the (m3)
mean annual runoff and the catchment area:
For large dams with a gross storage ratio of at least 0.10, the
Y Sediment concentration (SC): This depends on how well trap-efficiency is 100%, as it is assumed that all the
preserved the catchment area is. Three categories are sediment will be settled (Figure 55). For very small dams,
often used, namely sediment concentrations of there will be almost continuous spilling and only the bed
3 000 mg/l (3 kg/m3), 5 000 mg/l (5 kg/m3) and load will settle, thus the trap efficiency will be 10%.
10 000 mg/l (10 kg/m3).

Module 2 – 55
Irrigation manual

Figure 55
Trap efficiency

The above assumes that no measures have been taken to deducted from the reservoir gross capacity in order to be
avoid sediments from entering the reservoir, for example able to irrigate a given area for at least 20 years, without
through the construction of a silt trap, which would be a being forced to reduce the irrigation area due to reduced
good solution if it is desilted or cleaned regularly, or a small yield.
dam upstream of the main dam, which would serve as a silt
trap. The volume of sediments depositing in the reservoir every
year can be calculated using the following equation:
It can be calculated that for dams with a gross storage
Equation 33
ratio smaller than 0.10, approximately 50% of the
capacity is lost due to sedimentation in 20 average years SM
when the river sediment concentration is 5 000 mg/l. For SV =
δ
a sediment concentration of 10 000 mg/l, 50% of the
capacity will be lost within 10 years. Therefore, it should Where:
be avoided to construct reservoirs with a storage ratio SV = Sediment volume deposited in the
reservoir annually (m3)
smaller than 0.10.
SM = Sediment mass entering the reservoir
The mass of sediments entering the reservoir each year annually (kg)
through the river water is expressed as follows: δ = Density of deposited sediments
(kg/m3)
Equation 32

SM = MAI x SC 4.3.2. Dam yields

Where: The dam yield (Q) is defined as the volume of water in m3

SM = Sediment mass entering the reservoir that can be drawn from a reservoir behind a dam for use
annually (kg) each year, at the designated risk level.
MAI = Mean annual inflow into the reservoir
(m3) The following parameters are used in the estimation of dam
SC = River sediment concentration (kg/m3) yield:
Y Dam catchment area CA (km2)
For dams with a storage ratio exceeding 0.10 and with a
river with a sediment concentration of 5 000 mg/l, it can be Y Mean annual runoff MAR (mm)
calculated that the sedimentation in 20 years approximates Y Gross mean annual inflow into the reservoir MAI: the
6.5% of the mean annual inflow. This volume should be product of CA and MAR (m3)

56 – Module 2
 Module 2: Natural resources assessment

Example 10

Given:
– Catchment area (CA) = 148 km2
– Mean annual runoff (MAR) = 40 mm
– Gross dam capacity (DC) = 1 700 000 m3
– Sediment concentration (SC) = 5 000 mg/l or 5 kg/m3
– Density of deposited sediments (d) = 1 550 kg/m3

What is the volume of the reservoir that is lost yearly to sedimentation?

– Gross mean annual reservoir inflow (MAI) = (148 x 106) x (40 x 10-3) = 5 920 000 m3
– 1 700 000
Gross storage ratio (SRg) = = 0.29
5 920 000

⇒ Trap efficiency = 100%, since the storage ratio > 0.1

The deposit of sediment in an average year in kg will be equal to the gross mean annual inflow in m3 multiplied by
the sediment concentration.
Thus, the mass of sediments in the inflowing river water per year is:
SM = (5.92 x 106 m3) x (5 kg/m3) = 29.6 x 106 kg

The volume occupied by the sediment per year is:

29.6 x 106
SV = = 19 100 m3
1 550

This is the volume of reservoir or water lost to sedimentation yearly.

Y Evaporation E: the annual net water loss from a free The live storage capacity is defined as:
water surface (mm)
Equation 35
Y Maximum reservoir surface area A: the surface area of
reservoir when water is at full supply level (ha) U = DC - DS - SA

Y Coefficient of variation CV: a mathematical measure of Where:

the variability of runoff from year to year. It is the ratio U = Live storage capacity (m3)
of standard deviation of annual inflow to the mean DC = Gross dam capacity (m3)
annual inflow. A low CV indicates regular inflow and DS = Dead water storage below the outlet level
high chances of meeting a particular yield and, (water which can not be abstracted) (m3)
conversely, a high CV implies that the chances of SA = Sediment allowance over a chosen period
(m3)
meeting a particular yield are less. CV can be expressed
in % or in decimals
The catchment area and the maximum reservoir surface
Y Net storage ratio SRn: the ratio of live storage capacity area can usually be determined from maps with contour
U to gross mean annual inflow MAI lines at a scale of 1:50 000 for example. The storage
capacity of the dam could also be determined from such
Equation 34
maps, although a reservoir survey often has to be carried
U out to obtain more accurate data on the storage capacity.
SRn =
MAI
Inflow characteristics consist of the MAR and CV of the
Where: annual runoff. In most countries, estimates of MAR and CV
SRn = Live storage ratio are given for each sub-catchment area or hydrological sub-
U = Live storage capacity (m3) zone. An example of such data for Zimbabwe is given in
MAI = Mean annual inflow into the reservoir (m3) Table 11.

Module 2 – 57
 Table 11

58 –
Example of hydrological data from Gwayi catchment in Zimbabwe

Annual dam potential Total potential Current utilization

Name of
Sub Sub CA MAR CV MAI Storage Yield Unit Yield Storage Yield Unit Yield Storage Yield

Module 2
Irrigation manual

Zone Catchment (km2) (mm) (103 m3) (103 m3) (103 m3) (mm) (103 m3) (103 m3) (mm) (103 m3) (103 m3)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)=(3)x(4) (7) (8) (9)=(8)/(3) (1) (11) (12)=(11)/(3) (13) (14)
B1 Bembezi 3 872 10 0.90 39 000 5 850 4 680 1.209 78 000 23 010 5.94 6 272 2 091
B2 Bembezi 2 316 8 0.90 19 000 2 850 2 280 0.984 38 000 11 210 4.84 4 260 1 549
B3 Bembezi 1 576 36 1.27 57 000 2 280 1 824 1.157 114 000 26 733 16.94 28 930 9 395
D Lower Gwayi 3 343 18 1.50 60 000 600 480 0.143 120 000 25 200 7.54 2 271 878
G1 Lower Gwayi 4 471 5 1.00 22 000 2 420 1 936 0.433 44 000 12 100 2.71 2 233 1 708
G2 Upper Gwayi 3 087 7 0.90 22 000 3 300 2 640 0.855 44 000 12 980 4.20 0 0
G3 Upper Gwayi 3 041 18 1.50 55 000 550 440 0.145 110 000 23 100 7.60 33 437 9 905
G4 Upper Gwayi 1 613 5 1.40 8 000 160 128 0.079 16 000 3 520 2.18 436 145
G5 Upper Gwayi 1 553 19 1.50 30 000 300 240 0.154 60 000 12 600 8.11 16 605 4 919
G6 Upper Gwayi 2 003 19 1.50 38 000 300 304 0.152 76 000 15 960 7.97 9 880 2 881
IN Lower Gwayi 1 008 20 1.45 20 000 300 240 0.238 40 000 8 600 8.53 1 597 724
K Nata 16 785 4 1.50 67 000 670 536 0.032 134 000 28 410 1.68 6 496 2 165
L Lower Gwayi 2 091 18 1.50 38 000 380 304 0.145 76 000 15 960 7.63 2 395 1 282
M Lower Gwayi 3 968 22 1.40 87 000 1 740 1 392 0.351 174 000 38 280 9.65 1 783 778
N Nata 3 173 15 1.50 48 000 480 384 0.121 96 000 20 160 6.35 19 852 5 127
R Lower Gwayi 1 794 20 1.40 36 000 720 576 0.321 72 000 15 840 8.83 502 167
S1 Shangani 3 129 14 0.90 44 000 6 600 5 280 1.687 88 000 25 960 8.30 190 617
S2 Shangani 3 966 8 1.20 32 000 1 600 1 280 0.322 64 000 15 680 3.95 5 114 8 619
S3 Shangani 4 727 25 1.20 118 000 5 900 4 720 0.999 236 000 27 820 12.23 28 666 10 411
S4 Shangani 1 317 15 1.50 20 000 200 160 0.121 40 000 8400 6.38 1 353 537
S5 Shangani 1 704 25 1.25 43 000 1 720 1 376 0.808 86 000 20 425 11.99 7 626 2 874
S6 Shangani 3 036 23 1.40 70 000 1 400 1 120 0.369 140 000 30 800 10.14 53 503 10 752
T Nata 3 356 13 1.50 44 000 440 352 0.105 88 000 18 480 5.51 16 494 2 457
Z1 Lower Gwayi 2 734 20 1.00 55 000 6 050 4 840 1.770 110 000 30 250 11.06 994 2025
Z2 Lower Gwayi 6 458 40 1.30 258 000 7 740 6 192 0.959 516 000 118 680 18.38 425 142
TOTAL 86 121 1 330 000 54 550 43 704 2 660 000 620 158 251 314 82 148
AVERAGE 17.08 0.520 7.95
 Module 2: Natural resources assessment

Table 12
Yield/Live Storage Ratios (MEWRD, 1988)

Yield/Live Storage (Q/U) Ratio at 10% Risk

Evaporation Index Net Storage Ratio
(EI) (SRn = U/MAI) CV = 0.8 CV = 1.0 CV = 1.2
0.1 0.88 0.88 0.68
0.2 0.63 0.63 0.52
0.2 0.3 0.54 0.54 0.46
0.4 0.49 0.49 0.43
0.5 0.46 0.46 0.42
0.1 0.83 0.83 0.63
0.2 0.78 0.58 0.46
0.3 0.3 0.62 0.48 0.41
0.4 0.53 0.43 0.38
0.5 0.48 0.41 0.37
0.1 0.72 0.72 0.52
0.2 0.67 0.47 0.36
0.5 0.3 0.51 0.38 0.31
0.4 0.43 0.34 0.29
0.5 0.39 0.31 0.28
0.1 0.61 0.61 0.43
0.2 0.56 0.38 0.27
0.7 0.3 0.42 0.29 0.22
0.4 0.34 0.25 0.20
0.5 0.30 0.22 0.20
0.1 0.47 0.47 0.29
0.2 0.42 0.25 0.15
1.0 0.3 0.28 0.17 0.11
0.4 0.22 0.13 0.09
0.5 0.17 0.10 0.09

In our example of Zimbabwe, if the net annual evaporation Where:

is not available from direct measurements, it can be EI = Evaporation Index
estimated at 1 800 mm per annum or 1 350 mm over a E = Evaporation over the dry months (m)
nine month dry season. In the calculations of the dam A = Reservoir surface area (ha)
yields, only nine months of evaporation are used as it is U = Live storage capacity in (m3)
assumed that over a period of the three rainy season
months the evaporation is compensated by inflow. The method described in this example does not apply to
situations where SRn is above 0.5. In those cases, the
When all these data are available, the yield at 10% risk can method discussed in Example 11 can be used to estimate
be calculated as shown in Example 11, utilizing Table 11. It the reservoir yields. This method is described in more
is noted that the method shown in Example 11 is only detail in MEWRD (1984) It makes use of five sets of yield
suitable for dams with a net storage ratio SRn below 0.5. curves (Figure 56). These curves, for different CVs, have
The method for higher storage ratios will be discussed later. been computed for constant annual draw-off, assuming that
The evaporation index is defined as follows: all inflow into the dam takes place during the first three
months of the hydrological year (the rainy season) and that
Equation 36 there is no usable inflow for the remainder of the year.

E x A x 104
El =
U

Module 2 – 59
Irrigation manual

Example 11

A dam along a river in sub-zone Z2 in Lower Gwayi sub-catchment (Table 11) within the Gwayi Catchment in
Zimbabwe has the following characteristics:
– Gross dam capacity (DC) = 1 700 000 m3
– Reservoir surface area (A) = 51.6 ha
– Catchment area (CA) = 148 km2
– Mean annual runoff (MAR) = 40 mm (sub-zone Z2, Table 11)
– Coefficient of variation (CV) = 1.2
– Sedimentation concentration (SC) = 5 000 mg/l or 5 kg/m3
– Sediment allowance 20 years (SA) = 6.5% of MAI

What is the dam yield at 10% risk?

– Gross mean annual inflow (MAI) = (148 x 106) x (40 x 10-3) = 5 920 000 m3
1 700 000
– Gross storage ratio (SRg) = = 0.29
5 920 000
– Trap efficiency = 100%, since storage ratio > 0.10
– Sediment allowance (SA) (20 yrs) = 0.065 x 5 920 000 = 384 800 m3
– Live storage capacity (U) = 1 700 000 - 384 800 = 1 315 200 m3
1 315 200
– Net storage ratio (SRn) = = 0.22
5 920 000
1.35 x 51.6 x 104
– Evaporation Index (EI) = = 0.53
1 315 200

Substituting the SRn and EI values into Table 11 shows that the yield/live storage (Q/U) ratio at 10% risk is
approximately 0.34 for CV = 1.2. This figure is obtained by double interpolation. The Q/U ratio is first calculated for
EI = 0.5 and 0.7 for SRn = 0.22 (by interpolation of the Q/U ratio). Secondly, the Q/U ratio is also interpolated for
EI = 0.53:
(0.22 - 0.20)
EI = 0.5 and SRn = 0.22 ⇒ Q/U ratio = 0.36 - x (0.36 - 0.31) = 0.35
(0.3 - 0.2)
(0.22 - 0.20)
EI = 0.7 and SRn = 0.22 ⇒ Q/U ratio = 0.27 - x (0.27 - 0.22) = 0.26
(0.3 - 0.2)
(0.53 - 0.50)
EI = 0.53 and SRn = 0.22 ⇒ Q/U ratio = 0.35 - x (0.35 - 0.26) = 0.34
(0.7 - 0.5)

Thus, the yield at 10% risk for a yield/live storage ratio of 0.34 is calculated as follows:
Q
= 0.34 ⇒ Q = 0.34 x 1 315 200 = 447 168 m3
U

The data required for the computation of the dam yield Q Where:
are: EF = Evaporation factor
e = Net evaporation per year, which is the
Y Mean annual inflow into the reservoir MAI = CA x annual evaporation minus minimum rainfall
MAR (103 m3) (m)
Y Coefficient of variation of annual inflow CV (%) A = Reservoir surface area at full supply level
(ha)
Y Evaporation factor EF, defined as: U = Full supply or live storage capacity (103 m3)

Equation 37
After the net storage ratio (SRn) and the MAI/EF ratio have
(e x A)3
been calculated, Figure 56 is used to determine the Q/MAI
EF = ratio, after which the yield at 10% risk can be calculated.
(0.7 x U)2

60 – Module 2
 Module 2: Natural resources assessment

Figure 56
Yield curves for dams with storage rations greater than 0.5

Notes
– Risk level = 10%
– 3 months constant inflow followed
by 9 months of no flow
– U = Full supply capacity
– MAI = Mean Annual Inflow
– Q = Volume of draw off/year
(103 m3)
– EF = Evaporation Factor = 1.0 for
average dam with a net evaporation
rate of 1 500 mm/year

Example 12

Given:
– Live storage capacity (U) = 274 000 x 103 m3
– Reservoir surface area (A) = 2 030 ha
– Annual evaporation = 2 000 mm
– Annual minimum rainfall = 400 mm
– Mean annual inflow (MAI) = CA x MAR = 250 000 x 103 m3
– Coefficient of variation (CV) = 80%.
What is the dam yield at 10% risk level?
– e = 2 - 0.4 = 1.6 m
(1.6 x 2 030)3
– EF = = 0.93
(0.7 x 274 000)2
274 000 x 103
– SRn = = 1.10
250 000 x 103
MAI 250 000 x 103
– = = 269 000 x 103 m3
EF 0.93

Q
Reading the calculated values in the bottom right curve of Figure 56 (CV = 80%) gives a ratio for = 0.53
MAI
Therefore the yield at 10% risk is:
Q = 0.53 x (250 000 x 103) m3 = 132 500 x 103 m3

Module 2 – 61
Irrigation manual

Once the yield at 10% risk has been calculated with any of determine how much water will be available for irrigation
the above methods, the yield at 4% and 20% risk can be at 10% risk, taking into account the municipal water
estimated by the following rules of thumb: requirements at 4% risk.
Equation 38 The equation to use is:

Q at 4% risk = (Q at 10% x 0.9) - (0.03 x MAI) Equation 39

Q at 20% risk = (Q at 10% x 1.03) + (0.06 x MAI)
Q at 10% risk (Q at 4% risk - water need
Where: WAirr = x for primary purposes at
Q at 4% risk 4% risk)
Q = Dam yield (m3)
MAI = Mean annual inflow into reservoir (m3) Where:
WAirr = Water availability for irrigation per year
Most dams are used for both primary (municipal) and (m3)
irrigation purposes. As these purposes have different risk Q = Dam yield (m3)
levels (see Section 4.1), calculations have to be made to

Example 13

What is the dam yield of Example 12 at 4% and 20% risk levels respectively?
Q at 4% risk = (132 500 x 103 x 0.9) - (0.03 x 250 000 x 103) = 55 750 x 103 m3
Q at 20% risk = (132 500 x 103 x 1.03) + (0.06 x 250 000 x 103) = 151 475 x 103 m3

Example 14

Given:
– Q at 10% risk = 447 168 m3
– MAI = 5 920 000 m3
– Primary water demand = 200 m3/day or 73 000 m3 per year
What is the water available for irrigation at 10% risk?
– Q at 4% risk is: (447 168 x 0.9) - (0.03 x 5 920 000) = 224 851 m3
447 168
– WAirr at 10% risk is: x (224 851 - 73 000) = 301 990 m3
224 851

62 – Module 2
 Chapter 5
Groundwater resources

Groundwater is an important source of water supply for The interdependence and continuous circulation of all
domestic, industrial and agricultural purposes if it occurs in forms of water between ocean, atmosphere and land is
adequate quantities of appropriate quality. It is invariably known as the hydrologic cycle (Figure 57).
crucial for semi-arid to arid regions as, in most cases, it forms
the only source of potable water. In Sub-Saharan Africa, most It is apparent from Figure 57 that a catchment must be
rural communities rely on groundwater for their safe daily envisaged as a combination of both surface drainage area and
water needs. While there is a general notion that the subsurface soils, and the underlying geological
groundwater is the primary or main source of water in semi- formations.
arid to arid regions, with surface water being the main source Figure 58 provides the diagrammatic introduction to the
in humid regions, this is not that true. In Europe, for hydrologic terminology. The rectangular boxes represent
example, groundwater plays an important role as a source of storage and the hexagonal boxes represent water movement.
municipal water supplies and even for irrigation purposes.
Table 13 shows data that reflect the quantitative importance
The utilization of groundwater resources preceded the of groundwater relative to other components of the
knowledge and understanding of its occurrence and hydrologic cycle.
dynamics. Lack of such information inevitably resulted in
groundwater overexploitation (mining), in some instances The oceans and seas comprise 94% of the earth’s total
accompanied by the deterioration of its quality. The water volume. This water is highly saline and can only be
appreciation of groundwater as an important resource put to use after employing expensive desalinization
emanates from the understanding of the hydrologic cycle. processes. Removing this water from consideration would
leave groundwater accounting for about two thirds of the
5.1. Groundwater resources and the fresh water resources of the world. Considering the
availability of the fresh water (minus the icecaps and the
hydrologic cycle
glaciers), groundwater would comprise almost the total
Groundwater is an important and integral part of the volume. However, average residence times tend to
hydrologic cycle. Thus it cannot be developed without compromise the volumetric superiority, as they are quite
paying heed to other components of the cycle, as this could high in certain instances such as deep groundwater. The
result in the upsetting of the water balance, possibly leading spatial distribution of groundwater will be looked at under
to disastrous environmental and human effects. groundwater occurrence (Section 5.2).

Figure 57
The hydrologic cycle

Module 2 – 63
Irrigation manual

Figure 58
Systems representation of the hydrologic cycle (Adapted from: Freeze and Cherry, 1979)

Table 13
Estimate of the water balance of the world (Source: Nace, 1971)

Parameter Surface area Volume Volume Equivalent Residence time

(km2) x 106 (km3) x 106 (%) depth (m)*
Oceans and seas 361 1 370 94 2 500 ≈ 4 000 years
Lakes and reservoirs 1.55 0.13 <0.01 0.25 ≈ 10 years
Swamps <0.1 <0.01 <0.01 0.007 1-10 years
River channels <0.1 <0.01 <0.01 0.003 ≈ 2 weeks
Soil moisture 130 0.07 <0.01 0.13 ≈ 2 weeks-1year
Groundwater 130 60 4 120 ≈ 2 weeks-10 000 years
Icecaps and glaciers 17.8 30 2 60 10-1 000 years
Atmospheric water 504 0.01 <0.01 0.025 ≈ 10 days
Biospheric water <0.1 <0.01 <0.01 0.001 ≈ 1 week

* Computed as though storage were uniformly distributed over the entire surface of the earth

5.2. Groundwater occurrence Unconsolidated sedimentary aquifers

The occurrence of groundwater is controlled, inter alia, by Unconsolidated sedimentary aquifers comprise loose
the prevailing geological conditions. Groundwater sedimentary units such as unconsolidated sand and gravel,
comprises all water that infiltrates and saturates subsurface products of riverine deposits known as alluvial or fluvial
geological formations. Aquifers form important sources of deposits. They occur in old river channels or flood plains of
groundwater. major rivers and tend to be localized. Examples of
unconsolidated deposits can be found in the Save valley,
5.2.1. Aquifers along the Save river in the south eastern part of Zimbabwe
where the aquifer is used for irrigation in the Middle Sabi
An aquifer is defined as a saturated geological formation and Musikavanhu communal areas. In South Africa, the
that is permeable enough to yield economic quantities of deposits can be found, among other river channels, along
water. Aquifers are often called by their stratigraphic the Brak River. Alluvial fans, aeolian and glacial deposits also
(geological sequence) names. comprise unconsolidated sedimentary aquifers. Figure 59
shows typical alluvial deposits in a flood plain.

64 – Module 2
 Module 2: Natural resources assessment

Figure 59
Development of deposits (unconsolidated sedimentary aquifer) in a flood plain (Adapted from: Driscoll,

The porosities of unconsolidated sands and gravels range or hardened (either through pressure and/or temperature)
from 30-50% and their permeabilities (hydraulic sediments such as sandstone and carbonate rock.
conductivities) range from 10-4-10-6 m/s.
In many countries sandstone formation forms extensive or
regional aquifers with significant quantities of potable
Consolidated sedimentary aquifers
groundwater. Figure 60 shows an idealized sandstone
Consolidated sedimentary formations consist of indurated aquifer.

Figure 60
An idealized sandstone aquifer (consolidated sedimentary formation) (Source: Driscoll, 1986)

Figure 61
Schematic illustration of groundwater occurrence in carbonate rock with secondary permeability and
enlarged fractures and bedding plane openings (Source: Freeze and Cherry, 1979)

Module 2 – 65
Irrigation manual

Carbonate rocks comprise limestone and dolomite quantities when viewed over large areas and long periods,
consisting mostly of the minerals calcite and dolomite with but its permeability is not sufficient to justify drilling
very little clays. Figure 61 shows a schematic illustration of production wells. Sandy clays and loams are typical
groundwater occurrence in carbonate rocks. In fractured examples. An aquiclude is an impermeable geological unit
carbonate rocks, successful and unsuccessful wells can exist that does not transmit any water at all. Silt clays, dense
in close proximity (Figure 61). It is thus imperative that unfractured igneous or metamorphic rocks are typical
geophysical investigations be carried out to locate the aquicludes. In nature, strictly impermeable geological units
fracture zones. Examples of carbonate aquifers are the seldom occur. They all transmit water to some extent and
Lomagundi Dolomite Aquifer in northwestern Zimbabwe should therefore be classified as aquitards.
(Mhangura-Chinhoyi area) and the Gemsbokfontein
Dolomite in Far West Rand, South Africa. There are basically three main types of aquifers: confined,
unconfined and leaky (Figure 62).
Crystalline rocks comprise mostly of igneous and
metamorphic rocks and are usually solid. Weathering and Confined aquifer
fracturing increase the porosity and permeability of the
rocks. One of the most characteristic features of the A confined aquifer is bounded above and below by an
permeability of crystalline rocks is the general trend of aquiclude (Figure 62A). The groundwater pressure is
permeability decreasing with depth. This will result in the usually higher than the atmospheric pressure and if a well is
well yields also decreasing with depth. Consequently, deep drilled into the aquifer, the water level will rise to above the
wells in such geological formations are not warranted. top of the aquifer. In certain cases, where the water rises to
above the ground or surface level, the well is referred to as
a free flowing or artesian well. The level at which the
5.2.2. Aquifer types
groundwater level rises to is known as the piezometric
Aquifers are generally bounded either on top or bottom or surface. If the piezometric surface falls below the base of
both by either an aquitard or aquiclude. An aquitard is a the confining aquiclude during pumping, it means that the
geological unit that is more or less permeable. The unit may aquifer can not sustain the discharge.
be permeable enough to transmit water in significant

Figure 62
Various types of aquifers

66 – Module 2
 Module 2: Natural resources assessment

Unconfined aquifer Surface geological methods

An unconfined aquifer, also known as a water table aquifer, The initial steps of a groundwater exploration programme
is bounded below by an aquiclude and has no overlying are carried out in the office rather than in the field (desk
confining layer (Figure 62B). Its upper boundary is the study) and is a rather inexpensive process. This will involve
water level, which rises and falls freely. Water in a well a desk study focusing on the collection, analysis and
penetrating an unconfined aquifer is at atmospheric hydrogeological interpretation of available geological,
pressure and does not rise above the water table. Often in topographical and hydrogeological maps, existing reports,
sedimentary formations, an unconfined aquifer exists above aerial photographs, lithological logs and other pertinent
a confined one, giving a multi-layered aquifer (Figure 62E). records. Remote sensing data are also very crucial in
hydrogeological studies. Desk studies should be
Leaky aquifer complemented by field reconnaissance. Knowledge of the
depositional and erosional events in an area may indicate
A leaky aquifer, also known as a semi-confined aquifer, is an the extent and regularity of aquifers. The type of rock will
aquifer whose upper boundary is an aquitard and the lower suggest the magnitude of expected water yields.
one an aquiclude (Figure 62C and 62D). It can also be a
multi-layered leaky aquifer system, mentioned above
Subsurface geological methods
(Figure 62E). Because the vertical hydraulic conductivity of
an aquitard is more important than its transmissivity, It is seldom sufficient to look only at the superficial
groundwater is free to flow through the aquitard, either manifestations of a hydrogeological environment. It is
upwards or downwards, depending on the elevations of the necessary to carry out test drilling, for irrigation water
respective water levels in the overlying and underlying supplies projects, so as to better delineate subsurface
aquifers. Leakage occurs from an aquifer with a water level conditions. Test holes provide the opportunity for
at higher elevation to the one whose water level is at a lower geological and geophysical logging and to obtain
level, considering the same datum line or reference point. groundwater samples for chemical analysis. They also
Leaky aquifers are common is sedimentary formations. provide the elevation of the water level. The analysis of the
chemical results would give the water quality and its
5.3. Groundwater resources suitability for irrigation purposes.
delevelopment
Surface geophysical methods
The development of groundwater resources, coming after
the assessment (matching available water resources with the Surface geophysical methods provide specific information
demand for the water) and the planning (integration of on the stratigraphy and structure of the local geologic
supply and demand), is a sequential process with various environment as well as aquifer properties. Stratigraphic
phases. Firstly, there is an exploration stage in which surface data may include the types and extent of alluvial deposits
and subsurface geological and geophysical techniques are and the nature and extent of the underlying bedrock
brought to bear on the search for suitable aquifers. (aquitard or aquiclude). Sets of data collected by surface
Secondly, there is an evaluation stage that encompasses the geophysical methods are called surveys. Structural features
measurement of hydrogeological parameters, the design such as faults, fractures, folds, karstic terrain and intrusions
and analysis of wells and the calculation of well yields. such as dykes can be located and identified by geophysical
Thirdly, there is an exploitation or development stage and lastly, methods.
a management stage (see Section 5.6).
There are various geophysical methods that can be
employed in groundwater exploration, such as the electrical
5.3.1. Groundwater exploration resistivity method, the seismic refraction method and the
Although groundwater can not be seen on the surface, a gravity method. The first one being the most commonly
variety of techniques can provide information concerning used, will be discussed below.
its occurrence and even its quality. Geophysical exploration
methods are used either before or during well Electrical resistivity method
construction and, regardless of the method used, the This method is widely used in Southern Africa because it is
efficacy of each relies on the contrasting physical and cheap in comparison to other methods such as seismic
physical-chemical properties of the groundwater and the refraction.
aquifer material.

Module 2 – 67
Irrigation manual

Figure 63
Schlumberger Vertical Electric Sounding (VES) electrode configuration

The principle of the resistivity method is based on the be mapped using the method. It can also be used to locate
different abilities of various rock formations to conduct the salt water-fresh water interface in coastal aquifers.
direct electrical current. The passage of the electrical
current through the ground depends on the nature of the Lateral profiling provides areal coverage at a given depth of
soil, rock type, moisture content or groundwater and its penetration since the electrode separations are kept fixed at
salinity. Geophysical investigations are carried out using the each point of investigation along a profile line. The method
Schlumberger array, whose configuration is given in Figure is used to define aquifer limits or map areal variations in
63. Direct current, I, is introduced into the ground through groundwater salinity.
outer electrodes A and B. The electrical signal experiences
a potential drop, ∆V, which is measured between a second Subsurface geophysical methods
pair of inner electrodes, M and N, as a result of the ground Geophysical well logging, also known as well geophysics or down the
being resistive to the passage of the electrical current. hole logging, involves lowering sensing devices into a well and
The resistance of the ground R is obtained from Ohm’s law, recording a physical parameter that may be interpreted in
which states that the ratio of the potential drop is terms of aquifer characteristics; groundwater quality, quantity
proportional to the electrical current and hence R = ∆V/I. and movement; or physical structure of a borehole. The
This resistance can be converted to a resistivity value using a geophysical logs include resistivity, spontaneous potential,
geometric factor K, which depends on the electrode natural gamma and gamma-gamma logging.
configuration. By continually expanding outer electrodes
symmetrically away from the midpoint, O, of the array, the 5.3.2. Water wells
current penetrates deeper and deeper and so does the depth In order for groundwater to be put to use, wells have to be
of investigation. Owing to the heterogeneity of the ground, drilled into aquifers to bring it to the surface. A well is a
the resistivity measured is in fact an apparent resistivity. A log- hole or shaft, usually vertical, excavated or drilled into an
log plot of the apparent resistivity against the current aquifer and is properly designed and constructed. Wells
electrode spacing AB/2 produces the so-called Vertical may be hand dug, driven or jetted in the form of well
Electrical Sounding (VES) curve. The sounding curve is points, bored by an auger or drilled by a drilling rig. The
interpreted in terms of layer thicknesses with corresponding selection of the drilling method hinges on such questions as
resistivity values (often referred to as layer parameters) that the purpose of the well, the hydrogeological environment,
are used to determine the aquifer geometry. the amount of water required, the borehole depth and
Interpretation of the measurements is done by comparing diameter envisaged, and the economic factors.
the resulting curve (semi-log plot of apparent resistivity A number of wells, not widely spaced, drilled to tap the
versus current electrode spacing) against published same aquifer so as to produce significant amounts of water,
theoretical curves for simple layered geometrics. Software for example for irrigation, are referred to as a well field.
exists on the market that can assist in electrical resistivity data
interpretation, for example Reinvert and Resixp. The software
Test holes
can only produce good results if one has good data and really
understands the prevailing geological conditions and the Before drilling a well in a new area, it is common practice
limitations of the methodology. Various lithological layers can to initially drill a test hole of a much smaller diameter. The

68 – Module 2
 Module 2: Natural resources assessment

purpose of a test hole is to determine depths to the Well casing

groundwater, groundwater quality and the physical The casing is of a smaller diameter than the drilled hole.
character and thickness of aquifers without the expense of The casing keeps the hole open and provides structural
a regular well, which might be unsuccessful. Lithological support against caving as well as sealing out surface water
(geologic) logs should be collected and down the hole and any undesirable groundwater such as saline
logging, if possible, carried out. groundwater. The casing is usually placed against the non-
water bearing formations and is usually made of alloyed or
Drilling in semi-consolidated and consolidated (hard stainless steel. The latter is quite expensive. PVC can also be
rock) formations used but is not recommended for deep holes as it is likely
Drilling in such formations requires air-drilling systems. to break. In shallow wells (generally no more than 50 m) it
Compressed air (from a compressor) is piped down the is recommended to install thicker PVC.
drilling pipes and lifts the rock cuttings and cools the
drilling bit. If the rock is competent, which means if it does Screens
not collapse or cave, the hole will be left open or uncased.
In consolidated formations, where the material
Air drilling is carried out in formations such as crystalline
surrounding the well is stable, groundwater can enter
and carbonate aquifers. In carbonate aquifers, such as
directly into an uncased well. In unconsolidated
limestone and dolomite, possibilities of drilling into karsts
formations, however, wells have to be installed with
(open holes) exist whereupon loss of air circulation will be
screens. The screens stabilize the sides of the hole, prevent
experienced.
sand movement into the well and allow a maximum
amount of water to enter the well with minimum hydraulic
Drilling in unconsolidated formations resistance. Screens are usually placed against the water
Drilling in unconsolidated formations requires the bearing formations.
stabilization of the hole as the drilling progresses. This can
Manufactured screens, such as the Johnson, are preferred
either be done by driving casing as the drilling progresses or
to perforated casing because of the ability to tailor opening
by using a type of drilling mud that will seal off the hole and
sizes to aquifer conditions and the larger percentage of
stabilize it for short periods. Drilling that employs mud is
open area that can be achieved. Several types are available:
either direct mud rotary or reverse mud rotary drilling. The
punched, stamped, louvered, wire wound perforated pipe
mud must be biodegradable so as to enable water to enter
and continuous slot wire wound screens. The latter type is
the well after construction. Drillfloc and Magnfloc are
most efficient. It possesses the largest open area and can be
examples of such a mud. Bentonite mud is not
closely matched to aquifer material (Figure 64).
recommended as a drilling mud, since it is not
biodegradable and is difficult to clean away after the drilling Hacksaw-cut or torch-cut screens are not recommended
of the well. In Zimbabwe, the direct mud rotary drilling for irrigation wells as they usually have uneven and large
technique is used in drilling irrigation wells in alluvial openings, which will result in the well silting.
deposits.

Figure 64
Continuous slot wire wound screen in an unconsolidated formation (Source: Todd, 1980)

Module 2 – 69
Irrigation manual

The selection of the screen diameter should be made on the iii) Permit the use of a large screen slot with maximum
basis of the desired well yield and aquifer thickness. To open area
minimize well losses and clogging, groundwater entrance iv) Provide an annular zone of high permeability, which
velocities should be within specified limits (Table 14). increases the effective radius and yield of the well
Table 14 Maximum grain size of a pack should not exceed 1.0 cm,
Optimum groundwater entrance velocity through a while the pack thickness should be between 8 and 15 cm.
well screen (Source: Walton, 1962) A natural pack can also be developed around the screen
Hydraulic Optimum Hydraulic Optimum from the sand or gravel forming the aquifer material by
conductivity screen conductivity screen removing the fine material through well development (see
of entrance of entrance below).
aquifer velocity aquifer velocity
(m/d) (m/min) (m/d) (m/min)
Sanitary seal
>250 3.7 80 1.8
250 3.4 60 1.5 A sanitary protection of cement grout is placed near the
200 3.0 40 1.2 surface, and in the annular space between the casing and
160 2.7 20 0.9 wall sides, to prevent entrance of surface water and to
120 2.4 <20 0.6 protect against exterior corrosion. If the groundwater is
also used for human consumption, this will help in
protecting its quality.
Hydraulic conductivity, K, is defined as the volume of water
that will be transmitted through a porous medium in unit
time under a unit hydraulic gradient through a unit area Well development
measured perpendicular to the flow direction. Hydraulic A new well is developed to increase its specific capacity
conductivity is sometimes referred to as permeability and (well’s productivity), prevent sanding and obtain maximum
has units of velocity (m/day). It depends on a variety of economic well life. Development procedures include
physical factors, including porosity, particle size and pumping, surging, use of compressed air and addition of
distribution, shape of particles, arrangement of particles, chemicals in limestone or dolomite formations. A
etc. combination of these methods is often used.
The formula used in the calculation of the optimum screen
entrance velocity is: 5.3.3. Collector wells
Collector wells are large wells, up to about 5 m in diameter,
Equation 40
usually constructed in unconsolidated formation such as
Q
alluvial deposits. If a collector well is constructed adjacent
Vs = to a surface water source, well yields will be generally high
c x π x ds x Ls x P
and discharge values of up to 30 000 m3/day are not
Where: uncommon. The well is sunk, usually by use of drilling
Vs = Optimum screen entrance velocity machinery, to the requisite depth in the aquifer by
Q = Well discharge (pumping rate) excavating inside a cylindrical concrete caisson. Perforated
c = Clogging coefficient, usually taken to be 0.5 pipes, 15-20 cm in diameter, are jacked hydraulically into
since 50% of the screen open area is
estimated to be blocked
the aquifer through precast portholes in the caisson to form
a radial pattern of horizontal pipes, 60-100 m in length
ds = Screen diameter
(Figure 65). During construction, fine grained material is
Ls = Screen length
washed into the caisson so that natural gravel pack (see
P = % of open screen area (available from
manufactures) above) formed around the perforations. The number,
length and radial pattern of the collector pipes can be varied
to obtain maximum yields; usually more pipes are extended
Gravel pack towards than away from the surface water source.
Gravel pack is artificially emplaced in the annulus between The caisson acts as a large storage tank and one or two
the screens and hole walls to: pumps can be installed. The large area of exposed
i) Stabilize the aquifer perforations in a collector well causes low inflow velocities,
which minimize incrustation, clogging, and sand transport.
ii) Minimize sand pumping

70 – Module 2
 Module 2: Natural resources assessment

Figure 65
Collector well located near a surface water body

The initial cost of a collector exceeds that of a vertical well; 5.3.4. Groundwater resources evaluation
however, advantages of large yields, reduced pumping heads Groundwater resources evaluation focuses on, inter alia, the
and low maintenance costs are factors to be considered. assessment of hydrogeologic parameters, the design and
Collector wells can also be developed in aquifers removed analysis of wells and the calculation of aquifer yields.
from surface water sources. In Zimbabwe, collector wells Pumping or exploitation of groundwater leads to water level
have been developed in crystalline rock aquifers to enhance declines, which serve to limit yields. One of the primary goals
yields for domestic water supplies because ordinary small of groundwater resources evaluation must therefore be the
diameter wells had failed to cope with the demand, prediction of hydraulic head drawdowns (Section 5.4) in
particularly during drought periods. aquifers under proposed pumping schemes. Such
information can be obtained from understanding well
hydraulics (Section 5.4), which looks at the calculation of
aquifer parameters discussed in Section 5.2.

Module 2 – 71
Irrigation manual

5.4. Pumping tests drawdown curve describes a conic shape, known as the cone
of depression. The outer limit of the cone of depression, where
Pumping tests are field measurements used to gather data
drawdown is zero, defines the area of influence of the well.
for the calculation of transmissivity, storativity, specific yield,
leakance, well efficiency (Section 5.4.7) and the prediction The shape of drawdown cones is dependent on the
of yields and drawdowns. hydraulic parameters, which are transmissivity T and
storativity or specific yield S of the aquifers. Fig 67 shows
5.4.1. The principle the various shapes for aquifers with low and high values of
T and S. Aquifers of low T values develop tight, deep
When a well is pumped, groundwater is removed from the
drawdown cones, whereas aquifers of high T values develop
area surrounding the well, and the water table (in
shallow cones of wide extent. Transmissivity exerts a greater
unconfined aquifers) or the piezometric surface (in
influence on drawdown than does storativity.
confined aquifers), is lowered. The drawdown, at a given
point, is the distance to which the water level is lowered If the discharge from a well and the drawdown in the well
(Section 5.4.2) (Figure 66). and in piezometer(s) (observation wells) placed at a known
distance away from the pumping well are measured, we can
A drawdown curve shows variation of the drawdown with
substitute these into appropriate well flow equations and
distance from the pumping well. In three dimensions, the
calculate the hydraulic characteristics of the aquifer.

Figure 66
Drawdown in a pumped aquifer (Source: Kruseman and de Ridder, 1990)

Figure 67
Drawdown curves for aquifers with high or low transmissivity and storativity values

72 – Module 2
 Module 2: Natural resources assessment

Water level (drawdown) measurements Duration of a pumping test

Drawdown measurements in the well and piezometers The duration of a pumping test depends on the type of
must be measured many times during a test and with as aquifer and the degree of accuracy desired in establishing its
much accuracy as possible. Because the water levels drop hydraulic characteristics. Economizing on the period of
fast during the first hour or two of the test, the readings in pumping is not recommended because the cost of running
this period should be made at brief intervals. As pumping a pump a few extra hours is low in comparison with the
continues, the intervals can be gradually lengthened. Table total costs of the test. It has been established that for steady
15 gives a range of intervals for water level measurements state conditions (see Section 5.4.3) to be reached, the
in a pumping well and in piezometers. following pumping durations are required for the various
aquifers:
Table 15 only gives a guideline on the range of intervals.
The intervals should be adapted to the local conditions, Type of aquifer Pumping duration
available personnel, type of measuring device, etc. i) Leaky 15-20 hours
Nonetheless, readings in the first hours of the test should ii) Confined 24 hours
be frequent, because in the analysis of the test data time is iii) Unconfined 3 days
usually entered in a logarithm form. Pre-printed forms with
time, general well information and preferred time intervals It is also important to note that steady state conditions are
are generally used. Automatic recorders or electric dippers not requisite for a pumping duration.
are used in measuring water levels.
5.4.2. Definition of terms
Discharge measurements It is important for one to have a clear understanding of the
The discharge or pumping rate should be kept constant meaning of common terms related with pumping tests.
throughout the duration of the test and measured
Static water level (SWL):
periodically. It can be kept constant by a valve in the
The level at which water stands in a well before
discharge pipe. This is a more accurate method of control
pumping takes place
than is changing the speed of the pump. It should however,
be noted that a constant discharge rate is not requisite for Pumping water level (PWL):
the analysis of pumping test data, as there other methods The level at which water stands in a well when pumping
that take variable discharge into account. is in progress. It is also called the dynamic water level
as it moves (declines) when the pumping rate is
Discharge measurements can be measured by use of a water significant
meter, a container of known volume, an orifice weir or an
orifice bucket. The choice of the measuring device is in part Drawdown:
dependent on the type of pump and the pumping rate. The difference, generally measured in metres, between
the water table or piezometric surface and the pumping
Discharge of the pumped water should be away from the water level (Figure 66). This difference represents the
area of influence of the pumping well in order to avoid head of water that causes the groundwater to flow into
recycling of the water during the test. the well
Table 15
Guideline to range of water level measurements in a pumping well and in piezometers

Pumping well Piezometer

Time from start Measuring Time from start Measuring
of pumping time intervals of pumping time intervals
0-5 minutes 0.5 minute 0-2 minutes 10 seconds
5-60 minutes 5 minutes 2-5 minutes 30 seconds
60-120 minutes 20 minutes 5-15 minutes 1 minute
120-shut down 60 minutes 15-50 minutes 5 minutes
50-100 minutes 10 minutes
100 minutes-5 hours 30 minutes
5 hours-48 hours 60 minutes
48 hours-6 days 3 times a day
6 days-shut down Once a day

Module 2 – 73
Irrigation manual

Residual drawdown: flow equation by Theim (1906) can be used for a pumping
After pumping is stopped, the water level rises and well with two observation or monitoring wells or
approaches the static water level observed before piezometers to obtain the aquifer transmissivity T. The
pumping began. This process is known as water level equation is given by:
recovery. During water level recovery, the distance
Equation 41
between the water level and the initial static water level
is called the residual drawdown. 2πT(s1 - s2)
Q =
Well yield: 2.3log(r2 / r1)
The maximum pumping rate that can be supplied by a
well without lowering the water level in the well to or
below the pump intake. 2.3Qlog(r2 / r1)
T =
2π(s1 - s2)
Aquifer yield:
The maximum rate of withdrawal that can be sustained Where:
by an aquifer without causing an unacceptable decline Q = Well pumping rate (m3/d)
in the hydraulic head (c.f. drawdown) in the aquifer. T = Aquifer transmissivity (m2/d)
r1 and r2 = Respective distances (r) of
Specific capacity: piezometers (m)
This is a measure of the well’s productivity and is the s1 and s2 = Respective steady state
yield per unit drawdown. It is obtained by dividing the drawdowns in the piezometers (m)
discharge rate of a well by the drawdown when they are
both measured at the same time. In order to utilize this equation, the assumptions discussed
at the beginning of this section for a steady state flow to the
5.4.3. Hydraulic properties of confined aquifers well should be met. Theim’s method can not be used to
calculate the aquifer storativity S.
In order to apply well hydraulic equations, certain
assumptions and conditions have to be fulfilled. These are: Procedure:
Y The aquifer is confined Y Semi-log plots of either drawdown (s) versus time (t)
Y The aquifer has a seemingly infinite areal extent or drawdown (s) versus distance (r) of the piezometers
from the pumping well are constructed. Drawdown (s)
Y The aquifer is homogeneous, isotropic and of uniform is plotted on vertical axis on the linear scale and time
thickness over the area to be influenced by the test (t) or distance (r) on the horizontal axis on a
Y The piezometric surface is horizontal, or nearly so, logarithmic scale.
prior to pumping over the area that the test will Y For a drawdown versus time plot (Figure 68), read off
influence the steady state drawdown si (where i = well 1, 2, 3,
Y The aquifer is pumped at a constant discharge rate etc.) for each piezometer and substitute these into
(variable discharge rates can also be sued but are Equation 40 together with the corresponding values of
beyond the scope of this module) r and Q and then calculate T.
Y The well fully penetrates the entire aquifer thickness The value of T can also be computed using the drawdown
and thus receives groundwater by horizontal flow versus distance method, which, however, will not be
explained in this Module.
If these assumptions and conditions are met then the
groundwater, when it is pumped from a well, will flow
Unsteady state flow
towards the well under (a) steady state or equilibrium conditions
or (b) unsteady state conditions. When the flow of groundwater to a well is unsteady, which
means that the drawdown differences with time are not
Steady state flow negligible and that the hydraulic gradient is not constant
with time, Theis’s and Jacob’s methods are used. These
Steady state flow occurs when the change in drawdown methods are not explained in detail in this Module. Theis’s
becomes negligibly small with time or where the hydraulic method uses matching log-log plots the measured data with
gradient has become constant, which means that drawdown that of appropriate theoretical curves. Jacob’s method uses
variations are zero. It should be noted, however, that true a similar approach as that discussed under steady state flow.
steady state conditions are rare in a confined aquifer. The

74 – Module 2
 Module 2: Natural resources assessment

Figure 68
Drawdown versus time for 3 piezometers, located at 30, 90 and 215 m from a pumping well

Example 15

Application of the drawdown versus time method

Given a drawdown (s) versus time (t) semi-plot, Figure 68, for a well pumped at 788 m3/d, with 3 piezometers 30, 90
and 215 m away.
What is the transmissivity T?
2.3 x 788log(r2 / r1)
T =
2π(s1 - s2)

It can be noticed from Figure 68 that the curves of piezometers H30 and H90 start to run parallel approximately 10
minutes after pumping began. This means that the drawdown difference between these piezometers (s1 - s2)
remained constant from t = 10 minutes onwards, which means that the hydraulic gradient between these two
piezometers remained constant, a primary condition for which the Theim's equation is valid. The drawdown curve of
piezometer H215 does not run parallel to that of the other 2 piezometers, not at even very late pumping times. The
data for this piezometer should be neglected since it does not reflect steady state conditions.
Since (s1 - s2) remains constant from 10 minutes onwards, any time after that can be selected to determine the (s1 -
s2). Considering a t of 830 minutes, then s1 = 1.088 and s2 = 0.716 for H30 and H90 respectively ⇒
2.3 x 788 x log(90 / 30)
T = = 370 m2 / day
2 x 3.14 x (1 088 - 0.716)

5.4.4. Hydraulic properties of leaky and unconfined Leaky aquifers

aquifers
In nature, leaky aquifers occur more frequently than
Methods of pumping test data analysis for steady and perfectly-confined aquifers (Section 5.2.2). There are
unsteady groundwater flow to a pumping well as well as the assumptions and conditions that have to be fulfilled when
assumptions and conditions that have to be fulfilled when analyzing data from leaky aquifers.
analyzing the data for the various aquifer types are beyond
the scope of this Module. Only general information is given For proper analysis of pumping test data from a leaky
below and the reader is referred to more specialized aquifer, piezometers are needed in the leaky aquifer, in the
literature on the subject for further reading. aquitard and in the upper aquifer.

Module 2 – 75
Irrigation manual

The De Glee and Hantush-Jacob methods are general used Recovery test measurements allow the transmissivity T of
for steady state flow. The methods allow the characteristics the aquifer to be calculated, thereby providing an
of the aquifer and aquitard to be determined. independent check on the results of drawdown
measurements. Moreover, recovery measurements cost
For unsteady state flow with no aquitard storage, the very little in comparison with the cost of running the pump
Walton method and Hantush inflection point method are during drawdown measurements.
employed. For cases where there is aquitard storage,
Hantush’s curve fitting and the Neuman-Witherspoon The analysis of the recovery data is based on the principle
methods are used. of superposition, which means that the drawdown caused
by two or more wells is the sum of the drawdown caused
Unconfined aquifer by each individual well. It is assumed that after the pump is
shut, the well continues to be pumped at the same
There are basic differences between confined aquifers and discharge as before and that an imaginary well pumps water
unconfined aquifers when they are pumped. These are: into the aquifer (recharge well) equal to the discharge. The
Y A confined aquifer is not dewatered during pumping (if discharge and recharge cancel each other, resulting in an
the discharge rate is appropriate); it remains fully ideal well as required for the recovery period. Any of the
saturated and the pumping creates a drawdown in the flow equations discussed in the preceding sections can be
piezometric surface (Figure 67). In unconfined formulated and employed. Theis’s recovery method is the
aquifers, the saturated thickness declines as the water most widely used method for the analysis of recovery tests
table is lowered data.
Y Groundwater flow towards a fully penetrating well in a
confined aquifer is horizontal, unlike that in 5.4.6. Slug tests
unconfined aquifers During a slug test, a small volume of groundwater, known
as a slug, is quickly removed from a well by use of a bailer
As for other aquifers, there are assumptions and conditions
or a bucket, after which the rate of rise of the water level in
that have to be satisfied before the well hydraulic equations
the well is measured. Instead of removing the groundwater
are employed for unconfined aquifers.
by a bailer or bucket, a closed cylinder or other solid body
Well hydraulics equations for both steady state and can be submerged in the well and then, after the water level
unsteady state groundwater flow exist. For steady state flow, has stabilised, the body is pulled out. Alternatively, a small
the Theim-Dupuit method is used to calculate the aquifer slug of water (not contaminated and of more or less the
transmissivity. Neuman’s curve fitting method is used for same quality as the groundwater) is poured into the well
the calculation of unconfined aquifer hydraulic and the rise and subsequent fall of the water level are
characteristics under unsteady state flow. measured. From these measurements, the aquifer’s
transmissivity T or hydraulic conductivity K can be
It should be noted that a number of computer packages for determined.
the analysis of pumping test data exist on the market.
However, one has to fully understand the applicability of Enough water has to be displaced or removed to raise or
the various analytical methods and not use them blindly. lower the water level by around 10-50 cm. If the
Moreover, the importance to collect data of good quality in transmissivity of the aquifer is high, say 200 m2/day, the
the field can not be over-emphasized. water level will recover too quickly for accurate manual
measurements and an automatic recorder will have to be
It is also worth noting that there are other aquifer used.
configurations, which require certain conditions to be met
and need special analytical approach, and hence the input In a slug test, no pumping and piezometers are required.
of experts is critical. The test usually takes a few minutes or at the most, a few
hours. Nevertheless, slug tests are not a substitute for
5.4.5. Recovery tests conventional pumping tests. It is only possible to determine
the characteristics of a small volume of aquifer material
When the pump is shut down after drawdown surrounding the well, and this volume is most likely to have
measurements, the water levels in the pumped well and been disturbed during drilling and construction.
piezometer(s) will start to rise. The rise in the water levels
is called residual drawdown (Section 5.4.2) and is denoted For conventional slug tests carried out in confined aquifers
s'. It is always good practice to measure the residual with fully penetrating wells, curve fitting methods have
drawdowns immediately after pumping has stopped. been developed, among others, by Cooper et al. (1967) and

76 – Module 2
 Module 2: Natural resources assessment

Papadopulos and Cooper (1973). For wells partially or fully Step drawdown test
penetrating unconfined aquifers, the Bouwer and Rice A step drawdown test is a test in a single well in which the
(1976) method can be used. well is pumped at a low constant discharge rate until the
drawdown within the well stabilizes. The pumping rate is
5.4.7. Well performance tests then increased and pumping continued until the drawdown
A well performance test is conducted to determine losses stabilizes once more. The process is repeated at least three
attributed to the aquifer and the well. Aquifer losses are times, each of which should be of equal duration of say an
head losses that occur in the aquifer where the flow is hour each. The collected data are used in the computation
laminar. These are time-dependent and vary linearly with of aquifer and well losses.
discharge. The following equation is commonly used:
Well losses are divided into linear and non-linear head Equation 42
losses (Figure 69). Linear well losses are caused by
‘damaging’ or disturbing the aquifer material during drilling sw = BQ + CQ2
and they comprise, for example, head losses in the gravel
Where:
pack (Section 5.3.2) and in the screen. Non-linear well
sw = Drawdown in a pumped well
losses are the friction losses that occur inside the well
B = Linear losses (assumed to be constant, see
screen and in the suction pipe where the flow is turbulent. below)
All these losses are responsible for the drawdown inside the C = Non-linear losses (a constant)
well being much greater than would have been under ideal Q = Discharge rate
conditions. Step drawdown tests are used to determine
these losses. Knowing B and C, we can predict the drawdown in a well
for any realistic discharge Q. B is time-dependent, but since
it changes only slightly after a reasonable pumping duration,
it can thus be assumed to be constant.

Figure 69
Various head losses in a pumped well (Source: Kruseman and de Ridder, 1970)

Module 2 – 77
Irrigation manual

Specific capacity – The choice of screens with insufficient open area

Specific capacity Sc has been defined earlier (Section 5.4.2) results in high entrance velocities causing higher
as a measure of a well’s productivity and is obtained by: than normal entrance (head losses).
– Poor distribution of screen openings causes
Equation 43 excessive convergence of flow near the individual
openings, and may produce twice as much
Sc = Q/sw
drawdown as necessary.
Where: – Partial penetration of screens into aquifers distorts
Sc = Specific capacity the flow around the well. Flow to the well will
Q = Discharge rate include both the horizontal and vertical
Sw = Drawdown measured in the field components. If the vertical conductivity is greater
than the horizontal one, considerable head losses
The larger the specific capacity, the better the well. result from the vertical flow.
Observing the change in drawdown and specific capacity – A wrong choice of filter material or gravel pack, for
with increased discharge provides information required to example angular grains or plate-like material, has
select optimum pumping rates or to obtain information on been made.
the condition or efficiency of the well.
ii) Construction factors:
– Inadequate development of the well: fine material
Well efficiency
or drilling mud reduces original permeability
Well efficiency E, expressed as a percentage, is the ratio of – Improper screening: placing of screens on non-
the theoretical drawdown s1 to the drawdown measured in water-bearing stratum
the field sw (Figure 69) or the ratio of the field specific
capacity Q/sw to the theoretical specific capacity for a Well interference
specific duration of pumping. It is given by the expression:
Well interference occurs when the cones of depression
Equation 44 (Section 5.4.1) of two or more wells overlap. The spacing
between wells determines the amount of interference. In
Q /sw x 100 s1 x 100
E = = general, wells in a well field designed for huge water supplies,
Q / s1 sw
for example for irrigation or municipal purposes, should be
Where: spaced so as to minimize the effects of interference, which
E = Well efficiency (%) would otherwise result in drastic lowering of water levels.
Q = Discharge rate Well interference is sometimes encouraged to lower
s1 = Theoretical drawdown groundwater levels and thus create huge storage for
sw = Drawdown measured in the field groundwater recharge (Section 5.5) during rainy seasons that
can be used during the dry periods. Well interference can
E values close to 100% indicate an efficient well with also be used to control water table elevations.
minimal well losses. Low E values, say 40%, are indicative
of poorly-constructed and poorly developed wells. Advantages and disadvantages of pumping tests
Inefficient wells can also be recognized by noting the initial Advantages of carrying out pumping tests are:
recovery rate when pumping is stopped. Where the well Y A pumping test provides in situ parameter values that
loss is large, the drawdown recovers rapidly by drainage into are representative of the aquifer
the well from the surrounding aquifer. A rough rule of
thumb for this purpose is: Y Information on a number of hydraulic parameters such
as transmissivity, hydraulic conductivity, storativity,
If a pump is shut off after 1 hour of pumping and 90% or more of specific yield, leakance, hydraulic diffusivity, etc. can be
the drawdown is recovered after 5 minutes, the well can be considered obtained from a single test, unlike laboratory tests that
unacceptably inefficient. are based on sample measurements which, in most
cases, will not be representative of the aquifer material.
Well inefficiency is caused by the following factors, which
It is not possible to obtain all the hydraulic parameters
can be grouped into two classes:
from laboratory measurements. The same can be said
i) Design factors: of tracer techniques

78 – Module 2
 Module 2: Natural resources assessment

Y It is possible to predict the effect of new withdrawals Equation 45

(pumping) on existing wells
P = RO + RG + ET
Y The drawdown in a well at future times and different
Where:
discharges can be predicted
P = Average annual precipitation (rainfall in our
Y The radius of influence of a single well or a multiple of case)
wells can be determined before the well or wells are sunk RO = Average annual surface runoff
RG = Average annual groundwater recharge
Y It provides very crucial information needed to conduct
ET = Average annual evapotranspiration
an effective and efficient groundwater management
programme
The amount of recharge can thus be estimated if all the
One scientific and one practical disadvantage of pumping other parameters are accurately measured or estimated.
tests can be mentioned: The average annual rainfall and runoff can be estimated
with some degree of accuracy. The accurate determination
Y The scientific limitation relates to the non-uniqueness
of evapotranspiration is difficult, since on a catchment scale
of pumping test interpretation. In the absence of clear
it can only be assessed by indirect measurements and
geological information, leaky, unconfined and bounded
through the use of formulae such as the Penman-Monteith
aquifers can give similar time-drawdown responses. In
method.
such cases, the calculated hydraulic parameters will be
misleading
5.5.2. Chloride mass balance technique
Y The practical limitation lies in the cost of conducting
pumping tests. Pumping wells and observation wells or This is an inexpensive and relatively simple technique of
piezometers will have to be drilled so as to obtain some estimating groundwater recharge. Although the technique
of the aquifer hydraulic properties. It is worth noting is not as accurate as other methods, differences in recharge
that for aquifers intended for supply of irrigation water, estimation are still within the order of magnitude. The
the cost of such tests are outweighed by the overall technique is based on the assumption of conservation of
irrigation investment. Risks for irrigation projects mass balance between the input of atmospheric chloride
collapsing midway due to lack of proper well design and the chloride flux in the subsurface (again assuming that
and the computation of optimum pumping rates (from there are no sources or sinks for chloride) and under steady
pumping test analysis) exist if the hydraulic properties state conditions. In that case, the following mass balance
of the aquifer are not known equation can be defined:
Equation 46
5.5. Groundwater recharge
RT x Clgw = P x Clp + D
Groundwater recharge, expressed in mm/year, can be
defined as the entry of water into a groundwater body or Where:
aquifer after infiltration and percolation through the RT = Average total recharge
unsaturated zone. Principal sources of natural recharge Clgw = Average chloride concentration in
groundwater
include precipitation (which is mostly rainfall in East and
P = Average rainfall
Southern Africa), rivers and reservoirs. Other sources of
Clp = Average chloride concentration in
recharge are irrigation return flows and seepage from
rainfall
canals. The amount of annual recharge is very important
D = Average dry chloride deposition
since it is what defines the sustainable yields of aquifers. If measured during the dry periods
groundwater abstractions greatly exceed the amount of
recharge, groundwater mining results. As all parameters except RT can be measured, the average
There are a number of techniques used in the estimation of total recharge RT can then be computed from:
groundwater recharge. Some of them are described below. P x CLp + D
RT =
CLgw
5.5.1. Water balance equations
The method has been extensively employed in groundwater
Simple water budget equations can be used in the recharge and groundwater resources assessment of the
estimation of recharge, and an example in the recharge area Kalahari in Botswana. Usage of the technique in Zimbabwe
of a catchment is: is still in its early stages.

Module 2 – 79
Irrigation manual

5.5.3. Groundwater level fluctuations method also possible to predict water levels given pumping rates or
Groundwater level fluctuations reflect the response of vice versa. The effects of boundary conditions, such as
unconfined aquifer systems to recharge, pumping and surface water (rivers and reservoirs) contribution to
natural losses such as evapotranspiration and baseflow groundwater, can also be assessed. Two general types of
(groundwater flow to rivers or streams). The rise in water numerical models exist, the finite difference and finite
level (∆h) at a particular location after a rainfall event can element models. Modflow is a commercially available finite
be converted to recharge by using the following formula: difference computer model.

Equation 47 5.6.2. Lowering groundwater levels

R = ∆h x Sy Aquifers adjoining rivers or other surface water sources or

with rivers running through them can potentially be
Where:
recharged from the surface water. This can be established
R = Groundwater recharge
by the use of isotopes (Section 5.5.4). In such cases, a
∆h = Rise in water level
reduction in the groundwater levels induces recharge from
Sy = Specific yield (Section 5.4.2), which can be
obtained from the analysis of pumping tests
the surface water source, if the surface water body is
data hydraulically linked to the aquifer. It is good management
practice to draw down the groundwater table during dry
The accuracy of R strongly depends on the specific yield. periods. The reduction in the water table would be
The estimation of groundwater recharge using this temporary and rapid recovery could be expected during
technique has been carried out in the Nyamandhlovu normal rainy seasons.
Sandstone Aquifer in Zimbabwe, the Wondergat dolomite
sink hole in South Africa and in the Kalahari in Botswana. 5.6.3. Conjunctive use of surface water and
groundwater
5.5.4. Environmental isotopes Conjunctive use involves the coordinated and planned
Environmental isotopes commonly used in groundwater utilization of both surface water and groundwater resources
resources investigation are oxygen 18 and hydrogen 2 to meet water requirements in a manner where water is
(known as deuterium), radiocarbon (carbon 14) and conserved. In a conjunctive scheme, during periods of
tritium. Oxygen 18 and hydrogen 2 are stable isotopes and above normal rainfall surface water is utilized to the
are used, inter alia, to determine the origin or source of the maximum extent possible and, where feasible, artificially
groundwater, sources of groundwater salinity and mixing recharged (pumped into aquifers through wells known as
between various water bodies. Radiocarbon and tritium are injection wells) into the aquifer to augment groundwater
used to determine the ‘age’ of groundwater, which will be storage and raise groundwater levels (care should be taken
indicative of whether the groundwater is being actively not the raise the levels to the crop root zone). Conversely,
recharged or whether it was recharged some time ago. during drought periods the limited surface water resources
will be supplemented by pumping groundwater, thereby
lowering the water levels. However, the cost of setting up
5.6. Groundwater management
such a scheme could be prohibitive for most African
Groundwater management constitutes the development countries.
and sustainable utilization of groundwater resources
without compromising its quantity and quality. Effective 5.6.4. Groundwater monitoring
and efficient groundwater management requires the
establishment of a monitoring programme, which looks at Groundwater monitoring is a prerequisite for optimal
(i) groundwater level fluctuations, (ii) abstraction rates, and groundwater resource management so as to achieve
(iii) water quality aspects. Groundwater models are an sustainable use in terms of both quantity and quality over
essential management tool. the long term. A monitoring programme routinely provides
a continuous record of the aquifer’s response to various
inputs and outputs including recharge, evapotranspiration,
5.6.1. Groundwater models
baseflow and abstraction, as manifested by changes in water
Models are important as predictive tools to estimate how levels and water quality with time. Knowledge of the
the groundwater quality or quantity may change given response of the aquifer to these factors with time therefore
certain conditions such as variation in pumping rates, enables groundwater resources management to be
drawdowns or groundwater levels, recharge rates, etc. It is conducted efficiently and effectively.

80 – Module 2
 Module 2: Natural resources assessment

The routine monitoring of groundwater abstractions, hydrograph shows a continuous groundwater level decline,
groundwater level fluctuations and water quality data is about 0.25 m/year, with little or no indication of
crucial. Any variations in these can, with time, provide early groundwater levels recovery. The decline is a result of high
warning signs of the deterioration in groundwater quantity abstraction or discharge rate and sooner or later the
or quality and will allow for early remedial action to be groundwater level would be drawn down to the pump
taken. A very good electronic hydrogeological database, intake.
linked to a surface water one where feasible, is a must since
this will make data manipulation and analysis a lot easier If there were saline groundwater below the fresh water,
and much quicker. Time series plots of important saline water upconing would be inevitable. Moreover,
parameters would be easy to generate. Moreover, the data lowered drawdowns translate to increased pumping costs.
are very important in refining groundwater models (Section It is thus apparent that it is not good groundwater
5.6.1) and thus assist in the accurate predictions of various management practice to cause severe drawdowns in semi-
scenarios for current groundwater development and future arid regions where recharge is limited. Pumping heavily
groundwater needs. from these aquifers provides only a short-term solution for
a long-term problem. Too often, short-term economic
Figure 70 shows a hydrograph (groundwater level considerations become the primary factor affecting
fluctuation with time) of a well in the Nyamandhlovu groundwater management.
Sandstone Aquifer in southwestern Zimbabwe. The

Figure 70
Hydrograph showing continuous groundwater level decline (the well is from Nyamandhlovu Aquifer in
south western Zimbabwe)

Module 2 – 81
 References

Abderraham, W. A. et al. 1995. Impacts of management practices on groundwater conditions in the Eastern Province, Saudi
Arabia. Hydrogeology Journal, Volume 3 No. 4, 32-41 pp.
Barnister, A. and Raymond, S. 1986. Surveying. Fifth edition, English Language Book Society. Longman, London.
Beekman, H. E. et al. 1997. Chloride and isotope tracer profiling studies in the Letlhakeng-Botlhapatlou area and the central Kalahari.
GRESS II Technical Report: Groundwater recharge and resource assessment in the Botswana Kalahari.
Bouwer, H. 1978. Groundwater hydrology.
Bouwer, H. and Rice, C.H. 1976. A slug test method for determining hydraulic conductivity of unconfined aquifers with
completely or partically penetrating wells. Water Resources Research, Volume 12, No. 3.
Bredenkamp, B.D., Botha, L., J., van Tonder, G. L. and van Rensburg, H. J. 1995. Manual on quantitative estimation of
groundwater recharge and aquifer storativity.
Byron, J. 1994. Spectral encoding of soil texture: a new vizualization method. Department of Geography, University of South
Carolina, USA. GIS/LIS.
Chalingar, G.V. 1963. Relationship between porosity, permeability, and grain size distribution of sands and sandstones.
Proceedings of the International Conference on Sedimentology, Amsterdam, Antwerp.
Chettri, M. and Smith, G.D. 1995. Nitrate pollution in groundwater in selected districts of Nepal. Hydrogeology Journal,
Volume 3 No. 1, 71-76 pp.
Clarke, I., and Fritz, P. 1997. Environmental isotopes in hydrogeology.
Cooper, H.H., Bredehoeft and Papadopulos, I.S. 1967. Response of a finite-diameter well to an instantaneous recharge of
water.
Davis, S.N. 1969. Porosity and permeability of natural materials. Flow through porous media, edited by R.J.M. De Wiest,
Academic Press, New York, 54-89 pp.
Di Gregorio, A. and Jansen, L.J.M. 1998. Land cover classification system (LCCS): Classification concepts and user manual. For
software version 1.0. GCP/RAF/287/ITA Africover – East Africa Project in cooperation with AGLS and SDRN.
Nairobi, Rome.
Driscoll, F.G. 1986. Groundwater and wells. Second edition.
Eijkelkamp. Undated. Training equipment for schools.
Euroconsult. 1989. Agricultural compendium for rural development in the tropics and subtropics. Elsevier, Amsterdam, The
Netherlands.
FAO. 1979. Soil survey investigations for irrigation. FAO Soils Bulletin 42. FAO, Rome, Italy.
FAO. 1985a. Guidelines: Land evaluation for irrigated agriculture. FAO Soils Bulletin 55. FAO, Rome, Italy.
FAO. 1985b. Elements of topographic surveying. Prepared by C. Brouwer, A. Goffeau, J. Plusjé and M. Heibloem. Irrigation
water management training manual No 2. Rome, Italy.

Module 2 – 83
Irrigation manual

FAO. 1985c. Water quality for agriculture. FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper Number 29. Prepared by: Ayers, R.S. and Westcot,
D. W. Rome.
FAO/UNEP. 1997. Negotiating a sustainable future for land. Structural and institutional guidelines for land resources management in the
21st Century. FAO/UNEP, Rome, Italy.
FAO/UNEP. 1999. The future of our land: facing the challenge. Guidelines for integrated planning for sustainable management of land
resources. FAO/UNEP, Rome, Italy.
FitzPatrick, E.A. 1980. Soils: their formation, classification and distribution. Longman Publishers, New York.
Foster, S.S.D. and Smith-Carrington, A. 1980. The interpretation of tritium in the chalk unsaturated zone. Journal of
Hydrology. Volume 46, 343-364 pp.
Freeze, R.A. and Cherry, J. A. 1979. Groundwater.
Geological Survey of Germany. 1996. Limestone and dolomite resources of Africa.
Government of Zimbabwe. 1998. Zimbabwe Water Act 1998.
International Atomic Energy Agency. 1981. Stable isotope hydrology, deuterium and oxygen-18 in the water cycle. Technical
Reports Series No. 210. Edited by J.R. Gat and R. Gonfiantini.
International Hydrological Programme. 2000. Environmental isotopes in the hydrological cycle: Principles and applications;
Volume IV Number 39 Groundwater - saturated and unsaturated zone. Edited by W.G. Mook.
International Hydrological Programme. 2001. Environmental isotopes in the hydrological cycle: Principles and applications; Volume V
No.39 Man’s impact on groundwater systems. Edited by W.G. Mook.
Jensen, M.E. 1983. Design and operation of farm irrigation systems. American Society of Agricultural Engineers (ASAE).
Kamp, G. van der. 2001. Methods of determining the in situ hydraulic conductivity of shallow aquitards - an overview.
Hydrogeology Journal, Volume 9 No. 1, 5-16 pp.
Kern & Co. Ltd. Undated. Instruction manual for Kern GK 0 Builder’s level and Kern GK 1 Small Engineer’s level. Switzerland.
Kruseman, G.P. and de Ridder, N. A. 1990. Analysis and evaluation of pumping test data. Second edition (completely revised).
Leica, Ag. 1993. Level accessories, Product catalogue. Heerbrugg, Switzerland.
Leica Geosystems. Undated. Surveying made easier. By: K. Zeiske.
Mather, J.D. 1975. Development of groundwater resources of small limestone islands. Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology,
Volume 8, 141-150 pp.
MEWRD (Ministry of Energy, Water Resources and Development). 1984. An assessment of the surface water resources of Zimbabwe
and guidelines for development planning. Zimbabwe.
MEWRD (Ministry of Energy, Water Resources and Development) 1988. Sedimentation and yields of small dams. Zimbabwe.
Ministère de la coopération française. 1980. Memento de l’agronome.
Papadopulos, I.S. and Cooper, H.H. 1973. Drawdown in a well of large diameter. Water Resources Research, Volume 3.
Terao, H., Yoshika Y. and Kato, K. 1993. Groundwater pollution by nitrate originating from fertiliser in Kakamigahara
Heights, central Japan. International Association of Hydrogeologists, Volume 4.
Theim, G. 1906. Hydrologische methoden. Leipzig, 56 p.
Thompson, J.G. and Purves, W.D. 1979. The Assessment of the suitability of soils for irrigation. Rhodesia Agricultural Journal
Vol 76 (3).

84 – Module 2
 Module 2: Natural resources assessment

Ting, C.S., Kerh, T., and Liao, C. J. 1998. Estimation of groundwater recharge using the chloride mass balance method,
Pingtung Plain, Taiwan. Hydrogeology Journal, Volume 6 No. 2, 282-292 pp.
Todd, D.K. 1976. Groundwater hydrology.
Tucker, M.E. 1991. An introduction to the origin of sedimentary rocks.
Uren, J and Price, W. F. 1985. Surveying for engineers. Second edition.
Ward, R.C. and Robinson M. 1990. Principles of hydrology. Third edition.
Wild Heerbrugg Ltd. Undated. Levelling, Users’ manual. Switzerland.
Wild Heerbrugg Ltd. Undated. The theodolite and its applications, Users’ manual. Switzerland
Wilson, R.J.R. 1971. Land Surveying.
Winter, T.C. 1999. Relation of streams, lakes, and wetland to groundwater flow systems. Hydrogeology Journal, Volume 7,
No.1, 28-45 pp.
Withers, B. and Vipond, S. 1974. Irrigation: Design and practice. Batsford, London.

Module 2 – 85
 Irrigation Manual
Module 3

Agronomic Aspects of
Irrigated Crop Production

Developed by

Andreas P. SAVVA
and
Karen FRENKEN

Water Resources Development and Management Officers

FAO Sub-Regional Office for East and Southern Africa

In collaboration with

Fabeon CHIGUMIRA, Horticulturist Consultant

Harare, 2002
 Contents
List of figures v
List of tables vi
List of abbreviations vii

1. INTRODUCTION 1
1.1. Terminology used 1
1.2. Information on the climate in Zimbabwe 2

2. CROPPING PROGRAMME AND CROP ROTATION 5

2.1. Crop selection 5
2.2. Cropping pattern 5
2.3. Crop rotation 6

3. FERTILIZATION 9
3.1. Symptoms of nutrient deficiency 9
3.2. Chemical fertilizers 9
3.3. Organic manure 12

4. CONTROL OF PESTS, DISEASES AND WEEDS 13

4.1. Types of pests, diseases and weeds 13
4.1.1. Pests 13
4.1.2. Diseases 13
4.1.3. Weeds 13
4.2. Control measures 13
4.2.1. Preventive measures 13
4.2.2. Chemical control 15
4.2.3. Biological control 18
4.2.4. Hand and mechanical weeding 18

5. INTEGRATED PRODUCTION AND PEST MANAGEMENT (IPPM) 19

5.1. Description of IPM and IPPM 19
5.2. Farmers' Field Schools (FFS) 20

6. RAISING VEGETABLE SEEDS 21

6.1. Seed storage 21
6.2. Seed treatment 22
6.3. Germination and emergence 22
6.4. Improved seedbed management 23
6.4.1. Rotation 23
6.4.2. Soil sterilization 23
6.4.3. Seedbed preparation 24
6.4.4. Sowing the seeds 24
6.4.5. Thinning the seedlings 24
6.4.6. Weed, pest and disease control 24
6.4.7. Irrigation 24
6.4.8. Transplanting 24
6.4.9. Protected cultivation 25
6.4.10. Module propagation 25

Module 3 – iii
Irrigation manual

7. AGRONOMIC ASPECTS OF VEGETABLE CROPS 27

7.1. Baby corn 27
7.2. Bean (green, fine or string) 28
7.3. Cabbage 29
7.4. Carrot 30
7.5. Cucum ber 31
7.6. Garlic 32
7.7. Okra 33
7.8. Onion 34
7.9. Paprika 35
7.10. Pea 36
7.11. Pea - Mange tout 37
7.12. Potato 38
7.13. Rape and Kale 39
7.14. Squash - Pumpkin 40
7.15. Tomato 41
7.16. Watermelon 43

8. AGRONOMIC ASPECTS OF FRUIT CROPS 45

8.1. Apple and pear (pome fruits) 45
8.2. Avocado pear 47
8.3. Banana 49
8.4. Citrus spp. 50
8.5. Grape 53
8.6. Mango 60
8.7. Passion fruit (Maracuja, Grenadilla) 63
8.8. Peach, plum, apricot and nectarine (stone fruits) 66

9. AGRONOMIC ASPECTS OF FIELD CROPS 69

9.1. Dry bean 69
9.2. Groundnut 70
9.3. Maize 71
9.4. Rice 72
9.5. Wheat 73

10. PREPARATIONS NECESSARY FOR MARKETING OF HORTICULTURAL CROPS 75

10.1. Characteristics of vegetables and fruits 75
10.1.1. Seasonality 75
10.1.2. Susceptibility to damage 75
10.1.3. Perishability 75
10.1.4. Diversity 75
10.2. The relationship between producer, distributor and consumer 75
10.3. Harvesting 75
10.4. Storing the produce before marketing 76
10.5. Packing and grading 76
10.6. Transport 77

REFERENCES 79

iv– Module 3
 List of figures
1. Examples of insect pests 14
2. Examples of fungal diseases 15
3. Anthracnose on bean pods 29
4. Rust on a bean leaf 29
5. Aphids colonies on a cabbage leaf 30
6. Root-knot-nematode (RKN) attack on carrot 31
7. Powdery mildew on a carrot leaf (right), compared with a healthy leaf 31
8. Bacterial spot on paprika leaf and fruit 36
9. Downy mildew and powdery mildew on squash leaves 40
10. Root-knot-nematode attack in roots of tomato 42
11. Leaf spot on a tomato leaf 42
12. Fusarium on watermelon leaves 43
13. Pruning and staking of an apple tree during the 1st season 46
14. Scab on apple fruit 47
15. Fence trellis system for grapes 54
16. Perold trellis system for grapes 54
17. Slanting trellis system for grapes 55
18. Training and pruning of vines in which fruitful buds occur near base of the canes 57
19. Downy mildew on a grape leaf 59
20. Fruit rot (Rhizopus sp.) on grapes 59
21. Anthracnose on a mango leaf and fruit 62
22. Passion fruit high-density (intensive system) trellis plan: plan view 64
23. Passion fruit high-density (intensive system) trellis plan: side view 64
24. Passion fruit low-density (extensive system) trellis plan: side view 64
25. Passion fruit low-density (extensive system) trellis plan: cross-section 65
26. Groundnut leaf spot 71
27. Groundnut web blotch 71
28. Rice blast leaf lesions 72

Module 3 – v
 List of tables
1. Climatic data of some selected sites in Zimbabwe 3
2. Climatic parameters for the agro-ecological zones in Zimbabwe 3
3. Example of a crop calendar and cropping pattern 5
4. Example of a crop rotation schedule 6
5. Crop rotation frequency 6
6. Host status of some vegetables crops for root-knot-nematodes: example from Zimbabwe 7
7. Nutrient deficiencies and toxicities: generalized symptoms and circumstances 10
8. Examples of deficiencies in several tropical crops 11
9. List of some chemicals, their active substance and use 17
10. Maximum moisture content of seeds to enable one year storage at different storage temperatures,
as recommended by USDA 21
11. Expected viability periods of seeds of various vegetables when stored under the conditions
recommended in Table 10, according to the University of California 21
12. Hot water treatment of seed for disease control 21
13. Germination temperatures, time to germination and time required to produce a field viable transplant 21
14. Vegetable grouping for rotational purposes 23
15. Temperatures required to destroy pests in soil 23
16. Recommended spacing for avocados 47
17. Quantity of fertilizer in grams per year per avocado tree, according to age 48
18. Cultivar, selection, commercial rootstocks, spacing and maturity dates for citrus in the high altitude areas 50
19. Cultivar, selection, commercial rootstocks, spacing and maturity dates for citrus in the middle altitude areas 50
20. Cultivar, selection, commercial rootstocks, spacing and maturity dates for citrus in the low altitude areas 51
21. Fertilization guidelines for bearing trees in the absence of leaf and soil analysis, in grams/tree 52
22. List of table grape cultivars 53
23. Grapes fertilizer application programme 55
24. List of stone fruit cultivars 67

vi– Module 3
 List of abbreviations
AN Ammonium Nitrate
B Boron
BSM Bean stem maggot
Ca Calcium
Cl Chloride
Cu Copper
EC Emulsifiable Concentrate
EPN Entomopathogenic Nematodes
Fe Iron
FFS Farmers Field School
G Granules
GV Granulosis Virus
HV Highveld (Zimbabwe)
IAC International Agricultural Centre (Wageningen, the Netherlands)
IPM Integrated Pest Management
IPPM Integrated Production and Pest Management
K Potassium
LD Lethal Dose
LV Lowveld (Zimbabwe)
Mg Magnesium
Mn Manganese
Mo Molybdenum
MOP Muriate of Potash
MV Middleveld (Zimbabwe)
N Nitrate
NPV Nuclear Polyhedrosis Virus
O Oxygen
P Phosphorus
RKN Root knot nematodes
S Sulphur
SSP Single Super Phosphate
TSS Total Soluble Solids
WP Wettable Powder
Zn Zinc

Module 3 – vii
 Chapter 1
Introduction

This Module on agronomic aspects of irrigated crop Planting Under irrigation the time at which a certain
production is meant as a quick reference for planners, time: crop can be planted becomes more flexible.
extension officers or other agricultural field advisors who However, attention should be paid to the frost
often need to give clear cut and immediate advice to hazard during winter in high altitude areas
farmers. It is not within the scope of this Module to provide and/or areas prone to frost and to very high
the reader with complete information on the crops temperatures during summer in low altitude
mentioned. For this, the reader is referred to literature areas. With higher flexibility planting dates can
specialized in the subject. be more dictated by the market prices than by
climate. Planting times mentioned in the text are
1.1 Terminology used general guidelines, indicating the period during
which the cultivation of the crop has the best
The crops described in this Module are limited to the most chance of success (based on the conditions in
important crops being grown by smallholder farmers in Zimbabwe).
East and Southern Africa. Several aspects are dealt with
under each crop. They are briefly explained below: Growth This is the time needed to grow and harvest a
period: crop, based on facilities available to smallholder
Cultivar: A cultivar can be defined as ‘a variation of a farmers. If the crop is first raised in seedbeds,
species, one that has been produced through the time required in the seedbed is stated.
breeding or deliberate selection’. There are Depending on how the crop will be consumed,
always new cultivars being bred, due to changes harvesting can in many occasions start earlier.
in taste by the population, the demand for For example, harvesting of green beans and
higher yields, longer shelf life of the produce, green maize takes place earlier than harvesting of
resistance to pests and diseases, etc. Hence, dry beans and grain maize.
there are always new varieties on the market.
Fertilizers: The most appropriate way of advising on
Names of some cultivars are given in this
fertilization is determined by the results of soil
Module. It is best to check with the local seed
chemical analysis. However, since in many cases
companies as to what varieties are available and
the extension worker or field advisor is obliged
which one best suits prevailing conditions.
to give quick advice, general guidelines on
Climate This gives information on the types of climate compound fertilizers and on nitrogen
and soil: and soil that are best suited to the crop under topdressings are provided. Basal application
consideration. means applying fertilizer into the soil before
Seed The amount of seed required refers to sowing or seeding or transplanting the crop. Topdressing
amount: planting by hand. Figures could therefore be means applying fertilizer to the soil or water
higher than with mechanical sowing. The surface after seeding or transplanting or after the
number of plants per hectare will in most cases crop has been well established. Chapter 3
be higher than under dryland conditions since provides more information on the different
crops under irrigation do not have to compete types of fertilizers.
for water. Pests & Pests are insects, arachnids, rats, moles, snails
Spacing: This provides information on the optimum diseases: that destroy crops, food or commodities, or
spacing of the seeds or transplants, between the interfere with human beings or animal. Diseases
rows and within the rows. can be divided into infectious diseases, which
are caused by living organisms called pathogens

Module 3 –1
Irrigation manual

(bacteria, fungi, viruses), and noninfectious crop data and the irrigation requirements and
diseases, which are caused by physiological scheduling are, however, not described in this
disorders, environmental stress and damage by Module. The reader is referred instead to
weather and other environmental factors. The Module 4, which specifically deals with crop
identification of pests and diseases requires water requirements and irrigation scheduling.
experience. It is a specialized field and it is
advisable to call on the institution in the 1.2. Information on the climate in
country that deals with Plant Protection or on Zimbabwe
the crop specialists to come to help. Some
diseases, however, are quite common and can The crop information given in Chapters 7, 8 and 9 serves
be easily detected by a keen observer. For these as a guideline only and is based on the climatic conditions
diseases the most characteristic features are prevailing in Zimbabwe. This information will need to be
described. Also indicated are the chemicals adapted for other countries in the sub-region if the climatic
(fungicides, insecticides, acaricides, etc.) conditions are different. Below is a short description of the
required to treat or prevent the pest or disease. climate in Zimbabwe.
While an actual trade name is given, a list of In the northern and southern hemisphere, between the
chemicals is provided in Chapter 4. Since latitudes of about 25 and 45°, there is a zone known as the
smallholder farmers use knapsack sprayers, the subtropical high-pressure belt. This belt contains several
amount of chemical needed is expressed in separate high-pressure cells (also known as anticyclones).
grams or ml per 10 litres of water. In most This zone is the subsiding arm of the Hadley Cell, a north-
cases, a full cover spray is required and in the south circulation of air in the low latitudes, consisting of
case of red spider mites and white fly special two opposing cells, each having air rising in the intertropical
attention should be given to the underside of convergence zone (around the equator) and sinking in the
the leaves. More information on pest and subtropical high-pressure belt. Regions between these belts
disease control is given in Chapter 4. Chapter 5 do not experience the traditional Spring-Summer-Autumn-
presents the importance of integrated control, Winter sequence of temperate latitudes, though there is
combining biological, mechanical and chemical some similarity. Zimbabwe, being north of the southern
controls. subtropical high-pressure belt, does not therefore
Weed Weeds compete for water, nutrients and light experience the traditional seasons. The country has four
control: with the effect of reducing crop development, seasons:
which results in reduced yields. Weeds also
Y The cool season between mid-May and mid-August:
harbor pests that damage crops, thus reducing
This is the time of the year when the lowest
quality. Keeping fields free of weeds, especially in
temperatures are recorded (winter). It coincides with
the case of horticultural crops, is an essential
the dry season. Daytime temperatures are in the range
cultural operation. Although some herbicides
of 20-29°C, while cold to very cold minimum
are available, few are registered for application
temperatures are in the range 4-12°C. When the air is
on vegetables. Care should be exercised when
sufficiently dry as well as in places with high altitude
using herbicides as some have long residual
(> 1 000 m above sea level), scattered early morning
effects that may affect subsequent crops. Hand
ground frost is common.
weeding is the cheapest method and weeds are
easy to control at the early stages of development Y The hot season between mid-August and mid-
(Chapter 4). November:
The rise in the relative humidity results in the increase
Crop Many problems caused by pests and diseases
in the night temperatures and a reduction in the risk of
rotation: can be prevented by correct crop rotation
ground frost. The highest temperatures usually occur in
(Chapter 2).
the latter half of October or early November with an
Crop Crop data, like length of growth stage, crop average maximum temperature in the range of range
data & coefficient, rooting depth, depletion level and 26-35°C. Occurrence of severe thunderstorms is
irrigation the yield-response factor, are necessary for each common towards the end of the hot season, that is
require- growth stage in order to be able to calculate the mid-November, which marks the end of the dry
ments: crop water and irrigation requirements using the season.
FAO-CROPWAT computer programme. These

2– Module 3
 Module 3: Agronomic aspects of irrigated crop production

Y The main rainy season between mid-November and Y The post-rainy season from mid-March to mid-May:
mid-March: This season sees the gradual establishment of the dry
The end of the hot season marks the start of the main and cool winds. Daytime temperatures start showing a
rainy (summer) season, though the dates do vary downward trend and there is a marked decrease in
considerably. An annual rainfall in the excess of 1 500 night temperatures. The weather is generally mild and
mm is common, but in the south and southeast it is sunny with a maximum average temperature range of
only around 500 mm. This also shows a stronger 23-31°C.
association of rainfall with elevation, for high altitude
areas in the eastern part of the country receiving an Table 1 presents climatic data of some selected sites in
average of 3 000 mm annually. Zimbabwe, while Table 2 summarizes the average climatic
parameters for the Lowveld (LV), Middleveld (MV) and
Highveld (HV) regions in Zimbabwe.

Table 1
Climatic data of some selected sites in Zimbabwe

Month J F M A M J J A S O N D
Station Beitbridge: 457 m above sea level (Lowveld)
Day-length (hours) 13.3 12.8 12.2 11.6 11.1 10.8 10.9 11.4 12.0 12.6 13.2 13.4
24-hour mean temp. (°C) 27.1 26.6 25.6 23.2 19.7 16.5 16.7 19.3 22.7 25.4 26.2 26.7
Station Bulawayo: 1 315 m above sea level (Middleveld - Highveld)
Day-length (hours) 13.2 12.7 12.2 11.7 11.2 10.9 11.1 11.4 12.0 12.5 13.0 13.3
24-hour mean temp. (°C) 21.2 20.7 20.1 18.5 15.8 13.3 13.6 16.1 19.5 22.0 21.3 21.1
Station Harare: 1 479 m above sea level (Highveld)
Day-length (hours) 13.1 12.7 12.2 11.7 11.3 11.1 11.2 11.5 12.0 12.5 12.9 13.2
24-hour mean temp. (°C) 20.0 19.8 19.4 18.1 15.6 13.3 13.2 13.3 18.4 20.9 20.5 20.1
Station Karoi: 1 345 m above sea level (Middleveld - Highveld)
Day-length (hours) 13.0 12.6 12.2 11.7 11.3 11.1 11.2 11.5 12.0 12.5 12.9 13.1
24-hour mean temp. (°C) 20.2 20.1 19.8 18.9 16.8 14.7 14.6 16.8 19.9 22.5 21.7 20.6
Station Nyanga: 1 878 m above sea level (Highveld)
Day-length (hours) 13.1 12.7 12.2 11.7 11.3 11.1 11.1 11.5 12.0 12.5 13.0 13.2
24-hour mean temp. (°C) 16.4 16.2 15.5 14.2 12.2 10.3 09.9 11.7 14.3 16.2 16.1 16.2
Station Sabi valley: 448 m above sea level (Lowveld)
Day-length (hours) 13.2 12.7 12.2 11.6 11.2 10.9 11.0 11.4 12.0 12.6 13.1 13.3
24-hour mean temp. (°C) 25.6 25.1 24.2 22.4 19.3 16.5 16.6 19.1 22.3 25.1 25.8 25.5

Table 2
Climatic parameters for the agro-ecological zones in Zimbabwe

Climatic Parameter Agro-ecological zone

Lowveld Middleveld Highveld
Altitude above sea level (m) < 600 600-1 200 > 1 200
Average annual rainfall (mm) < 450 400-800 > 750
Annual temperature: Mean maximum (°C) 30 25 20
Mean minimum (°C) 16 12 10

More detailed climatic information is given in Module 4.

Module 3 –3
 Chapter 2
Cropping programme and crop rotation

Cropping intensity and production potential are in general mentioned earlier, and in-depth discussions with all
higher for crops under irrigation than for crops under dry- farmers involved.
land farming. This calls for a balanced cropping
programme, a sound rotation and strict plant protection When a certain water supply is given, cropping patterns
measures. may need to be adjusted to avoid peak irrigation
requirements at periods of high evaporative demand and to
When designing an irrigation scheme, the preparation of avoid peak requirements of various crops occurring
cropping programmes is the first step in calculating crop simultaneously. This includes consideration of shifting the
water requirements. Based on this, the capacity of the sowing or planting dates, taking into account climatic
irrigation system and the area to be covered by the system constraints in a given area, manipulating the length of
can be determined, taking into consideration the water growing seasons by use of different crops and cultivars, and
availability. knowing sensitive crop stages in order to avoid yield
reduction due to water stress during the critical period.
2.1. Crop selection
Besides water availability, other important factors to 2.2. Cropping pattern
consider in crop selection are prevailing climatic conditions Once the crops have been selected, one can make up the
and soils, the farmer preference and marketing potentials. seasonal cropping pattern indicating the place and the
These affect the choice of crops and crop varieties and the occupying area of each crop. A cropping programme
planting time. Labour requirements and availability, market diagram as shown in Table 3 is very useful. This diagram
distances and needs, transport costs and reliability, and helps in establishing which crop will occupy what part of the
measures to combat pests and diseases must also all be available area during each season, also taking into
considered as they determine the scale and frequency of consideration the crop rotation requirements (Section 3.2).
production. These factors are often site-specific, which
must be taken into cognizance when a farmer produces While the time needed for land preparation and for
different crop varieties. harvest should not be included when calculating the crop
water requirements, it is useful to indicate on the cropping
Neither cropping programmes nor agronomic programme diagram the time needed for so doing.
recommendations are fixed and this should therefore be Planting or transplanting dates, the length of the period
taken into consideration when designing the irrigation that the crop will be in the ground, the time and
systems. For design purposes, a cropping pattern should be conditions needed for harvest as well as for land
made in such a way that the farmers would be able to grow preparation for the next crop are all important. Repeating
and irrigate all of their crops adequately. This involves this for the next season gives a clear picture of the yearly
careful investigation and planning, considering all factors cropping pattern.
Table 3
Example of a crop calendar and cropping pattern

Crop Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
Maize 26 15
Beans 1 30
Cabbages 15 1
Groundnuts 15 20
Wheat 15 30
Onions 1 25
Green maize 1 16
Potatoes 1 15

Module 3 –5
Irrigation manual

2.3. Crop rotation treatment. However, these chemicals are quite expensive
and very toxic. Their application requires expertise and
The place occupied by the different crops during
know-how. The cheapest and most effective preventive
consecutive years makes up the crop rotation (Table 4). In
control against nematodes is an adequate crop rotation.
order to reduce the risk of pests and diseases and to
The degree of nematode infestation will be a guide to
maintain soil fertility, crops are rotated within the field in
determining which control method to opt for.
such a way that crops belonging to the same family do not
occupy the same area during consecutive years as they share Table 5 gives a rough indication of the rotation frequency of
same pests and diseases. Of special concern are crops some crops.
susceptible to nematodes. In this case, a rotation cycle of
minimum four years is required. Examples are tobacco, Table 6 shows a number of vegetable crops that have been
tomato, potato, eggplant, chilli (all of the Solanaceae family), grouped according to their susceptibility to nematodes. It
okra and carrot. shows that crops from the onion family (Alliaceae) are, in
general, tolerant of nematodes.
A heavily nematode-infested soil will reduce the growth and
yield of a whole range of crops grown on this soil. Cotton As nematode activity is reduced to a low level between May
and onion are known to be good cleaning crops when and September in the high altitude areas (> 1 000 m above
grown prior to and following crops that are susceptible to sea level), it is quite safe to plant susceptible crops from
nematodes. It is recommended that the stubble of group A during this time as long as they do not precede
susceptible crops be uprooted and burnt. Besides cotton summer-grown susceptible crops. In low altitude areas
and onion, some flowers, for example the marigold, have a (< 1 000 m above sea level) nematodes are active all year
nematode population reducing effect. Nowadays, round and susceptible crops can only be grown once every
chemicals are also available to control nematodes by soil four years.

Table 4
Example of a crop rotation schedule

Summer 1 Winter 1 Summer 2 Winter 2 Summer 3 Winter 3 Summer 4 Winter 4

Maize Onions Groundnuts Potatoes Cabbages Green maize Beans Wheat
Beans Wheat Maize Onions Groundnuts Potatoes Cabbages Green maize
Cabbages Green maize Beans Wheat Maize Onions Groundnuts Potatoes
Groundnuts Potatoes Cabbages Green maize Beans Wheat Maize Onions

Table 5
Crop rotation frequency

Crop Frequency (Number of years) Crop Frequency (Number of years)

Beans 2 Potatoes 4
Cabbages 2 Rape, kale 2
Carrots 2 Sorghum 2
Cotton 1-2 Soya beans 2
Cucurbit 3 Sunflowers 4-6
Eggplants 4 Tobacco 4
Groundnuts 2 Tomatoes 4
Okra 4 Wheat 2
Pepper 4

6– Module 3
 Module 3: Agronomic aspects of irrigated crop production

Table 6
Host status of some vegetable crops for root-knot-nematodes (R.K.N.): example from Zimbabwe

Group A: Susceptible crops Group B: Tolerant crops Group C: Resistant crops

Chenopodiaceae Cruciferae Alliaceae
Beetroot Broccoli Garlic
Swiss chard Brussels sprouts Leek
Cabbage Onion
Compositae Cauliflower Shallots
Lettuce Kale
Rape
Cucurbitaceae Radish
Cucumber Tsunga
Gourd Turnip
Melon
Pumpkin Convolvulaceae
Squash Sweet potato

Labiatae Solanaceae
Tsenza Chilli pepper

Leguminosae Graminae
Bambara nut Maize
Broad bean Sweet corn
Cowpea
Pea
Sugar bean

Malvaceae
Okra

Solanaceae
Eggplant
Irish potato
Sweet pepper
Tomato

Umbelliferae
Carrot
Celery
Parsley

Note: Susceptible crops: good hosts for RKN. Tolerant crops: poor hosts for RKN. Resistance crops: non-hosts for RKN.

Module 3 –7
 Chapter 3
Fertilization

Fertilizers are used to increase crop production by adding ‘complete mixtures’, containing all three elements. These
to the soil those nutrients that are in short supply and to last are called ‘Compound fertilizers’ in this Module.
restore and maintain the soil fertility, since a large Examples of straight fertilizers are:
percentage of plant nutrients is removed from the soil with Y Nitrogenous fertilizer: Ammonium Nitrate:
harvesting. NH4NO3 with 34.5% N
Y Phosphatic fertilizer: Single Super Phosphate:
3.1. Symptoms of nutrient deficiency
14-20% water soluble P2O5 in Ca(N2PO4)2.H2O +
Nutrient deficiencies are one of the most common ways in CaSO4.2H2O
which land degradation affects production. Therefore, it is
Y Potash fertilizers: Muriate of Potash:
essential for the field assessor to be aware of the evidence of
60% K2O
such deficiencies in growing plants. In most cases, by the
time nutrient deficiencies are evidenced by abnormalities in The following Compound fertilizers can be found:
the visual presentation of a plant, it is already too late to Y Compound C = 6 : 17 : 15
correct the deficiency in time to affect current yields. (6% N, 17% P2O5, 15% K2O)
Nevertheless, if future productivity is to be maintained or
increased, it is important to identify, as far as is possible, the Y Compound D = 8 : 14 : 7
cause of the abnormalities (Stocking and Murnaghan, (8% N, 14% P2O5, 7% K2O)
2000). In Table 7 some of the conditions that can lead to Y Compound J = 15 : 5 : 20
nutrient deficiencies and toxicities are noted. (15% N, 5% P2O5, 20% K2O) + 3.4% S + 0.04% B
The observation of abnormalities in plants is a complicated Y Compound L = 5 : 18 : 10
and skilled task. Since nutrient deficiencies may be (5% N, 18% P2O5, 10% K2O) + 0.25% B
manifested in different ways, depending on the crop in Y Compound S = 6 : 17 : 6
which they occur, particular criteria will be crop-specific. (6% N, 17% P2O5, 6% K2O) + 0.04% B + 9% S
As an example, the visual indicators of nutrient deficiencies
in several tropical crops are set out in Table 8. Complete mixtures are the most expensive per nutritive
unit, but they are easier to apply with less chance of
3.2. Chemical fertilizers mistakes compared to ‘straights’. They are very popular
with inexperienced users, since the presence of just one or
Usually only the three primary plant nutrients are provided, two nutritive components is enough to bring about a
which are Nitrogen (N), Phosphorus (P) and Potassium (K). significant yield increase. They can be used as ‘all-purpose
The corresponding units for expressing fertilizer needs are: mixtures’ for smallholders engaging in commercial
N = Nitrate production and home gardening of food crops, vegetables
and fruit trees (Euroconsult, 1989).
P2O5 = Phosphorus pentoxide
K2O = Potash In general, there are two methods of fertilizer application:
Y Uniform distribution over the whole area
An important secondary nutrient is Sulphur (S), which is
(broadcasting)
present in many fertilizers. The secondary nutrient Calcium
(Ca) may be present in certain fertilizers. In very special Y Localization of the fertilizer in strips (bands) or in
cases, trace elements such as Boron (B) are incorporated in pockets (placement)
fertilizers.
For pressurized systems fertilizers can be applied through
Distinction is made between ‘straight’ fertilizers, containing the irrigation water. For this purpose only water-soluble
one of the primary elements only, ‘incomplete mixtures’, fertilizers can be used. For details on this practice, called
containing two elements (N+P, N+K or P+K), and fertigation, the reader is referred to Module 9.

Module 3 –9
Irrigation manual

Table 7
Nutrient deficiencies and toxicities: generalized symptoms and circumstances (Source: Stocking and
Murnaghan, 2000)

Essential Nutrient Deficiency/Toxicity Symptoms Typical Conditions

Nitrogen (N) Leaves (first older ones) turn yellow/ brown, plants Sandy soils under high rainfall conditions and soils
are spindly, lack vigour and may be dwarfed low in organic matter, where leaching occurs

Phosphorus (P) Not easily detected from appearance. Where Acid soils rich in iron and aluminium oxides (i.e.
deficiency is severe plant will be stunted, the red tropical soils)
leaves will take on a purplish tint and the stem
will be reddish in colour

Potassium (K) Yellow/brown spots appear on older leaves and/or More frequent on light soils (as K is concentrated
necrosis of edges in the clay fraction of soils)

Sulphur (S) Leaves are stunted, with uniform chlorosis

Calcium (Ca) Roots are usually affected first – growth is Acid soils, or alkali or saline soils containing high
impaired and rotting often occurs. In vegetative proportions of sodium
growth, deficiency may show in distorted leaves,
brown scorching or spotting on foliage or bitter
fruit (e.g. apple) or blossom-end rot (e.g. tomato)

Magnesium (Mg) Interveinal chlorosis, first on older leaves Acid, sandy soils in areas with moderate to high
rainfall. Often occurs in conjunction with Ca
deficiency

Iron (Fe) Chlorosis of younger leaves Calcareous soils, poorly drained and with high pH.
(In neutral and alkaline soils P may prevent the
absorption of Fe)

Manganese (Mn) Chlorosis of younger leaves Badly drained soils, over-liming or deep ploughing
of calcareous soils can lead to Mn deficiency, as
can the presence of high levels of Mg. The
combination of high pH values (> 6.5) and high
levels of organic matter can immobilize soil Mn

Zinc (Zn) Symptoms vary with plant type – in cereals young Soils with high pH. Available Zn is reduced by the
plants display purpling, whereas in broad-leaved application of lime or phosphates
plants symptoms include interveinal chlorosis,
reduced leaf size and sparse foliage

Copper (Cu) Chlorosis of the tips of the youngest leaves and Peat soils, or leached sandy or acid soils
die-back of growing points

Boron (B) In crops other than cereals, the apical growing Sandy soils, dry conditions and liming can result
point on the main stem dies and lateral buds fail in B deficiency
to develop shoots. Legumes (beans, peas) are
very sensitive to Boron deficiency

Molybdenum (Mo) Marginal scorching and cupping of leaves. Acid soils or soils with high pH. Mo deficiency can
Wilting is common in Brassicas. Cereals and lead to N-deficiency, as nitrate requires adequate
particularly maize are sensitive to Molybdenum supplies of Mo for metabolism. Mo availability can
deficiency inhibit the uptake of Cu

Chlorine (Cl) Wilting of leaves Well-drained, sandy soils

Sulphur toxicity Build up of sulphates as a result of irrigation

Manganese toxicity Brown spots and uneven chlorophyll in older leaves Soils with pH of < 5.0 (for susceptible species)

Copper toxicity Chlorosis of leaves and restricted root growth Soils with low pH

Boron toxicity Progressive necrosis of the leaves, starting from Soils with low pH
the tips and/or margins

Aluminium toxicity Plants die after early growth Acid mineral soils, aggravated by low P status

Chlorine toxicity Burning of leaf tips, bronzing and premature Associated with irrigation using water containing
yellowing of leaves chloride

10 – Module 3
 Module 3: Agronomic aspects of irrigated crop production

Table 8
Examples of deficiencies in several tropical crops (Source: Stocking and Murnaghan, 2000)

Maize Beans Cabbage

General High N requirement and sensitive to Tolerant to a wide range of conditions, Demanding of N, P and K.
low phosphate supply. Relatively but only high yielding with high N Moderately sensitive to water stress
sensitive to water stress.

Nitrogen Reduced vigour; leaves a pale Plants are small, leaves are pale Young leaves pale green, older
green or yellowish colour green and older leaves turn yellow. leaves are orange, red or purple.
Few flowers are produced Severe deficiency renders the crop
useless

Phosphorus Stunted growth, delayed ripening Stems are dwarfed and thin, leaves Leaves are dull green with purplish
and purplish leaf colour, especially lack lustre. Early defoliation occurs, tinge, margins die
during early growth starting at base of shoot

Potassium Small whitish-yellow spots on leaves. Chlorosis of leaves, with necrotic Leaves are bluish-green. Leaf
Poor root system, plants are weak brown patches at margins between margins may show scorching and
and may be blown down veins tips of older leaves may die

Sulphur Somewhat similar to N deficiency. Stunted growth, yellowing leaves. Smaller plants, with yellowing
Plants short and spindly. Younger Delayed flowering and development leaves
leaves pale beige to straw in colour of beans. Reduced nodulation on roots

Calcium Poor germination and stunted growth Growth is stunted and growing point Leaves rolled up at margins,
may die. In severe cases plants turn necrosis of rims and death of
black and die growing point

Magnesium Whitish or yellow striping between Older leaves show interveinal reddish- Interveinal chlorosis and puckering
the leaf veins, followed by necrosis brown mottling of older leaves

Iron Alternate rows of green and white At early stage, patternless paling in Whitish streaks on leaves. Veins
on leaves leaf colour; later stage, yellowing of unaffected at first, but larger veins
leaf similar to N deficiency eventually turn yellow

Manganese Yellow and green striping along the Chlorosis, initially of young leaves, Leaves are of smaller size and
length of the leaf followed by necrotic spots in exhibit yellow mottling between
interveinal areas. Leaves will fall off veins
and plants eventually die

Zinc Chlorotic fading of the leaves, with Leaves and flower buds are shed
broad whitish areas

Copper Leaves become chlorotic and the Leaves chlorotic, heads fail to form,
tips wither growth stunted

Boron New leaves show transparent Leaves turn yellow and then brown. Leaves are distorted, brittle,
stripes. Growing points die and ears No flowers or pods are produced mottled along margins and wilted
may not develop

Molybdenum Not common by itself, but indicators Leaves are smaller, pale in colour with Older leaves become mottled,
include scorched patches on leaves interveinal mottling developing into scorched and cupped. Margins are
brown scorched areas irregular and heart formation is
poor

Chlorine Plants short with poorly-developed Cl essential for the symbiotic fixation Stunted roots with excessive
stubby roots of N in legumes. No nodulation and branching and poor wilted top
stunted growth growth

Copper Reduced growth, chlorosis and

toxicity stunted root development

Module 3 – 11
Irrigation manual

3.3. Organic manure tons, usually with a somewhat higher dry-matter

content.
Continuous cropping without any addition or return of
fresh or decomposed organic matter will result in a Y Compost consists of partially decomposed materials
decrease in soil organic matter and a decline in soil of plant, animal or human origin, alone or in
structure. The high temperatures in the tropics and combination. The composting of sufficiently rich
subtropics cause a rapid decomposition and mineralization manure or waste should lead to temperatures of over
of organic matter. To maintain the humus level of the soil, 60°C, which will kill disease and pest organisms inside
around 15 tons/ha of organic manure (30% dry matter) are the heap.
required yearly, depending on the prevailing temperatures. Y Industrial organic manures mainly consist of by-
Unfortunately, these amounts are not generally available to products of vegetable oil processing and animal
smallholders. It is best to reserve the quantities available products.
for fruits and vegetables first, since these crops give the
highest return to organic manuring. Y Crop residues are important suppliers of organic
matter to the soil. The quantities and composition vary
There are different types of organic manure (Euroconsult, considerably. The growing of local maize varieties, for
1989): example, may result in 2-3 tons/ha of straw.
Y Farmyard manures are the solid and liquid excreta Y Green manure crops, mostly Leguminosae, produce
of livestock, generally mixed with the litter used for 20-50 tons of fresh matter, depending on the type of
their bedding. The composition and quantities vary crop, the growing season and the inputs. The dry-
widely, according to the kind of animal, its feeding and matter content is about 15%. Another important factor
the type of litter used. The annual amount of fresh is the fixation of nitrogen from the air by bacteria. The
matter produced by a well-fed adult dairy cow can be amount of available nitrogen ranges between 20 and
10 tons (30% dry matter). For local cattle kept as 50 kg N/ha.
draught animals this quantity is in the order of 2-3

12 – Module 3
 Chapter 4
Control of pests, diseases and weeds

4.1. Types of pests, diseases and weeds rusts or wilts. Very serious fungal diseases can appear as
Panama disease (Fusarium spp.) in banana, as soil-borne stem
4.1.1. Pests or root rots (Phytophthora) linked with waterlogging in citrus,
Pests are insects, arachnids, rodents and snails that cause or with contaminated nurseries in avocado, papaya, and
damage to a crop to an extent resulting in a noticeable pineapple. Figure 2 shows some examples of fungal diseases.
reduction in yield or the total destruction of the crop. Viral diseases may be caused by virus infection. They result
As far as insects are concerned, for practical purposes it is in loss of vigour, yield and quality, which can be
convenient to distinguish between sucking (S) and chewing accompanied by rapidly changing colouring.
(C) insect pests (Euroconsult, 1989). Sucking pests are
aphids (soft, pear-shaped insects), and white and black flies. 4.1.3. Weeds
Besides inflicting damage by sucking they can also transmit Weeds compete with crops for moisture, nutrients and
more harmful virus diseases, and their sugary honey dew light, which results in lower crop yields. They are also hosts
excretions make affected parts sticky and susceptible to to a number of pests and diseases. In extreme cases,
soury fungus growth. Other sucking pests are spider mites, exudates from the weeds’ roots can have a poisonous effect
mealy bugs, scales, stainers, stink bugs and thrips (small, on the crop plant (Euroconsult, 1989). The competition of
elongated and rather fast moving insects with piercing gramineous weeds is more severe than that of broad-leaved
mouths). All sucking pests compete for assimilates, and weeds. Crops are most sensitive to weed competition in
cause early wilting and shedding of leaves and buds. Chewing their early stages of growth. Competition during the first
pests include seedling, leaf and fruiting point caterpillars quarter of the growing period can cause irreparable damage
(moth larvae or worms), stem and fruit borers, beetles and to the crop and often results in total crop failures.
weevils, grasshoppers, crickets, locusts and some ants that
attack seedlings. Nematodes, unsegmented parasitic worms
having an elongated, cylindrical body (eelworm, 4.2. Control measures
roundworm), are very harmful to crops (see Chapter 2). There are various methods for controlling pests, diseases
Some insect pests are shown in Figure 1. and weeds: preventive measures, chemical controls,
biological controls, and hand and mechanical controls.
4.1.2. Diseases Ideally, integrated controls should take place in such a way
that all possible measures are used in an environmentally
A reduction in crop growth may be the result of an
sound and, for the farmer, economically viable programme.
insufficient supply of plant minerals or of the activity of
This is called integrated pest management and will be
toxins produced by bacteria, fungi and viruses. The internal
explained in greater detail in Chapter 5.
nature of most diseases means that considerable damage is
usually done before the symptoms become noticeable,
which makes control very difficult (Euroconsult, 1989). 4.2.1. Preventive measures
The most important preventive measures are crop rotation
Many bacterial diseases of vegetables are soil-borne.
(Chapter 2) and crop hygiene. Crop hygiene includes
Therefore crop rotation can work preventively.
burning or hot composting of affected material and prompt
Improvement of the drainage condition of the land can also
removal of crop residues, stalks and stumps after harvest. It
have favourable effects. Infested plants wilt and die rapidly.
is also important to obtain seeds from reliable sources, to
Fungal diseases may appear as blotching on leaves and fruits treat the seed or plant material and to improve seedbed
(for example, downy mildew), as a powdery coating of management (Chapter 6). Resistant or tolerant varieties
leaves and fruits (for example, powdery mildew), as the should be used. Planting and drainage methods that prevent
stem or root rots causing wilting and dying, as black rots of waterlogging should be applied. A balanced mineral supply
veins or stems causing dying, or as lesser leaf spots, moulds, should also be provided.

Module 3 – 13
Irrigation manual

Figure 1
Examples of insect pests (Source: Purdue University, 1993)

Mites and eggs on

underside of leaf
(minute in size)

Wingless form Winged form

a. Aphids (S)
b. Two-spotted spider mite (S)

Egg cluster on
underside of leaf
Nymph
Adult
Nymph Adult

c. Tarnished plant bug (S) d. Squash bug (S)

Nymph
Curled Larva
Larva
Adult

e. Leafhopper (S)
f. Cutworm (C)

Larva

Larva
Adult

g. Cabbage worm (C) Adult

h. Diamondback moth (C)

Adult

Larva Up to 10 cm

i. Squash vine borer (C) j. Garden slug (C)

14 – Module 3
 Module 3: Agronomic aspects of irrigated crop production

Figure 2
Examples of fungal diseases (Source: Our Garden Gang, 2002)

b. Verticillium on
tomato leaves

c. Fusarium on potatoes

a. Fusarium on tomato leaves

d. Mildew on leaf

Preventive measures in weed control are meant to check product is. Too often people seem to be too careless with
further spreading of weeds. They include early cultivation dangerous products. Therefore, some information on the
and the use of uncontaminated seed, the eradication of different categories has been added.
weeds before seeding is started, keeping irrigation canals
clean, proper composting of manure and the prevention of Green pesticides:
soil and water runoff (Euroconsult, 1989). Y Formulations with an Acute Oral Lethal Dose of 50%
(LD50)1 of over 2 001 mg per kg of bodyweight.
4.2.2. Chemical control Y Can be used without danger in the home or where
Chemical control refers to the use of chemicals to destroy stated as a mixture to grain or other stored produce for
pests and disease-causing organisms, to control their human or animal consumption.
activity or prevent them from causing damage. Chemicals Y Can be offered for sale by any shop or store.
are often specified by the name of the active substance.
However, farmers, extension people and shopkeepers are Y The label on the packing should show the word
more familiar with its trade name. The list in Table 9 makes ‘Caution’ within a green triangle and the words
an easy check possible, indicating the trade name, the active ‘Harmful if swallowed’ beneath the base of the triangle.
substance (the chemical responsible for the desired effect Amber pesticides:
upon a pest), the type of chemical and its general use. The
triangle category is an indication of how poisonous the Y Formulations with an LD50 of between 501 and
2 000 mg per kg of bodyweight.
1 LD50: The quantity of an active ingredient taken by mouth or absorbed by the skin, which is excepted to kill 50% of the test animals. It is expressed in mg chemical per
kg of bodyweight of the test animals. The greater the quantity of pesticide required to reach a LD50, the lower the toxicity of the product.

Module 3 – 15
Irrigation manual

Y Can be used without danger in home gardens and for Depending on the pests and diseases to be controlled, the
external use in the home. following pesticides can be used:
Y Can be offered for sale by a retailer, if a special part of Insecticides: Insects
the shop or store has been set aside for the specific Molluscicides: Snails, slugs
purpose of display, storage or sale of dangerous
substances. Rodenticides: Mice, rats
Y The label on the packing should show the word Acaricides: Spiders
‘Danger’ with a symbol of a skull and crossbones within Herbicides: Weeds
an amber triangle and the word ‘Poison’ beneath the
base of the triangle. Nematicides: Nematodes
Fungicides: Fungi
Red pesticides:
Bactericides: Bacteria
Y Formulations with an LD50 of between 100 and 500
mg per kg of bodyweight. Pesticides can be classified according their mode of action
Y Use should be generally restricted to horticultural, as follows:
agricultural, health or industrial pest control Y Contact pesticide: controls when it comes in contact
operations. Only applied in homes by a recognized pest with the pest; doesn’t translocate
control operator where specific precautions are taken
Y Stomach pesticide: must be eaten by a pest in order to
and the insecticide has been registered for a particular
control the pest
purpose.
Y Systemic pesticide: is absorbed and translocated within
Y May only be sold by a licensed dealer, where a special
a plant or animal
part of the premises has been set aside for the specific
purpose of display, storage and sale of dangerous Y Fumigant: produces a gas, vapour, fume or smoke
substances. intended to destroy insects, bacteria and rodents
Y The label on the packing should show the word Pesticides can appear in the following forms:
‘Danger’ with a skull and crossbones symbol within a
Y Emulsifiable Concentrate (EC): Liquid formulation in
red triangle and the words ‘Dangerous poison’ beneath
which the active ingredient is dissolved in a petroleum
the base of the triangle.
solvent, plus an emulsifier
Purple pesticides: Y Wettable Powder (WP): A solid powder formulation
Y Formulations with an LD50 of up to 100 mg per kg of that when added to water forms a suspension used for
bodyweight. spraying
Y May only be sold to persons whose business, profession Y Granules (G): Small dry pellets, low concentrate
or trade requires them. mixtures of pesticides and inert carriers, used as it is
Y May only be offered for sale by licensed dealers, where Y Bait (B): Edible material that contains a pesticide and
part of the premises is set aside for the sale of is attractive to the pest
dangerous substances. The dealer must keep a poison Y Dust (D): Finely-ground mixtures combining a low
register of all sales of this group of pesticides, each sale concentration with an inert carrier (talc, clay, ash)
being countersigned by the purchaser or his nominee,
and the farm license number must be noted. Y Flowable (F): Finely-ground solid material, which is
suspended in a liquid and usually in high
Y The label on the packing should show the word concentration, that requires dilution with water
‘Danger’ with a skull and crossbones symbol within a
purple triangle and ‘Very dangerous poison’ or Y Fumigant: Pesticide in the form of gas that can kill
‘Extremely poisonous’ beneath the base of the triangle. when absorbed or inhaled

In order to avoid a resistance built-up, different products It should be noted that some chemicals can disappear from
should be used and alternated, so far as the farmer can the market and be replaced by new ones. The list in Table
afford it. 9 therefore needs constant updating.

16 – Module 3
 Module 3: Agronomic aspects of irrigated crop production

Table 9
List of some chemicals, their active substance and use

Trade name Triangle Active Description Disease

category substance
Insecticides/Acaricides
Anthio 33 EC Red Formothion Systemic + Contact Insecticide Aphids, Thrips
Azodrin 40 Purple Monocrotophos Systemic Insecticide Aphids, Tuber Moth, Cutworm,
(organosphate) Loopers, Mite
Biobit Green Bacillus Biological Insecticide Diamondback moth (in Cucurbits)
thuringiensis
Carbaflow 50 Amber Carbaryl Insecticide Stalk Borer, Caterpillars, Army Worm,
Cutworm, Tuber Moth, Grasshoppers
Carbaryl 85% WP Red Carbaryl Contact + Stomach Insecticide Caterpillars, Grasshoppers, Army Worm
(carbamate)
Chlordasol Amber Chlordane Contact + Stomach Insecticide Termites
Curaterr 10 Purple Carbofuran Granular Insecticide Stalk Borer
Cymbush 20EC Red Cypermethrin Contact + Stomach Insecticide Cutworm, Army Worm, Thrips,
Heliothis in cotton
Decis Amber Deltamethrin Insecticide Aphids
Dimethoate EC Green Dimethoate Systemic + Contact Insecticide Aphids
Acaricide (organosphate)
Dimethoate Red Dimethoate Systemic + Contact Insecticide Alphids
+ Acaricide
Dipterex 2.5% G Green Trichlorfon Stomach Insecticide Maize Stalk Borer
(organophosphate)
Kelthane EC Red Dicofol Acaricide Red Spider Mite
Lebaycid Amber Fenthion Baycid, Stomach + Contact Insecticide Fruitfly (in Cucurbits)
Baytex
Malathion 50% WP Green Malathion 50% Contact + Stomach Insecticide Thrips, Aphids, Red Spider Mite
+ Acaricide (organosphate)
Metasystox 25% EC Red Dimethon-s-methyl Systemic Insecticide + Acaricide Aphids, Red Spider Mite, White Fly
(organophosphate)
Neoron Green Bromopropylate Acaricide Mite (in citrus)
Nogos 50 EC Red Dichlorvos Contact Insecticide White Fly, Aphids, Thrips
Nuvacron 40 Green Monocrotophos Insecticide + Acaricide Aphids, Red Spider Mite, Cutworm,
Stalk Borer
Parathion 25 Purple Parathion Insecticide Thrips, Aphids, Borers, Diamondback
moth
Patriot 2.5% EC Green Deltametrin Contact + Stomach Insecticide White Fly, Aphids
(pyrethroid)
Pirimor Red Pirimicarb Stomach + Contact Insecticide Aphids (in cotton, wheat)
+ Acaracide
Tameron Purple Methamidophos Systemic + Contact Insecticide Cutworm, Aphids, Tuber moth
Tetradifon, Tedion Green Tetradifon Acaricide Red Spider Mite (in cotton, citrus,
deciduous fruit)
Thiodan 50, Thionex Purple Endosulfan Stomach + Contact Insecticide Aphids, Thrips, Heliothis
(cl-hydrocarbon) bollworm, Diamondback moth
Torque Fengutanin-oxide Stomach + Contact Insecticide Used in citrus, soft fruit, vines, etc.
+ Acaracide

Fungicides
Afugan Amber Pyrazophos Fungicide Powdery Mildew (in Cucurbits)
Antracol 70 WP Green Propineb Fungicide Blight, Leaf Spot
Bavistin Green Carbendazim Systemic Fungicide Powdery Mildew, Cercospora,
(Benzimidazole) Botrytis, Anthracnose
Baycor Amber Bitertanol Fungicide Cercospora, Leaf Spot, Phoma in
groundnuts
Bayleton Triadimeton Fungicide Powdery Mildew

Module 3 – 17
Irrigation manual

Trade name Triangle Active Description Disease

category substance
Benomyl Green Benlate Systemic Fungicide Powdery Mildew, Botrytis,
Cercospora, Leaf Spot, Fusarium
Brassicol 75 Green Quintozene Fungicide Damping-off
Bravo 500 Green Chlorothalonil Contact Fungicide Downey Mildew, Blight,
Anthracnose, Leaf Spot
Captan 50 WP Green Captan Fungicide Damping-off, Blight, Leaf Spot
Copper Oxychloride Red Copper Fungicide Scab, Blight, Leaf Spot, Downey
Oxychloride Mildew, Rust
Dithane M45 Green Mancozeb Fungicide (Dithiocarbamate) Rust, Blight, Downey Mildew, Leaf Spot,
Anthracnose, Scab, Black Spot
Karathane 25 Green Dinocap Fungicide Powdery Mildew
Kocide Copric hydroxide Fungicide Rust in coffee
Mancozeb 80% Green Mancozeb Fungicide Rust, Blight, Downey Mildew, Leaf Spot,
Anthracnose, Scab, Black Spot
Milraz 76 WP Amber Propineb Systemic & Contact Fungicide Late blight in potatoes
Morestan 25% Green Chinomethionate Fungicide Powdery Mildew
Nimrod Green Bupirimate Systemic Fungicide Powdery Mildew (in roses)
Polyram-DF Amber Metiram Fungicide Blight, Leaf Spot, Rust, Anthracnose,
Damping-off (vegetable seedlings)
Ridomil MZ 72 Amber Mancozeb Systemic & Contact Fungicide Blight, Downey Mildew
Sulphur Cosan Green Pure sulphur Fungicide Powdery Mildew
Tecto Green Thiabendezole Fungicide Fusarium, post-harvest treatment
Thiram 80 Red Thiram Fungicide (Dithiocarbamate) Damping-off: Rhizoctonia, Phytium
Thiram 80 WP Red Thiram Fungicide & Insecticide Damping-off (beans & brassica)
Zineb Zineb Contact Fungicide Downy Mildew (in Cucurbits)

4.2.3. Biological control solitary with only one parasitoid developing per host, or
Biological control refers to the process of pest management they may be gregarious with many larvae (sometimes
achieved through the use of living organisms, namely hundreds) developing per host. Most parasitoids are highly
predators, parasitoids or pathogens (Verkerk, 2001). or relatively specific (specialists), selecting only a single host
species or narrow range of species as targets. Examples of
Predators are organisms that prey on and feed on other parasitoids are: parasitoid wasps and flies.
organisms. Each predators generally kills several prey
during its lifetime. Immature and/or adult stages can be Pathogens are disease organisms. They can be important in
predatory. Some predators feed on a wide range of species controlling the growth of pest populations in agricultural
(generalists), while others are more specialized in their systems. They include fungi, bacteria, viruses, nematode
choice of prey, feeding on only one or a few species worms and microsporidia. Many pathogens tend to be found
(specialists). Examples of predators are: ladybird beetles, more commonly where pests populations are large or during
ground beetles, mantids, dragonflies, predatory mites, the rainy season. Examples of pathogens are: Metarhizium,
predatory wasps, spiders. Zoophthora, Entomophthora (entomopathogenic fungi), GV
(granulosis virus), NPV (nuclear polyhedrosis virus), Bacillus
Parasitoids are organisms that during their immature thuringiensis (bacterium), EPNs (entomopathogenic
(larval) stages feed on and eventually kill a single anthropod, nematodes).
and in their adult stage are with a very few exceptions free-
living. About 8.5% of insect species described to date For more information on the application of biological
(approximately 85 000 species) are parasitoids. They are controls, the reader is referred to literature specialized in the
nearly all wasps or flies, but include a relatively small subject, such as the field guide prepared by Verkerk (2001).
number of beetles and very occasionally other groups. The
adults of most agriculturally important parasitoid species 4.2.4. Hand and mechanical weeding
feed on sugary substances such as the nectar of flowers or Methods that can be used for weed control, other than
aphid honeydew. The larvae may feed from within or preventive measures and chemical and biological control,
outside the body of their host. Many species are regarded as are hand or mechanical weeding.

18 – Module 3
 Chapter 5
Integrated production and pest management (IPPM)

The protection of plants by combatting the negative effects As IPM programmes developed, the role of good soil
of pests and diseases on crop production is of major husbandry and production practices for crop yields and plant
importance for food security in developing countries. This protection became better understood. For example,
is particularly true for regions where increased productivity antagonist pathogens need organic matter, an improper
and production is needed to reach the goal of food security. nitrogen balance will result in some disease, and pest
However, the aim of plant protection is not to ensure problems and micro-nutrient deficiencies are often confused
maximum production but to ensure optimum production with disease or insect problems. A new term was introduced
in an economical and sustainable sense (IAC, 2000). by the Zimbabwean programme, which both expressed the
need to emphasize production aspects and to provide
Pesticides, as described in the previous chapter, form an ownership to a wide group of experts: Integrated Production
important means to control pests and diseases. However, and Pest Management (IPPM). The term IPPM is now used
despite their widespread use, pest damage still causes in many national and local programmes in the East and
significant yield loss in agricultural systems. According to Southern Africa sub-region (FAO, 2000a).
FAO, pre-harvest crop losses caused by pests and diseases are
in the order of 30-35% worldwide. With the rapid growth of All IPM programmes share the same components
pesticide resistance in insects, pathogens and weeds, these (University of Wisconsin, 2000):
losses are likely to increase. Thus, it is important to integrate Y Monitoring the pest population and other relevant factors
various control measures and not rely on chemical controls
alone. A judicious use of pesticides is moreover justified by Y Accurate identification of the pest
the increasing awareness of the environment, the need to Y Determining injury levels and thresholds that trigger
implement sustainable agricultural production methods and treatments
the occurrence of accidents with pesticides.
Y Timing treatments to the best advantage
A range of techniques that may be used by farmers is already
Y Spot-treating for the pest
available. These include the use of various cultural practices
such as crop rotation (Chapter 2), multiple cropping, timing Y Selecting the least disruptive tactics
of planting, further habitat management that enhances Y Evaluating the effectiveness of treatments to fine-tune
natural enemy populations, biological control agents, direct future actions
trapping of insects, use of thresholds and, finally, the careful
and timed use of pesticides. The whole concept, utilizing all Y Educating all people involved with the pest problem
possible pest control measures in an environmentally sound IPM requires continuous assessment of a situation. There are
and, for the farmer, economically viable programme, is four key questions that must be answered before implementing
called Integrated Pest Management (IPM). any management strategy (University of Wisconsin, 2000):
Y Is treatment necessary? The mere presence of a pest
5.1. Description of IPM and IPPM
doesn’t necessarily warrant treatment. Sometimes a fairly
There are many descriptions and definitions for the term large population of pests can be tolerated while at other
IPM. The FAO Global IPM Facility prefers to describe IPM times the presence of a single pest is intolerable. In
by four principles that it considers key to most IPM addition, the determination of treatment will vary among
programmes: individuals.
Y Grow a healthy soil and crop Y Where should the treatment take place? Pest
Y Conserve natural enemies managers must look at the whole system to determine
the best place to solve the problem. Apply treatments
Y Observe the field regularly where the actions will have the greatest effect. In order
Y Farmers become experts to do this the biology and behavior of the pest at hand
must be completely understood.

Module 3 – 19
Irrigation manual

Y When should action be taken? Timing is very Y The Farmers’ Field School concept can be used to address
important. There are optimum times in both insect other farming situations and extension problems.
and disease life cycles when they are most susceptible
to control. Again, it is very important to understand the 5.2. Farmers’ Field School (FFS)
biology and behavior of the pest.
The Farmers’ Field School (FFS) is a learning process for
Y Which strategies should be used? IPM uses a groups of farmers during which they discover the ecological
multi-tactic approach. Because biological systems are relationship between pests, natural enemies and other
complex, management strategies must also integrate factors affecting the heath of their crop, thus enabling them
several tactics. Rarely will a single tactic solve the to make more efficient and healthier crop management
problem for long. Implementing an IPM programme decisions. The basics are (Toxic Trial, undated):
means taking a ‘whole system’ or ecosystem approach
to solve a pest problem. Both the living and non-living Y FFS is field-based and lasts for a full cropping season
components should be taken into consideration when Y FFS educational methods are experiential,
determining which approach to take as each participatory, and learner-centred
component has an impact on every other component. Y Each FFS includes at least three activities: the agro-
There are four control strategies that can be used in de- ecosystem analysis, a ‘special topic’, and a group dynamics
veloping an IPM programme (University of Wisconsin, 2000): activity
Y Cultural control uses fertilization, irrigation, site Y In every FFS participants conduct a study comparing
selection, plant selection and/or sanitation to prevent IPM with non-IPM treated plots
pest problems in the first place Y Between 25 and 30 farmers participate in a FFS;
Y Physical/mechanical control is another preventative participants learn together in small groups of five to
strategy. It includes screens or other barriers, maximize participation
temperature and humidity modification, traps, physical Y Preparation meetings precede a FFS to determine local
repellents, and hand removal of weeds. needs, and concluding meetings organize ‘follow-up’
Y Biological control uses beneficial organisms (insects, activities
bacteria, etc.) to control pests. IPM programmes seek
Farmers trained in Community IPM grow healthier crops
to conserve naturally-occurring beneficial insects by
and minimize constraints, such as those imposed by pests,
providing them with food and shelter and not using
broad-spectrum insecticides that will inadvertently kill through a better understanding of how their management
the beneficial insects. decisions affect the ecology of their fields. Armed with this
knowledge, IPM farmers become better managers and:
Y Chemical control is used only after all other suitable
control strategies have not been fully effective or Y Reduce their dependence on agro-chemicals
practical. Always use chemicals in an environmentally Y Reduce costs of production and increase their incomes
responsible manner and in accordance with the label. Y Stabilize their yields
According to FAO’s Global IPM Facility, experience has Y Safeguard their health
shown that:
Y Protect the environment
Y IPM is about people: to succeed it has to be a farmer-
driven process. FFS uses adult non-formal education methods including
field studies and structured hands-on experiential learning
Y IPM increases the sustainability of farming systems. It
activities. Examples of these studies include comparison
improves ecological sustainability, as it relies primarily
trials between conventional methods and IPPM methods,
on environmentally benign processes, including the use
varietal monitoring and minimum tillage studies. Learning
of pest resistant varieties, the actions of natural enemies
activities are concept specific and include activities such as
and cultural control. It improves social stability because
disease, insect, natural enemy lifecycles, soil profiling and
it is institutionalized at the level of the farming
crop dissection (FAO, 2000b).
community and local government. Finally, IPM
programmes are economically sustainable as they To learn more about IPPM, the reader is referred to more
reduce farmers’ dependence on procured inputs. specialized literature in the subject, which can be found
Y IPM addresses far more than purely pest management. through the website of the FAO Global IPM Facility:
It offers an entry point to improve the farming system http://www.fao.org/waicent/faoinfo/agricult/agp/agpp/ipm/
as a whole.

20 – Module 3
 Chapter 6
Raising vegetable seedlings

The major factor in ensuring an optimum plant population Y Greater control over seedling densities in the nursery,
is the quality of the vegetable seedlings, raised in situ or allowing optional spacing, which helps to produce
through transplanting techniques. Seed prices are rising and stronger plants with earlier and higher yields
thus more care has to be exercised to ensure the optimum Y Improved continuity planning, allowing the farmer to
use of these expensive inputs. harvest when market prices are high or making the
Traditional methods of raising seedlings have several farmer less dependent on market prices
disadvantages. The greatest disadvantage is the inability to Y Shorter interval from planting to first harvest in the field
achieve optimum environmental growing conditions by
controlling such factors as soil temperature, moisture Y Easier weed control of transplanted crops
status, soil structure and disease control. Y Improved protection against pests and diseases during
the early stages of propagation
Improved methods of raising seedlings, like protected
cultivation (see Section 6.5), require a higher level of skill Y Possibility pre-treating of the soil and seedlings prior to
from the grower and an increase in capital investment. It is planting, which is cost-effective
not, however, necessary to use very expensive structures
and complicated heating/cooling systems, since appropriate 6.1. Seed storage
cheap, locally available constructed substitutes can be used.
After harvest, seeds are usually stored for varying lengths of
But there is no substitute for the attention to detail
time. The viability of the seeds at the end of storage is
required in the day to day management and care of the
dependent on the initial viability after harvest and the rate
plants, which is essential to the production of a vigorous
at which deterioration takes place. The rate of deterioration
uniform product. The advantages of improved vegetable
depends on the crop type and the storage conditions, the
seedling production systems include:
most important being temperature, humidity and the
Y Higher rates of seed germination, especially when moisture content of the seed itself. High moisture content
using expensive hybrid seeds and high temperatures will result in the fast decline of seed
Y Lower incidence of pests and diseases viability. Lower temperatures prolong the viable period of

Table 10
Maximum moisture content of seeds to enable one year storage at different storage temperatures, as
recommended by USDA (Source: FAO, 1999)

Recommended maximum moisture content (%)

Species at 4-10°C at 21°C at 27°C
Bean 15 11 8
Cabbage 9 7 5
Cauliflower 9 7 5
Broccoli 9 7 5
Carrot 13 9 7
Celery 13 9 7
Cucumber 11 9 8
Lettuce 10 7 5
Okra 14 12 10
Onion 11 8 6
Capsicum 10 9 7
Tomato 13 11 9
Water Melon 10 8 7

Module 3 – 21
Irrigation manual

seeds and can be used to reduce the effects of high moisture 6.2. Seed treatment
content. Going from 45°C to 0°C, each decrease of 5°C
Seed treatment is used to eliminate seed-borne pests or
will double seed storage life (FAO, 1999). Table 10 shows
diseases and to prevent early infections in the seedbed.
the maximum safe moisture contents of seeds for a storage
There are two broad categories of seed treatment: hot
period of one year at different temperatures. Table 11
water treatment and treatment by use of chemicals.
shows the viability periods of seeds, if stored under the
conditions recommended in Table 10. Hot water treatment of seed requires critical control of
water temperature for a precise period of time (Table 12).
Table 11
Expected viability periods of seeds of various
As far as chemical treatment is concerned, the most widely
vegetables when stored under the conditions used fungicides for seed treatment are Thiram, Captan and
recommended in Table 10, according to the University Benomyl applied as a dust or slurry.
of California (Source: FAO, 1999)

Viability of Vegetable 6.3. Germination and emergence

seeds (years)
Seed germination and emergence are affected by seed
1 Onion, parsley
quality and seedbed environment (moisture status,
2 Capsicum, leek, okra
temperature, and osmotic potential). Too low temperatures
3 Asparagus, bean, broccoli, carrot,
celery, chinese cabbage, pea, spinach slow down the physiological process associated with
4 Eggplant, brussels sprout, cabbage, germination and can reduce germination percentages and
cauliflower, red beet, tomato, uniformity. In severe cases, too low temperatures can
watermelon prevent the seedling from emerging out of the soil. Too high
5 Cress, cucumber, radish temperatures can induce dormancy.
6 Lettuce

Table 12
Hot water treatment of seed for disease control (Source: FAO, 1999)

Vegetable Temperature (°C) Time (minutes) Disease controlled

Broccoli 50 20 Alternaria, Blackleg, Phoma
Cauliflower 50 20 Alternaria, Blackleg, Phoma
Eggplant 50 25 Phomospsis Blight, Anthracnose
Capsicum 50 25 Bacterial Leaf Spot, Rhizocotonia
Tomato 50 25 Anthracnose, Canker

Table 13
Germination temperatures, time to germination and time required to produce a field viable transplant (Source:
FAO, 1999)

Crop Minimum Optimum Time to germination Time required to produce

temperature germination under optimum a field viable transplant
temperature temperature under optimum conditions
(°C) (°C) (days) (days)
Broccoli - 29.5 4 35 - 50
Cabbage - 29.5 4 35 - 50
Cauliflower 1.3 26.5 5 35 - 50
Cucumber 12.1 32.0 3 15 - 20
Eggplant 12.1 29.5 5 35 - 50
Lettuce 3.5 24.0 2 28 - 30
Onion 1.4 24.0 4 70 - 85
Pepper 10.9 29.5 8 35 - 50
Squash - 32.0 3 20 - 30
Tomato 8.7 29.5 5 35 - 50
Watermelon 12.2 32.0 3 20 - 30

22 – Module 3
 Module 3: Agronomic aspects of irrigated crop production

For best results, the environmental conditions should be to be present. A standard crop grouping for general rotation
controlled as carefully as possible after sowing to ensure as purposes is presented in Table 14.
rapid an emergence of the seedling as possible. When tray
production systems are used (Section 6.4.10), they can be 6.4.2. Soil sterilization
placed into carefully-controlled environmental chambers or
germination rooms, where possible, in order to reduce the Numerous techniques are available for soil sterilization or,
fluctuations in temperature and moisture that occur in more correctly, pasteurization, of which the following three
open air or even under protected cultivation structures can be mentioned:
(Section 6.4.9). Temperature is generally maintained at 15-
25°C with a relative humidity in excess of 90% (FAO, Steaming of the soil
1999). Trays are left in the germination room until the Heating of the seedbed soil, for example in a drum cut in
emergence of the radicle. This takes a different length of half longitudinally, is a cheap method that will help the
time for each vegetable species. Table 13 shows the farmer in limiting the effect of soil-borne diseases. Steam
optimum germination temperatures, the number of days to can be used to heat the soil to temperatures in excess of
germination under optimum temperature and the time 80°C for 30 minutes or more, as required for disinfestation
required to produce a field viable transplant under (Table 15). Practice will determine the time needed to get
optimum conditions. the soil to the required temperature and keep it like that for
30 minutes. However, this is not a common practice for
6.4. Improved seedbed management seedbed soil sterilization in the sub-region. It is a technique
mainly used in greenhouses.
Field-grown seedlings are almost always inferior to seedlings
produced under protected cultivation or seedlings raised in
module systems. However, the quality of field-grown Soil solarization
seedlings can be improved through improved seedbed Solarization works in the same way as a greenhouse, where
management, including the use of simple techniques as a transparent covering, in this case 3 or 6 mm plastic
described below. sheeting, traps the sun’s heat. After several days of sunshine,
soil temperatures rise to as high as 55-60°C at the surface
6.4.1. Rotation and over 40°C as far down as 25 cm. It takes four to six
weeks of sunny weather to pasteurize the soil. The following
It is important that the seedbed is moved each year to a site
steps need to be taken:
that has not grown the same species or vegetable group in
the previous 4 years, or even longer if nematodes are known Y Prepare the soil: pull any weeds or old crops; turn in
any soil amendments and then rake the surface
Table 14
smooth; remove any stones or clumps that might raise
Vegetable grouping for rotational purposes
the plastic and create air pockets that could cause
Group Examples uneven heating
Allium crops Onion, garlic, leek, shallot Y Water thoroughly to create 100% humidity under the
Brassicas Cabbage, rape, kale plastic, which acts with the heat to kill all unwanted
Grasses Grain crops, maize, sweet corn, critters
baby corn, wheat
Legumes Pea, bean, cowpea Y Dig a trench all around the bed or plot 15-20 cm deep
Roots Carrot, sweet potato
Solanaceous crops Potato, tomato, pepper, paprika

Table 15
Temperatures required to destroy pests in soil (Source: Maynard and Hochmuth, 1997)

Pest Temperature to be maintained for 30 minutes (°C)

Nematodes 50
Damping-off fungi (cause sudden death of seedling) 55
Most pathogenic bacteria and fungi 65
Soil insects and most viruses 70
Most weed seeds 80
Resistant weeds and viruses 100

Module 3 – 23
Irrigation manual

Y Lay a clear plastic sheet 3-6 mm thick over the area, 6.4.5. Thinning the seedlings
overlapping the trench on all sides. Fill in the trench If after emergence the seedlings are too closely spaced, the
with soil, weighing down the plastic while pulling it as surplus seedlings should be removed by hand.
tight as possible.
Although cloudy weather will slow things down by cooling 6.4.6. Weed, pest and disease control
the soil under the plastic, a few weeks of sunshine will Post-emergence management is critical to ensuring
improve the soil dramatically, easily and inexpensively. In production of healthy plants. Weeds should be removed
cooler or cloudy areas, adding a second sheet of plastic can and a routine pest and disease control should take place.
speed up the process. Using the hoops commonly used to
elevate row covers or bird netting, raise the second sheet of
6.4.7. Irrigation
plastic over the ground-level sheet. The airspace between
acts as a temperature buffer zone during cloudy weather After sowing by hand and covering the seeds with soil, the
and the combination of the two sheets of plastic serves to seedbed is lightly firmed and watered. A plastic sheet or
raise the soil temperature by an additional 4°C. organic mulch can be spread over the bed, depending on
prevailing climatic conditions. These must be removed
Use of chemicals immediately after the seedlings emerge.
A granular formulation of chemicals, such as Dozamet and Irrigation should be carefully undertaken. Over-watering is
Nemacuir, provides effective control of nematodes, soil a common mistake and may result in damping-off (sudden
fungi, pests and weeds. death of the seedling caused by fungi) by Rhizoctonia,
Phytium or Fusarium species.
6.4.3. Seedbed preparation
Stopping the irrigation several days to one week before
The area designated for the seedbeds should be a level piece transplanting is recommended to harden off the seedlings.
of land that is cleared of all weeds and easily accessible, with The seedbed should be watered prior to transplanting in
good drainage possibilities. The seedbed should be lifted, order to facilitate the removal of the seedling from the bed.
with drains on the side. A convenient size of a seedbed is 10
m by 1 m. 6.4.8. Transplanting
A good seedbed should have a good loose physical structure, To minimize transplant shock the following should be done:
with a fine enough tilth to ensure close contact between the Y Harden off the plants from several days to one week
seed and the soil so that moisture can be readily supplied to prior to transplanting by reducing watering to slow
the seed. Sufficient organic matter should be well down the growth process and allow the young plant
incorporated during primary cultivation to improve soil build up carbohydrate reserves
structure and promote good root development. Sufficient
time should pass before sowing to allow for decomposition Y Water the seedbed prior to transplanting (the night
of the organic matter and the elimination of any phytotoxic before lifting) to facilitate the removal of the seedling
gasses such as ammonia. Soil pH should be adjusted to the from the bed
specifics for each crop and a base fertilization with a general Y Lift the seedlings at the proper stage of development
fertilizer (N-P-K) carried out prior to sowing. (as indicated in the description of the different crops in
the next chapters)
6.4.4. Sowing the seeds Y If possible, carry out the operation when rainfall is
Sowing the seeds in rows is far better than broadcasting the imminent or under overcast or cloudy conditions
seeds over the bed. The distance between rows should not be Y Lift the seedlings, using a digging fork, either early in
less than 15 cm in order to able to use a hoe. Within the row, the morning or alternatively in the evening after the
the aim is to space the seeds no closer than 2.5 cm. The worst heat of the day has passed
depth of sowing is critical and should be between 1.25 cm
and 1.5 cm for brassicas, onions and tomatoes. For other Y Place the uprooted seedlings and soil in trays with as
species, the sowing depth depends on the seed size (the much root and soil as possible
depth should be 0.5 to 3 times the seed diameter), the season Y Immediately cover the seedlings with a damp sack, and
(the drier, the deeper the sowing depth), the soil or substrate prevent exposure to full sun or drying winds; under
(the lighter the soil or substrate, the deeper the sowing arid conditions frequently rewet the covering
depth). Y Transport the seedlings to a shaded area

24 – Module 3
 Module 3: Agronomic aspects of irrigated crop production

Y Plant the seedlings as soon as possible after lifting, Y The transplanting shock associated with bare root
preferably in the evening after the worst heat of the day plants is reduced and eliminated if transplanting is
is over, and irrigate immediately carried out before etiolation (the response of a plant to
insufficient light, for example due to too high plant
6.4.9. Protected cultivation density, to which plants react by growing long
internodes and reducing chlorophyll from the tissues,
A variety of protected cultivation systems are used making them weaker)
worldwide to raise seedlings. The most important ones are:
Y Module transplants establish rapidly and withstand
Y Low level polyethylene tunnels adverse conditions better, even drought, resulting in a
Y Frames shortened period to harvest
Y Walk-in tunnels Y Transplant losses can be dramatically reduced, leading
to 10-20% yield increases
Y Multi-span plastic greenhouses
Y The full germination capacity of the seed is obtained,
Y Glasshouses
therefore the quantity of seeds required per hectare is
Y Shade houses reduced
Of these, the most suitable for the smallholder farmers are Y Crops are more uniform
low level polyethylene tunnels, frames and shade houses. Y Seedling diseases can be significantly reduced, if not
eliminated, by pre-planting drenching by fungicides
6.4.10. Module propagation
Y Seedlings can be treated prior to planting with low-cost
Vegetable seedlings are increasingly being raised in modular residual insecticides, thereby eliminating costly post-
transplant systems, where each seedling is produced in a planting treatments and thus reducing the chemical
discrete cell. The individual root systems are kept separate costs per hectare
and the aerial portion of the seedlings is given enough space
Y Continuity planning is more efficient
to develop optimally up to the time of transplanting. The
cells are joined together in trays containing 40-400 Y A specialist plant raiser can supply plants to a large
individual cells, called modules or modular trays. The number of farmers
division of the tray into cells means that each seedling is in Y Plants can withstand longer transport duration if
a separate unit, each with its own compost and requiring its properly packed
own water and fertilizer.
The only disadvantages are that the modular transplant
Compared to bare root raised plants, the benefits of plants system requires high quality seed and some initial capital
raised in the modular systems are significant: input.

Module 3 – 25
 Chapter 7
Agronomic aspects of vegetable crops

In the sections below the agronomic aspects of the most in Chapter 3, wherever possible organic fertilizer should be
important vegetable crops in the sub-region are given. The added. Chemical products for treatment of pests and
information refers to the climatic conditions prevailing in diseases are also given below. It should be noted, however,
Zimbabwe (Chapter 1) and should be adapted for other that different control methods are possible, as explained in
countries, if the conditions are different. For information Chapter 4. Integrated Production and Pest Management
on crop water and irrigation requirements, the reader is (IPPM) is becoming more and more successful in the sub-
referred to Module 4. Below, the names and quantities of region and its application is highly recommended wherever
chemical fertilizers for fertilization are given. As explained possible (Chapter 5).

7.1. Baby corn

Scientific name: Zea mays
Family: Graminae
Cultivars: ZS 206, a late yellow dent hybrid, is a suitable local variety in Zimbabwe. Improved multi-cobbing varieties are
Pacific No. 5 and Pacific No. 421
Soil: Best in sandy loam to clay loam soil with a pH 5.3-6.5
Climate: In the Highveld, baby corn is best produced between September and February and in the Lowveld throughout winter
Seed amount: 30-40 kg/ha
Spacing: 70-90 cm between the rows and 10-25 cm within the row to get 110 000-130 000 plants/ha. Per station 3-4
seeds should be put and thinned to 2-3 plants at 2 weeks
Planting time: Highveld: September to February. Lowveld: May to August
Growth period: About 3 months
Fertilizers: Basal application: 300-450 kg/ha of Compound D
Top dressing: 200 kg/ha of AN split twice, at 3 weeks and at 7 weeks
Harvesting: De-tassel at 45 days from emergence, harvest 1 week after de-tasselling. It is important to harvest at the right
stage as the cob develops fast. Harvest cobs when 1 cm of silk is showing, when the cobs are 1-1.5 cm thick
and 7-12 cm long. Harvest daily for a period lasting 14-21 days
Expected yield: 700-1100 kg/ha
Pests: • Stalk Borer: Symptoms: Holes in the stalks of baby corn from the inside; stalks fall over and do not
produce cobs
Control: Apply a few granules of Dipterex 2.5% or Thiodan 1% G to the funnels
• Cutworm: Attacks on newly emerged plants at ground level
Symptoms: The plants fall and eventually die
Control: Spray Dipterex 95% or use Thiodan 50% G
• Army Worm: Symptoms: Leaves show signs of being eaten
Control: Spray Carbaryl 85% WP at 25 g/10 litres of water
• Leafhopper: Vector of maize streak virus
Symptoms: yellow streak lines on leaves
Control: Cultural methods (use of appropriate rotation, which excludes the continuous
use of graminae)
Diseases: • Rust: Symptoms: Presence of fine red dust on leaves, raised reddish-brown pustules appear
on both sides of leaves
Control: Grow resistant cultivars
• Leaf Blight: Symptoms: Fairly large necrosis marks, which turn chestnut and dark grey
Control: Grow resistant varieties
• Maize Streak Virus: Viral disease, transmitted to maize by leafhoppers
Symptoms: Light green, yellow streaks on the leaves. These may be continuous or mottled
Control: Control the vector leafhopper and use resistant varieties

Module 3 – 27
Irrigation manual

7.2. Bean (green, fine or string)

Scientific name: Phaseolus vulgaris
Family: Leguminosae
Cultivars: Several varieties are available, but the most common is Contender
Soil: Beans can be successfully grown on a wide range of soil types from light sands to heavy clays, provided they
are fertile and well drained. Best yields are obtained on sandy clay loam. Avoid waterlogging soils. The optimum
pH range is 5-5.5. Apply lime when soil pH drops to below 5
Climate: Beans are warm season crops and are severely damaged by the lightest frost. For good growth and quality
pods, the optimum daily temperatures should be between 16-21°C. Temperatures above 35°C cause flower
and pod drop, especially when accompanied by desiccating winds. Night temperatures below 5°C during pod
formation cause hollow or partially-filled pods. If temperatures fall when crop is near maturity, the pods may
become shot and sickle shaped. Flower and pod drop can be experienced if the soils become waterlogged
during excessively rainy weather. The crop is susceptible to diseases during prolonged rains with high humidity
and high temperatures. A relative humidity of less than 50% is required for good pod setting. Dry, cool
conditions are best for harvesting. Seed germination is best when soil temperatures are between 25 and 30°C.
Below 15°C germination is poor and above 35°C germination is inhibited
Seed amount: 800-1000 kg/ha
Planting depth: 1-2.5 cm
Spacing: Double rows 30 cm apart with 75 cm apart between double rows and 40-60 cm between rows. On 90 cm beds,
plant three rows spaced 30 cm apart. Space between plants is 5 cm
Planting time: Beans cannot stand any frost, while high temperatures will affect flowering and pod setting. In the Lowveld
planting takes place between March and May. In the Middleveld planting takes place between September and
March. In the Highveld planting takes place between end September and end November as well as the end of
February
Growth period: 2-4 months (including harvest)
Fertilizers: Basal application: 500-600 kg/ha of Compound S or Compound D
Top dressing: Beans can fix N (Nitrogen) naturally and too much N fertilizer will promote vegetative growth only.
Depending on the state of the crop, there may be need for a shot of Ammonium Nitrate at the rate of 100 kg/ha
to start off the growth. One application of 100 kg/ha after flowering could also be necessary
Harvesting: Green beans should be harvested when the pods are still immature, when the seeds are small with low fibre
content. Harvesting should be done 8 weeks after planting, almost every day. Picking can last 3 weeks. Pack
the beans into clean plastic containers or use plasti- lined baskets, keep in a shade and cover with moist sacks
Expected yield: 8-10 tons/ha
Pests: • Bean Stem Generally regarded as the principal insect pest of beans throughout Africa. It attacks also
Maggot (BSM) other crops, including cowpea and soybean
(Beanfly): Symptoms: The leaves of damaged plants show mining tracks where the maggots feed
The lower parts of the stems become dry, swollen and cracked. Attack by this pest often
causes death of young bean plants. Damage by the BSM is more serious in dry areas
where yield losses can be as high as 50 to 100%
Control: Improved management practices. Improve fertility, which leads to vigorously
growing plants that are able to tolerate BSM infestation and damage better. Seed
dressing with various insecticides, such as Thiodan 50WP, at 5 grams/kg of seed at least
during the seedling (and most susceptible) stage. Foliar application of some botanical
insecticides, including neem seed extracts, during the early seedling stages. Mulching
with cut weeds or straw and earthing up soil in ridges or mounds around the base of the
plant, which promotes root establishment
• Aphids: Symptoms: Affected leaves. They wrap or curl inwards around clusters of aphids
Control: Use Metasystox 25 EC, at 10 ml/10 litres of water, when seen on a number of plants
• Caterpillars: Symptoms: They eat holes in the leaves at night and are dangerous in initial stage
Control: Use Carbaryl 85% WP, at 20 g/10 litres of water, when holes have been
observed
• Red Spider Mite: Symptoms: Small webs at the undersides of the leaves, sucking sap, making the leaves
dry and curl
Control: use Metasystox 25 EC, at 10 ml/10 litres of water, on the underside of leaves
when first seen
Diseases: • Bacterial Blight: Symptoms: Yellow haloes on leaves and pods
Control: Use resistant varieties as well as Copper Oxychloride 85% WP, at 40 g/10 litres
of water, to suppress when symptoms appear

28 – Module 3
 Module 3: Agronomic aspects of irrigated crop production

• Bact. pustule Symptoms: Water-soaked spots on pods

of leaves Control: Use resistant varieties and apply Copper Oxychloride 85% WP, 40 g/10 litres of
(Xanthomonas sp.): water, to suppress when symptoms appear
• Anthracnose: Symptoms: Sunken, dry spots on leaves and pods
Control: Use Dithane M45, at 30 g/10 litres of water, every 10 days when the first signs
of attack have been noticed
• Scab: Symptoms: Malformations on pods
Control: Use Dithane M45, at 30 g/10 litres of water, every 10 days when symptoms
appear
• Angular Leaf Spot: Symptoms: Spots on pods but not water-soaked
Control: Suppress with Dithane M45, at 30 g/10 litres of water, every 10 days when
symptoms appear
• Rust: Symptoms: Brown pustules on leaves
Control: Use Dithane M45, at 30 g/10 litres of water, every 10 days on the first signs of
infection

Figure 3 Figure 4
Anthracnose on bean pods Rust on a bean leaf (Source:
University of Florida, 2000)

7.3. Cabbage
Scientific name: Brassica oleracea var. capitata
Family: Brassicacae or Cruciferae
Cultivars: Sugarloaf, Drumhead (flat), Cape spitskool. Also consult the seed retailers
Soil: Cabbages will grow in most well-drained soils that are high in organic matter. Optimum pH 5.5-6.1. When pH
falls below 5.5, lime should be applied a month before planting
Climate: Cabbage can be grown throughout the year, with the exception of some areas. Cool, moist weather conditions
produce the best crops. Mature plants can tolerate temperatures of -3°C, but prolonged low temperatures in the
range -1-4°C will induce bolting resulting in seed production. The optimum temperature is 18°C, with a
maximum of 24°C and an average minimum of 4.5°C. Very wet conditions followed by dry periods results in
head bursting. Under warm summer conditions the plants are more susceptible to aphid infestation and
cabbage diamondback moth. Both pests require routine control. Bacterial black rot is common in summer
Seed amount: 450 g/ha
Seedbeds: 5 beds of 10 m x 1 m each will cater for 1 ha
Mix 60 grams of Compound D or Compound S per m2 into the seedbed soil
Transplanting: After 4-6 weeks, during the cooler period of the day
Spacing: 45-60 cm between the rows and 30-45 within the row, giving 49300-74000 plants/ha
Planting time: Highveld: February to August; best in winter, since cabbages can stand short periods of frost. Summer cabbage
needs intensive disease control. Lowveld: May to July (winter)
Growth period: Seedbed: 4-6 weeks. In the field: 4-5 months
Fertilizers: Basal application: 600-1000 kg/ha of Compound D or Compound S
Top dressing: 3 x 100 kg/ha of AN, after every 3 weeks, starting with the first one 3 weeks after transplanting
Harvesting: Harvesting is done by selecting those heads that are firm, although hybrid cultivars will be ready almost at the
same time
Expected yield: > 25 tons/ha, depending on the cultivar

Module 3 – 29
Irrigation manual

Pests: • Aphids: Symptoms: Poorly-developing

Figure 5
leaves, curling inside covering
a clusters of aphids Aphid colonies on a cabbage leaf (Source:
Control: Use Dimethoate 40 Levèthe et al., undated)
EC, at 10 ml/10 litres of water,
when the insects have been
observed on a few plants
• Spider Mite: Symptoms: Little red mites,
mostly on the underside of the
leaves forming small webs,
making leaves dry and stem
curly in later stage
Control: Use Nuvacron 40, at
50 ml/10 litres of water, when
first signs are detected
• Diamondback Moth:Symptoms: Small green
caterpillars are observed often
covered in a web, eating leaves Control: Use Carbaryl 85% WP, at 20 g/10 litres of water
Diseases: • Damping Off: Symptoms: Bottom of seedling is pinched, followed by wilting. Can be caused by
Rhizoctonia, Pythium, Phytophtora and Fusarium
Control: Pre-dust seed with Thiram. Avoid over-watering while on the seedbed
• Downy Mildew: Symptoms: Seedlings show white moulds halfway up the stem; leaves show watery
spots on the underside when held against the sunlight and white spots on the upper side
Control: Prevention: dust seed with Thiram. Prevention and cure: routine spray Ridomil
MZ 72, at 25 g/10 litres of water, on crops grown between February and April as well as
in areas were the disease is common
• Black Rot: Caused by the bacteria Xamthomonas campestris
Symptoms: Brown spots on the outside areas of the leaves and black spots on stems
Control: Possible by antibiotics, since it is a bacterium, but they are expensive. Use
Copper Oxychloride 85%, at 40 g/10 litres of water, to suppress, when the first signs of
the disease are observed
• Soft Rot: Symptoms: Rotting of leaves and stem. Very bad smell, especially during rainy season
Control: No control possible

7.4. Carrot
Scientific name: Daucus carota
Family: Umbelliferae
Cultivars: Chantenay, Cape Market and Nantes
Climate: Carrots can be grown under a wide range of climatic conditions. The optimum temperature range for growth is
15-20°C. Germination and growth are retarded when weather conditions are cooler and frost damages the crop
when it approaches maturity. If plants are exposed to temperatures of 5-15°C for a prolonged period, they will
bolt and produce flowers. Temperatures exceeding 20°C lead to poor quality. Temperature has influence on the
shape and colour of the carrot root. When temperatures are low, the colour is poor and the root longer than
under optimum conditions. When temperatures are above 20°C, the colour deteriorates and the root becomes
shorter and thicker. Moist, humid weather conditions expose them to diseases
Seed amount: 5 kg/ha
Planting depth: 2 cm. The final land preparation must be fine tilth, with the soil free of stones and plant debris. To sow thinly,
mix 6:1 sand:seed. Thinning will be necessary to achieve 2.5 cm between the plants
Spacing: 30 cm between the rows and 2.5 cm within the row
Planting time: Carrots can be cultivated all year round, but May to July is the best time for the Lowveld and April to December
is the best time for the Highveld
Growth period: About 4 months from sowing to harvest
Fertilizers: Basal application: In good soils 400-600 kg/ha of Compound D or Compound L. In poor soils 800-1000 kg/ha
of Compound D or Compound L
Top dressing: 100 kg/ha AN, 4 weeks after sowing, preferably after thinning if the crop requires nitrogen. Avoid
applying too much nitrogen as it promotes vegetative growth at the expense of the root tubers
Harvesting: Starts 3 months after sowing or earlier, depending on market demands. Harvesting should be carried out during
the cooler part of the day, very early in the morning or early in the evening. Keep the carrots in a cool place or

30 – Module 3
 Module 3: Agronomic aspects of irrigated crop production

sprinkle with water to keep them in a fresh state. Package them in small amounts, for example pockets of 10
kg, to avoid bruises and breakage. Keep them cool and well ventilated until they reach the consumer. Keeping
the leaves on increases the deterioration rate
Expected yield: > 25 tons/ha
Pests: • Aphids: Found on the crown of the carrot, may be difficult to see
Symptoms: Presence of ants, poor leaf development and stunted growth
Control: Use Dimethoate 40 EC, at 10 ml/10 litres of water, when observed
• Nematodes: Carrots are susceptible to nematode species. Quality loss can be very high in infested
fields, since it is the tuber that is attacked
Control: Observe ratotations
Diseases: • Leaf Blight: Symptoms: black foliage
Control: Routine spray fungicides like Dithane M45, at 20 g/10 litres of water, or Copper
Oxychloride 85% WP, at 50 g/10 litres of water, once a week
• Sclerotium sp: Soil-borne disease, attacking the roots and tubers
Symptoms: White spots in a white mycelium
Control: Apply Thiram at seedling stages by direct application or drenching
• Powdery Mildew: Symptoms: Whitish powdery growth on the undersurface of the leaves. As the disease
progresses, powdery spots appear on both surfaces of the leaves and on stems
Control: Allow good drainage and use fungicides like Benomyl, Dithane M45, and
Copper Oxychloride when the first signs have been observed.

Figure 6 Figure 7
Root-knot-nematode attack on carrot (Source: Powdery mildew on carrot leaf (right), compared
University of Arizona, 2002) with healthy one (Source, Levèthe et al., undated)

7.5. Cucumber
Scientific name: Cucumis sativus
Family: Cucurbitaceae
Cultivars: Short cultivars: Cherkee, Victory, Ashely and Fletcher
Long Cultivars: Colorado, Marketer Long and Stono
Soil: Cucumbers grow well in well drained soils. They are very sensitive to waterlogging. Optimum pH 5.5-6.5
Climate: Cucumbers are warm season crops. They grow best in summer months, between August and April on the
Highveld. They require 4-6 months of warm weather. Only in lower lying areas, like the Lowveld, may open field
winter production be possible
Seed amount: 2.5-3.0 kg/ha
Planting depth: 2 cm. Direct seeding is the best
Spacing: 1.20 m between the rows and 30 cm within the row. Avoid excessive watering and make sure the soils have good
drainage since cucumbers are sensitive to wet feet or waterlogging. During the rain season, to facilitate good
drainage, planting should be on raised beds 0.3 m high and 1.20 m wide, with a furrow in between of 0.5 m
Planting time: Cucumbers are best grown in August after frost in frost-prone areas of the Highveld. In the Lowveld, the best
time to produce is in winter
Growth period: 4 months from planting
Fertilizers: Basal application: 400-600 kg/ha of Compound D
Top dressing: 100 kg/ha of AN. To be applied twice after the first fruit set

Module 3 – 31
Irrigation manual

Harvesting: Cucumbers are harvested before they are physiologically fully mature and picking usually begins about 2
months after sowing and thereafter every few days
Expected yield: 10-15 tons/ha
Pests: • Root-knot Symptoms: Swollen roots as well as a stunted plant
Nematode: Control: 4-year rotation, avoiding the Solanaceae family (tomato, potato, paprika, etc.)
• Aphids Suck sap while transmitting mosaic virus
Symptoms: See under mosaic virus
Control: Spray Dimethoate 40 EC, at 7.5 ml/10 litres of water, when observed on plants
• Red Spider Mite: Symptoms: Leaves loose colour, curling and drying of the leaves
Control: Spray Nuvacron 40, at 50 ml/10 litres of water, when observed on plants
Diseases: The main diseases attacking cucumbers and all Cucurbits in general are as follows:
• Fusarium wilt: Soil-borne disease. Takes about 2 weeks to develop
Symptoms: Leaves start wilting, followed by leaf necrosis of the older leaves
Control: Dust seed with Thiram and use resistant cultivars
• Anthracnose: Appears in wet weather conditions
Symptoms: Black spots on leaves, leaf stalks and stem as well as sunken lesions on the
fruits, spores on mycelium visible
Control: Apply Dithane M45, at 20 g/10 litres of water, when symptoms appear
• Powdery Mildew: Symptoms: Clear light green spots visible on the upper surface of the leaves, which later
turn to white powdery spots on the leaves; brown colouring of the leaves from the edge
Control: Use systemic fungicides, for example Bavistin at 5 g/10 litres of water, once a
week when the first signs are noticed
• Downy Mildew: Symptoms: Circular brown spots on the leaves with a yellowish halo. In advanced stages
the attack looks like frost damage
Control: Use systemic fungicides like Ridomil MZ 72 WP, at 25 g/10 litres of water, once
a week or use Copper Oxychloride 85% WP, at 40 g/10 litres of water, once a week when
the symptoms appear
• Cucumber mosaic Symptoms: Chlorotic mottling streaking pattern of yellow and green areas occurring on
virus: young leaves, followed by leaf malformations as well as stunting. Plants becoming
bushy. On the fruits are yellowish green mottles at the stem end covering the whole fruit.
The infected cucumber has a bitter taste
Control: Control the vector, which usually are aphids. Rogue out and destroy all infected
plants when attack has been detected

7.6. Garlic
Scientific name: Allium sativum
Family: Liliaceae (Allium)
Cultivars: Vegetatively propagated from cloves. Select healthy thick cloves for planting
Soil: Garlic can be produced in a wide range of soils, provided they are deeper than 50 cm. Sandy loam or clay loam
soils give the best results, heavy soils restrict normal bulb expansion. Optimum soil pH 5-5.5. Apply lime when
pH falls below 5, 2-3 months before planting
Climate: Garlic requires long days and high temperatures, which influence the bulbing. High temperatures also hasten
bulb maturity. Exposure to cold temperatures is essential for bulb initiation. Cloves should be planted just before
winter for them to bulb. Alternatively store bulbs at 0-10°C for 1-2 months and plant in spring. Garlic is very
hardy and can withstand fairly severe frost
Seed amount: Plant single cloves, approximately 900-1120 kg/ha of sets is required
Planting depth: Top just sticks out
Spacing: 30 cm between the rows and 5-10 cm within the row
Planting time: Garlic is frost hardy, bulbing occurs during longer days and higher temperatures and subsequent exposure to
lower temperatures. Plant in April-May for best results, although planting can be achieved throughout the dry
season in the Highveld
Growth period: Bulbs begin to mature 4 months after planting
Fertilizers: Garlic responds well to the application of organic manure, 30 tons/ha
Basal application: 500 kg/ha of Compound S or Compound D
Top dressing: 290 kg/ha of AN, split in 2-3 times
Harvesting: When the tops begin to dry and the necks drop, it is time to lift the bulbs. The bulbs are cured in the field for
about a week until they are dry. Storage can be for several weeks to months

32 – Module 3
 Module 3: Agronomic aspects of irrigated crop production

Expected yield: 30 tons/ha or more

Pests: • Thrips: Symptoms: Damage on leaves in form of silvery spots and streaks
Control: Apply Thiodan 50 WP, at 10 g/10 litres of water, once the insects have been seen
• Cutworm: Greasy greyish-green worm that feeds at night and retreats into the soil during the day
Symptoms: Chewing holes through the detached stem
Control: Apply Thiodan 50 WP, at 10 g/10 litres of water, after planting
• Webworm: Symptoms: A creamy pink caterpillar that eats out the heart of the plant
Control: Spray Thiodan 50 WP, at 10 g/10 litres of water, when observed
• Leaf Miners: Symptoms: Small transparent-like tunnels through the leaf membrane
Control: Spray Dimethoate 40 EC, at 7.5 ml/10 litres of water, when symptoms appear
Diseases: Garlic is not very susceptible to many diseases. Most of the onion diseases can attack garlic
• Downy Mildew: Common when the weather is wet with high humidity
Symptoms: A violet greyish mould can be seen on the leaves
Control: Spray with Ridomil when symptoms have been observed
• Purple Blotch: Symptoms: Drying of leaves from top with white sunken spots on the leaves, becoming
purple with yellow halo
Control: Spray Dithane M45, at 20 g/10 litres of water, or Bravo, at 10 ml/10 litres of
water, when first signs of attack are noticed
• Neck Rot and Are some of the most destructive pathogens during storage
Black Moth: Symptoms: Bulbs turn black
Control: There is no cure, except to store the bulbs under low temperature and keep the
room well ventilated

7.7. Okra
Scientific name: Abelmoschus esculentus
Family: Malvaceae
Cultivars: The most common improved variety is the American variety, Crimson spineless. Many smallholder farmers use
seed of local varieties
Soil: Okra grows well in soils that are well-drained, sandy loam, with an optimum pH of 6-6.8. Okra does not grow
well on clay soils, waterlogged soils or acidic soils
Climate: Okra is a warm season crop, sensitive to frost. Growth is affected when temperatures fall below 20°C. It thrives
where there is a lot of sunshine
Seed amount: 8-10 kg/ha. Pre-soaking of seed does not only improve the germination percentage, but also reduces the days to
seed emergence. Okra needs warm soils for good germination and mean monthly temperatures around 20-30°C
Planting depth: 2-3 cm
Spacing: 60-90 cm between the rows and 20-30 cm within the row
Planting time: Highveld: Plant in September-December after the frost period. In the Lowveld it can be a year-round crop
Growth period: 60-180 days from planting to harvesting, depending on the variety
Fertilizers: Basal application: 450-750 kg/ha of Compound C or Compound D
Top dressing: 290 kg/ha of AN, split in 3 times starting 3 weeks after germination
Harvesting: Harvest the young pods 5-10 days after flowering before they get fibrous. Harvest can continue for more than 2
months
Expected yield: 2 tons/ha
Pests: • Aphids: Symptoms: Sticky sugary cover on the leaves and stem. Retarded plant growth
Control: Use Dimethoate 40 EC, at 10 ml/10 litres of water, when the first signs of attack
are observed
• Root-knot This is a very serious problem on okra
Nematode: Symptoms: Stunted plants, swollen roots
Control: Observe a 4-year rotation excluding other nematode susceptible crops. Crops
from the Alliaceae family, like onion, garlic, leeks and shallots, as well as maize are good
cleaning crops
Diseases: • Verticillium wilt: Indicates the presence of nematodes, since it is a saprophyte of nematodes
Symptoms: The vascular system turns brown, resulting in the general wilting of the plant.
Control: Observe rotations and hygienic practices as well as treating the seed with Thiram
• Cercospora Leaf Symptoms: Brown spots on leaves with middle part of spot being white
Spot: Control: Apply Dithane M45, at 20 g/10 litres of water, or Copper Oxychloride 85% WP,
at 40 g/10 litres of water, when the symptoms appear

Module 3 – 33
Irrigation manual

7.8. Onion
Scientific name: Allium cepa
Family: Alliaceae
Cultivars: Bon Accord, Hojem, Pyramid, Texas Grano and many hybrid cultivars on the market
Soil: Onions can be grown on a wide range of soils, varying in texture from coarse-grained sands to clays. Lighter
soils are easy to manage. Soils should be 45-60 cm deep and well drained. The most suitable pH is 5-6. When
pH falls below the minimum level, apply lime a month before planting
Climate: Light and temperature influence the process of bulbing. Both factors must be at optimum for the initiation of the
bulbs. Cool conditions with long days are normally important for production, although there are cultivars that
tolerate warm conditions and short day-lengths. Cool conditions are usually required during the first part of the
season, when the plants start to form bulbs. Warm and dry weather is needed for harvesting and curing
Each cultivar differs in its sensitivity to day-length. In Zimbabwe and most countries in southern Africa mostly
short day-length types grow
Temperature is one of the most important factors in initiating and influencing the rate of bulbing. For any given
day-length, high temperatures ensure early bulb initiation and more rapid bulb formation. A short day-length
cultivar will start bulbing earlier and produce a crop quicker when grown at low altitude than it will when grown
at the same altitude, but in a cooler locality. Temperature determines the marketing prospects for onions grown
in any particular area and will influence the selection of the production technique to be adopted by the grower.
Temperature will also influence flowering. Since the onion is biennial in growth habit, flowering does not occur
until the second year. Fluctuating cold and warm weather during the first growing season will, however, initiate
flowering and thereby cause plants to bolt. Bolting may be quite common in cool areas that have a mean winter
temperature of 7-12.5°C, because the proportion of plants exhibiting the symptom is dependent upon the
degree to which temperatures fluctuate around the mean and depends on the cultivar used. Low temperatures
inhibit bolting
Seed amount: 3 kg/ha on 300 m2 of seedbeds. The seedbeds can be arranged in 10 beds of 30 m long by 1 m wide each
Sow in rows 15 cm apart, 1 cm deep at a rate of 10 g of seed per m2. Incorporate 500 g/10 m2 of Compound
S in the seedbed prior to sowing. Apply 350 g/m2 of AN after 3 weeks in the nursery
Planting depth: When planting the seedling, just bury the roots and leave the shoot to fall with the bulb sitting on top of the
ground. After a week they will all stand upright. Avoid planting too deep
Spacing: Transplant 8 weeks after sowing, when plants are 5-7 mm thick or pencil thickness. 30 cm between the rows,
5-7 cm within the row
Planting time: Highveld: From March to June. Lowveld areas best plant in April-May
Growth period: After transplanting it takes 4-6 months for the onion to mature, depending on the cultivar
Fertilizers: Basal application: 600-1000 kg/ha Compound S or Compound D
Top dressing: 150 kg/ha AN twice, at 4 weeks and at 8 weeks after transplanting
Harvesting: Lift when 50-90% of the necks have collapsed and leave to cure in the field until the tops have dried for at least
2 weeks, and another 2 weeks of curing, grading and packaging/or storage in the shed. Onion for bulbs should
be harvested in October, when the conditions are dry. Drying can be done in tobacco barns. Green onions with
developed bulbs can be sold 3 to 4 months after transplanting
Expected yield: 50-90 tons/ha, depending on the cultivar
Pests: • Thrips: Symptoms: Damage on leaves in form of silvery spots and streaks
Control: Apply Thiodan 50 WP, at 10 g/10 litres of water, once the insects have been seen
• Cutworms: Greasy greyish-green worm that feeds at night and retreats into the soil during the day
Symptoms: Chewing holes through the detached stem
Control: Apply Thiodan 50 WP, at 10 g/10 litres of water, after planting
• Webworm: Symptoms: A creamy pink caterpillar that eats out the heart of the plant
Control: Spray Thiodan 50 WP, at 10 g/10 litres of water, when observed
• Leaf Miners: Symptoms: Small transparent-like tunnels through the leaf membrane
Control: Spray Dimethoate 40 EC, at 7.5 ml/10 litres of water, when symptoms appear
Diseases: • Damping Off: Seedlings die in big numbers, enhanced by wet conditions. It is mainly caused by
Rhizicotonia sp., Pythium sp. and Fusarium, as well as other fungal diseases
Symptoms: Seedlings fall just above soil level
Control: Apply Thiram as a dust on seeds before sowing and dip seedlings in a Thiram
solution at transplanting
• Soft Rot: This is a bacterial disease, caused by Erwinia sp. on the bulb
Symptoms: Soft bulb as well as cracks starting from the top
Control: There is no control except hygiene

34 – Module 3
 Module 3: Agronomic aspects of irrigated crop production

• Downy Mildew: This is common when the weather is wet with high humidity
Symptoms: Leaves covered by a violet greyish mould
Control: Spray Ridomil MZ 72 WP, at 25 g/10 litres of water, once a week. Can also use
Dithane M45 or Copper Oxychloride when symptoms appear
• Purple Blotch: Symptoms: Drying of leaves from top with white sunken spots on the leaves, becoming
purple with yellow halo
Control: Spray Dithane M45, at 20 g/10 litres of water, or Bravo, at 10ml/10litres of water,
once a week where the disease is a common problem
• Bulb Rot: It is a storage disease, commonly caused by Sclerotium cepivorum
Symptoms: Bulbs turning black in storage
Control: When in storage, it is too late to control, select and destroy infected bulbs

7.9. Paprika
Scientific name: Capsicum annum L.
Family: Solanaceae
Cultivars: Papri-King and Papri-Queen
Soil: Well-drained fertile soils with a pH range of 5.5-7.5. The crop is very sensitive to waterlogging. Best grown in
sandy loam and clay loam soils with good drainage and aeration. Usually planted on ridges
Climate: Paprika is sensitive to frost and grows best when temperatures are above 15°C. Optimum growth occurs at 24-
30°C, poor growth occurs when temperatures are between 4-15°C. Day temperatures above 32°C and night
temperatures below 16°C prevent fruit set. Low humidity and high temperatures cause abscission of buds,
flowers and small fruit
Seed amount: 700 g/ha
Seedbeds: Sowing of seedbeds must not begin before 1 June. Seedbed area: four beds measuring 29 m long x 1.2 m wide
each, giving an area of 34.8 m2 each, will provide adequate seedlings to plant a hectare. Seedling spacing:
5-10 cm between the rows and 2-3 cm within the rows. The nursery rotation and hygiene recommended in
Chapter 6 should be followed. Solarization and fumigation are also necessary measures, as discussed earlier.
While the seedlings are still in the nursery, it is important to weed and spray against pests and diseases
Transplanting: Transplanting in the field must not be done before 1 September and must be completed by 1 January, when
seedlings are 15-20 cm high or pencil thickness, 6-8 weeks after sowing. Transplanting in September-October
will give best yields. Seedlings should be hardened before transplanting
Spacing: 90 cm between the rows, 20 cm within the row. Paprika is grown in one row on raised ridges or in two rows on
raised beds. Plant population is 55 000-65 000 plants/ha
Growth period: 7 months
Fertilizers: Basal application: 700 -1000 kg/ha of Compound S or Compound L
Top dressing: 250-350 kg/ha of AN, split 5-6 times: 1st application 4 weeks after transplanting (50 kg/ha), 2nd
application 8 weeks after transplanting (50 kg/ha), 3rd application 12 weeks after transplanting (50kg/ha), 4th
application 16 weeks after transplanting (50kg/ha), 5th application 20 weeks after transplanting (50kg/ha). 350-
400 kg/ha Muriate of Potash, split twice: 1st application 4-5 weeks after transplanting (150-200 kg/ha), 2nd
application 4 weeks after the first one (150-200 kg/ha)
Harvesting: When the pods turn dark red and wrinkled, so that it can be wrapped around the two fingers without snapping,
the pods are ready for harvest
Expected yield: Yields of dry pods are 2.8-5.6 tons/ha
Pests: • Cutworms: Symptoms: Plants chewed through stems near the soil line
Control: Spray with Malathion 25% WP, at 20 g/10litres of water, after seed emergence
• Bollworm, Symptoms: Fruit damage, deep watery cavity contaminated with faeces and cast skin
Budworm, Unripe fruit is preferred
Fruitworm: Control: Spray Karate (for rate see label), from 1 February to 31 March only
• Aphids: Symptoms: Stunted plants; distortion and mottling of younger leaves, which become
cupped
Control: Spray Dimethoate or Orthene
• Mites: Symptoms: Curled leaves giving an inverted spoon appearance
Control: Spray Metasystox
Diseases: • Damping Off: Symptoms: Rotting and wilting of seedlings.
Control: Spray Copper Oxychloride, at 30 g/10 litres of water, after the seed have
emerged

Module 3 – 35
Irrigation manual

Figure 8
Bacterial spot on paprika leaf and fruit (Source: University of Florida, 2000)

a. Bacterial spot on a paprika leaf b. Bacterial spot on a paprika fruit

• Late Blight Symptoms: Dark brown stem necrosis extending upwards from the soil. Sudden wilting
Phytophtora sp: of the entire plant without leaves turning yellow. Water-soaked, dull green spots on pods
that spread rapidly to the entire plant
Control: Spray Copper Oxychloride, at 30 g/10 litres of water
• Bacterial wilt: Symptoms: Wilting of lower and upper leaves in young plants. Sudden wilting of the
entire plant
Control: Observe hygiene and spray Copper Oxychloride, at 30-40 g/10 litres of water,
at the first sign of infection
• Fusarium wilt: Symptoms: Slight yellowing of foliage and wilting of upper leaves
Control: Spray Lime Sulphur and Dithiocarbamate (for rates see label)
• Verticillium wilt: Symptoms: Wilting and upward curling of lower leaves as well as a stunted plant growth
Control: Spray Lime Sulphur and Dithiocarbamate (for rates see label)
• Bacterial Spot: Symptoms: Circular, water-soaked leaf lesions that become necrotic with brown centres
Defoliation is common. Raised brown lesions that are wart-like in appearance on fruit
Control: Observe rotations and apply Copper Oxychloride, at 30 g/10 litres of water. This
reduces the rate of the disease development
• Blossom end rot: This is a physiological disorder, caused by deficiencies of calcium
Symptoms: Water-soaked areas, which later turn brown-black. These develop near the
blossom end and never at the tip of the pod
Control: Liming and good water management

7.10. Pea
Scientific name: Pisum sativum
Family: Leguminosae
Cultivars: Green feast. Check with local seed companies for cultivars presently available. Difference should be made
between garden fresh peas and canning peas. There are early maturing (2.5 months) and later maturing (3.5
months) cultivars
Soil: Peas can grow on a wide range of soils, but fertile sand loams to light clays are best. The soils must be well-
drained and deep, up to 90 cm. Optimum pH 5.5-6.0. Apply lime when pH falls below 5.5, prior to planting
Climate: Peas grow best in moderate climatic conditions, they do not do well under high temperatures. Best production
in areas with temperatures of about 23°C. Best yields obtained when mean monthly temperatures are 13-20°C.
Temperatures below 5°C result in poor germination and growth. Temperatures above 27°C after flowering, even
for a short period, will result in pods that mature quickly reducing yield and quality. Flowering and pod setting
are sensitive to water stress
Seed amount: For the fresh pea production: 30-40 kg/ha. For the processing of dry pea: 80-120 kg/ha
Spacing: Fresh peas: 30 cm between the rows, 5 cm within the row. Canning peas: 20 cm between the rows, 2.5-5 cm
within the row
Planting time: Peas require a cool, relatively humid climate and are therefore confined to higher altitudes (> 1200 m) in the tropics
or, if the climate is cool enough, they can be grown during winter. March-April plantings are recommended. Late
planted peas (end of May) can suffer from frost in their sensitive stage (flowers and green pods)
Growth period: Early maturing garden peas 2.5-3.5 months
Fertilizers: Basal application: 500 kg/ha of Compound S
Top dressing: Peas are capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen. However, a starter dose of 50 to 100 kg AN is
beneficial for good early growth

36 – Module 3
 Module 3: Agronomic aspects of irrigated crop production

Harvesting: Picking can start 2 months after planting for early maturing cultivars and 2.5 months after planting for late-
maturing cultivars and can continue for a month, picking once or twice a week. Late-maturing dry peas take 3-
3.5 months
Expected yield: 5-10 tons/ha
Pests: • Aphids: Symptoms: Leaves curl and dry, due to sucking of sap
Control: Spray Thiodan, at 12 g/10 litres of water, or Dimethoate 40 EC, at 10 ml/10 litres
of water, or Malathion 50%, at 20 g/10 litres of water
• Red Spider Mite: Symptoms: Little red mites, mostly on underside of the leaves, causing silverish mottles
on leaves
Control: Use Nuvacron 40, at 50 ml/10 litres of water
• Caterpillars: These attack at night. Can be dark green or brownish with lighter stripes
Symptoms: Holes in leaves or buds eaten
Control: Use Carbaryl 85% WP, at 20 g/10 litres of water, or chemicals listed under
aphids
• Nematodes: Symptoms: Plants do not grow well, roots show small gall groups
Control: Observe 3-4 year rotation and do not rotate with other nematode sensitive crops
Diseases: • Powdery Mildew: Symptoms: White powder on leaves
Control: Spray with Bayleton 5% WP, at 20 g/10 litres of water, or Sulphur 50% WP, at
20 g/10 litres of water
• Damping Off: Symptoms: Rotting of seedlings before emergence
Control: Dust seed with Thiram, at 20 g/10 kg of seed
• Downy Mildew: Symptoms: Typical blue-greyish cover on leaves
Control: Use Dithane M45, at 20 g/10 litres of water
• Fusarium wilt: Symptoms: Browning of lower leaves, wilting of the plant
Control: Dust seed with Thiram

7.11. Pea – Mange tout

Scientific name: Pisum sativum var Mange tout
Family: Leguminosae
Cultivars: Mange tout and Sugar snap
Soil: Peas can grow on a wide range of soils, but fertile sand loams to light clays are best. The soils must be well
drained and deep, up to 90 cm. Optimum pH 5.5-6.0. Apply lime when pH falls below 5.5, prior to planting
Climate: Peas grow best in moderate climatic conditions, they do not do well in high temperatures. Best production in
areas with temperatures of about 23°C. Best yields obtained when mean monthly temperatures are 13-20°C.
Temperatures below 5°C result in poor germination and growth. Temperatures above 27°C after flowering, even
for a short period, will result in pods that mature quickly reducing yield and quality. Flowering and pod setting
are sensitive to water stress
Seed amount: 35-50 kg/ha
Spacing: Beds 90 cm wide, 45 cm between the rows, 5 cm within the rows.
Planting time: March-September
Growth period: Mange tout is grown for its immature and seedless pods. Sugar snap is grown for its immature seeds when the
sugar content is very high
Fertilizers: Basal application: 500 kg/ha of Compound S
Top dressing: 100-200 kg AN at flowering. Foliar application is also advised depending on the state of the crop
Harvesting: Harvesting should be done as soon as the pods have reached the required size. The stage of harvesting the
immature pods is determined by the market for both Mange tout and Sugar snap. The pods should be straight
without any blemish, 6-8 cm long and uniform
Expected yield: 4-8 tons/ha
Pests: • Cutworms Symptoms: Plants chewed through stems near the soil line
Agrotis sp: Control: Drench with Malathion, at 20 g/10 litres of water, when symptoms are observed
• Heliothis Bollworm: Symptoms: Holes in leaves or pods eaten
Control: Spray Carbaryl 85% WP, at 20 g/10 litres of water, when symptoms have been
seen
• Nematodes: Symptoms: Plants do not grow well, roots show small gall groups
Control: Observe rotations, every 3-4 years, and do not rotate with other nematode
sensitive crops

Module 3 – 37
Irrigation manual

• Red Spider Mite: Symptoms: Little red mites, mostly on underside of the leaves, making silverish mottles
on leaves
Control: Spray Nuvacron 40, at 50 ml/10 litres of water, at the first sign of infestation
• Thrips: Symptoms: White spots with a small hole in the centre
Control: Spray Kocide and Thiodan, at 10 g/10 litres of water, when symptoms appear
Diseases: • Powdery Mildew: Symptoms: Raised spots with small volcano cone at the top; white powder on leaves
Control: Spray Bayleton 5% WP, at 20 g/10 litres of water, or Sulphur 50% WP, at 20 g/10
litres of water, or Benlate. Chemical control should be done when the first symptoms are
observed
• Damping Off: Symptoms: Rotting of seeds before emergence
Control: Dust seed with Thiram, at 20 g/10 kg of seed
• Downy Mildew: Symptoms: Typical blue-greyish cover on leaves
Control: Apply Dithane M45, at 20 g/10 litres of water

7.12. Potato
Scientific name: Solanum tuberosum
Family: Solanaceae
Cultivars: BPI, Amythest, Mont Claire, Jacaranda
Soil: Potatoes can grow in a wide range of soils, but the best soils are medium-textured loamy soils with good
organic matter content. Heavy clays can become hard, producing misshapen tubers, although yield can be
high. Optimum soil acidity is pH 5-5.5. Avoid applying lime to a potato crop, since this may cause a disease
called potato scab. Lime should be applied to other crops before potatoes. Soil depth should be at least 60 cm.
In areas where nematodes are suspected, soils should be fumigated before planting
Climate: Tubers are not produced if temperatures are high at the critical time of tuber initiation or if the plants are killed
by frost. Mean optimum temperatures for tuber production are 15-20°C. With temperatures above 32°C both
tuber formation and yield are poor
Seed amount: 160 pockets of 15 kg each (there are normally about 200 tubers in 1 pocket of 15 kg). Seed potatoes are usually
un-sprouted when purchased. Sprouting should be done under daylight conditions. Protect only from very
strong sun. Rain does no damage if it drains from the tubers. When tubers and sprouts turn green it makes
them both tougher and less liable to damage
Planting depth: 5-10 cm
Spacing: 90 cm between the rows, 30 cm within the row. If enough funds are available for seed tubers, spacing can be
reduced to 80 cm or even 60 cm between the rows and 30 cm within the row (210 and 280 pockets respectively)
Planting time: Potatoes can be planted 3 times a year in the Highveld. Summer crop: November-March. First winter crop:
February-June. Second winter crop: August-December
Growth period: 4.5 months
Fertilizers: Basal application: 600-1000 kg/ha of Compound S or Compound D
Top dressing: 290 kg/ha of AN applied once, 3 weeks after emergence
Cultural practices: After applying the top dressing, potatoes should be ridged up to 20-30 cm high. The first ridging will be the first
weed control. The second ridging should be done after potato tubers have started to break the soil
Harvesting: When 90% of the tops have dried or have changed colour to pale yellow, stop irrigation and cut and remove all
the tops. Burn them when they are dry to control diseases. Leave the tubers in the ground for 15 days before
lifting. It is best to lift using a garden folk
Expected yield: Summer crop: 17-20 tons/ha. Winter crop: 25-30 tons/ha. Yields above 40 tons/ha are possible. In the
Mediterranean basin yields of up to 70 tons/ha are common
Pests: • Nematodes: Symptoms: Raised and cracked spots of tubers
Control: Chemical treatment is too expensive. Observe rotation every 4 years
• Potato tuber moth: Symptoms: Larvae make tunnels in plant tissue; wilting and drying off of tops as nutrient
flow is cut off; tunnels in tubers
Control: Biological through introduction of parasitic wasp. Chemical use of Azodrin 40,
at 15 ml/10 litres of water, when symptoms appear
• Aphids: Symptoms: Poor leaf development
Control: Spray every 10 days Azodrin 40, at 15 ml/10 litres of water
Diseases: • Bacterial wilt: Wilting plants here and there in the population is a very characteristic indication
Symptoms: Plants wilt as if they have a lack of water
Control: Use resistant varieties

38 – Module 3
 Module 3: Agronomic aspects of irrigated crop production

• Late Blight: Occurs when the relative humidity is more than 70% and temperature is around 22-25°C
Very quick spreading (a whole field in one week) during the wet season
Symptoms: Brown patches at end of leaves with white mycelium on underside; brown
spots on stems
Control: Use Dithane M45 and Ridomil MZ 72 combined. Two sprays of Dithane
alternated with two sprays of Ridomil. Spray every 10 days with Dithane, at 20 g/10 litres
of water, and Ridomil MZ 72, at 50 g/10 litres of water
• Early Blight: Slow spreading at temperature around 25°C. During wet and dry season
Symptoms: Bottom leaves show concentric necrotic spots
Control: In the same way as late blight

7.13. Rape and Kale

Scientific name: Brassica napus and Brassica acephala var Portuegeuse kale
Family: Brassicasae/Cruciferae
Cultivars: English Giant Rape. Kale: Covo Troncuda. Rugare-Viscose, which is vegetatively propagated
Soil: Rape and kale grow well in most soils, provided they are well-drained and rich in organic matter. Well-drained
sandy loams are the best soils. The optimum pH is 5.5-7.0
Climate: Both rape and kale are cold tolerant plants and best results are obtained in areas with cooler weather. Viscose
thrives well during the rainy season in the Highveld
Seed amount: In situ: 5 kg/ha. In seedbeds: 0.5 kg for 1 ha of transplanted seedlings
Planting depth: 1-3 cm
Spacing: 30-75 cm between the rows and 30-50 cm within the row. Transplant when plants are 5-10 cm high. With direct
seeding in the case of rape, thinning is required after 3-4 weeks. Rugare uses wider spacing
Planting time: Best grown in winter. Best in cool moist climates in both Lowveld and Highveld
Growth period: Rape needs only 4-5 weeks after transplanting and harvest continues for 3-4 months. Kale takes 3 months and
harvest continues over several months, depending on management (Rugare-Viscose)
Fertilizers: All Brassicas respond very well to applications of organic manure or compost. If the quality of manure is high,
then reduce application of inorganic fertilizers. Apply 30-50 tons/ha
Basal application: 700 kg/ha of compound L. High Boron content is needed, since Brassicas are sensitive to
Boron deficiencies
Top dressing: 100 kg/ha of AN every 3 weeks
Harvesting: Rape harvest 5-6 weeks after transplanting, for 3-4 months. Kale takes 2-3 months before harvesting
Expected yield: Varies with management, 25-50 tons/ha
Pests: • Aphids: Symptoms: Stunted growth, inside curled leaves with aphids on growing tips and on
tender leaves
Control: Use Dimethoate 40 EC, at 10 ml/10 litres of water, when the insects have been
observed on a few plants
• Spider Mite: Symptoms: Little red mites, mostly on the underside of the leaves making small webs,
sucking insects, making leaves dry and stem curly in later stage
Control: Use Nuvacron 40, at 50 ml/10 litres of water, when the first signs are detected
• Diamondback Moth:Symptoms: Bright green caterpillar eating on leaves
Control: Use Carbaryl 85% WP, at 20 g/10 litres of water, when small green caterpillars
are observed often covered in a web
Diseases: • Downy Mildew: Attacks seedlings as well as mature plants
Symptoms: White molds on cotyledons and stem; watery spots on underside of leaves
(can be seen when holding leaves against sun); white spots on the upper side leaf
Control: Prevention by Thiram or Captan or Quintozene. Cure with Ridomil MZ 72, at 25
g/10 litres of water, when symptoms appear
• Black Rot: Symptoms: Black spots on the outside of leaves and stem
Control: Spray Copper Oxychloride 85%, at 40 g/10 litres of water, when symptoms appear
• Damping Off: By Rhizoctonia, Pythium, Phytophtora, Alternaria, Fusarium
Symptoms: Bottom of the seedling is damaged and falls
Control: Dust seeds with Thiram, spray with Dithane M45 or Copper Oxychloride
• Soft Rot: Bacterial disease caused by Erwina carotovora, hence no chemical treatment available
Symptoms: Rotting of leaves and stem. A very bad smell is a typical indication. Appears
especially during rainy season
Control: No treatment possible

Module 3 – 39
Irrigation manual

7.14. Squash-Pumpkin
Scientific name: Cucurbita maxima and Cucurbita moschata
Family: Cucurbitaceae
Cultivars: Squash belong to the genus Cucurbita under the family of the Cucurbitaceae. This class refers to squash,
pumpkin, marrow and courgette. Since their uses and husbandry are much the same, they are treated as a
group
Soil: Pumpkins grow well in well-drained soils. They are very sensitive to waterlogging. Optimum pH is 5.5-6.5
Climate: Pumpkins are warm season crops. They grow best in summer months, from August to April in the Highveld
They require 4-6 months of warm weather. Only in the Lowveld may winter production be possible
Seed amount: 3-4 kg/ha
Planting depth: 2-3 cm
Spacing: For long-running cultivars: when using the furrow method, 2.5 m between the rows and 1.2-2 m within the row.
For small-vine and bush cultivars, 1.5 m between the rows and 1 m within the row. As for cucumbers, over-
watering should be avoided. Planting on hills, 1.2 m apart for bush cultivars, up to 3 m apart for long runners,
can be practiced when the growing season extends into the rainy season
Planting time: Highveld, from the end of August. Winter production possible in Lowveld. Being warm climate plants, the higher
the temperatures (not exceeding 25°C by day), the faster the growth
Growth period: Mature fruits take up to 4 months
Fertilizers: Basal application: 600 kg/ha of Compound D
Top dressing: 100 kg/ha of AN after the first fruit setting and another 100 kg/ha of AN three weeks after the first one
Harvesting: For most of the Cucurbita, immature fruits are wanted (before the rind hardens). The first usable fruits are
harvested 7-8 weeks after planting (for example baby marrows or courgettes), bearing fruits for several weeks.
Mature fruits take up to 4 months
Expected yield: Squash: 11-16 tons/ha. Pumpkin: 18-22 tons/ha. Baby marrow: 2.2-4.5 tons/ha
Pests: • Root-knot Symptoms: Swollen roots as well as a stunted plant
nematode: Control: Observe a 4-year rotation, avoiding the Solanaceae family (tomato, potato,
paprika, etc.)
• Aphids: Suck sap while transmitting mosaic virus
Symptoms: Stunted growth, inside curled leaves with aphids at growing tips
Control: Spray Dimethoate 40 EC, at 7.5 ml/10 litres of water, when observed on plants
• Red Spider Mite: Symptoms: Small reddish insects on the underside of the leaves, causing leaves to
loose colour curling and drying of the leaves
Control: Spray Nuvacron 40, at 50 ml/10 litres of water, when observed on the plants
Diseases: • Fusarium wilt: Soil-borne disease, takes about 2 weeks to develop
Symptoms: Leaves start wilting, followed by leaf necrosis of the older leaves
Control: Dust seed with Thiram and use resistant cultivars
• Anthracnose: Appears in wet weather conditions
Symptoms: Black spots on the leaves, leaf stalks and stem as well as sunken lesions on
the fruits; spores on mycelium visible
Control: Apply Dithane M45, at 20 g/10 litres of water
• Downy Mildew: Symptoms: Circular brown spots on the leaves with a yellowish halo. In advanced stages
the attack looks like frost damage
Control: Use Ridomil MZ 72 WP, at 25 g/10 litres of water, once a week or use Copper
Oxychloride 85% WP, at 40 g/10 litres of water, once a week

Figure 9
Downy Mildew and Powdery Mildew on squash leaves (Source: University of Florida, 2000)

a. Downy Mildew b. Powdery Mildew

40 – Module 3
 Module 3: Agronomic aspects of irrigated crop production

• Powdery Mildew: Symptoms: White powdery spots on the leaves; brown colouring of the leaves from the edge
Control: Use Bavistin at 5 g/10 litres of water, once a week
• Cucumber mosaic Symptoms: Chlorosis of the leaves
virus: Control: Control the vector, which are usually aphids. Rogue out and destroy all infected
plants

7.15. Tomato
Scientific name: Lycopersicon esculentum (L.)
Family: Solanaceae
Cultivars: Determinate: Roma, Rossol, Floridade, Rodade
Indeterminate: Money maker, Red Khaki, Heinz
Determinate varieties typically spread laterally and therefore do not need staking. Tomatoes on determinate
plants also tend to ripen together, a good choice if intending to process or can the tomatoes. Indeterminate
varieties continue to grow until the bitter end and need to be staked or trellised for best production (see below)
Soil: Tomatoes can grow well in a wide range of soils from sandy-loams to clays. Soil depth should be 60 cm and
the soil well-drained. Growth is best in lighter soils, sandy loams to clay loams. Heavy soils that get waterlogged
during the rainy season must be avoided. Optimum soil pH 5-6.5. Apply lime when pH falls below 5
Climate: Temperature: Tomatoes are very frost sensitive and require warm weather for 4.5 months. Seed germinates
best at temperatures between 15-25°C. At 10°C seeds will take a very long time to germinate (20 days). When
temperature exceeds 35°C germination becomes very poor. Maximum growth for both vegetative and fruiting
occurs when minimum day temperatures do not fall below 21°C and minimum night temperatures do not fall
below 15°C. High day temperatures cause blotchy ripening and soft fruit. Low temperatures increase the
incidence of badly-shaped and poor quality fruit. Temperature is an important factor influencing fruit set. Best
results are achieved when temperatures are between 18-20°C. Tomato is not a day-length sensitive crop.
Humidity: Hot dry spells, followed by heavy rain, cause the ripening fruit to crack. Moist overcast weather
conditions cause fruit splitting, foliar and fruit diseases and delayed ripening
Seed amount: A hectare will require about 160 g of seed, 60 m2 of seedbed: 6 beds of 10 m x 1 m, with 8 rows of seed per
bed
Spacing: Determinate: 1 m between the rows and 30 cm within the row
Indeterminate: 1-1.2 m between the rows and 30-45 cm within the row
Planting time: Best period is March to November, except in frost sensitive areas in the Highveld, where average rainfall does
not exceed 1000 mm. Winter production possible in the warm winter in the Lowveld. Prices are high during the
rainy season but the incidence of diseases and insect pests are very high. Transplant after 6-8 weeks in the
nursery. Tomatoes can be transplanted deeper than the original soil mark level. Seedling trays give the best
crop since it suffers less from transplant shock
Cultural practices: For all indeterminate varieties it is best to stake or trellis the plants, so as to get the best quality and yield.
Removing side branches to leave only one or two improves fruit size, quality and facilitates spraying and
harvesting. Determinate varieties can also be trellised if the farmer is aiming for high quality, but the material
required is less than for the indeterminate types
Trellising/Staking methods:
• Poles
• Strong poles and 2 or 3 horizontal wires
• Strong poles, 1 top horizontal wire and strings to suspend the plants on the wire. Length of poles 1.5 m,buried
0.30 m
Growth period: Tomatoes can last a total of 6 months from sowing to harvesting, depending on cultivar, management and
growing conditions
Crop rotation: Crop rotation is very important, if not carried out the yields and quality are lowered and pests and disease
incidence will increase. Tomatoes are very sensitive to nematodes and soil-borne diseases. Grow a crop once
in 3-4 years in an area that had no other Solanaceous crops like paprika, potato and eggplants
Fertilizers: Basal application: 600-1000 kg of Compound S or Compound D applied per station
Top dressing: 100 kg/ha of AN plus 100 kg/ha Muriate of Potash applied three times, starting at the first fruit
formation when they are about a marble size. Repeat after every three weeks
Harvesting: Harvest starts 4 months after transplanting
Expected yield: 30 tons/ha or more, depending on the cultivar and management
Pests: • Red Spider Mite: Small reddish mites on the underside of the leaves, sucking the plant sap
Symptoms: Curled leaves, with silver spots and the plants look yellowish
Control: Spray Metasystox 25 EC, at 10 ml/10 litres of water, when first insects appear

Module 3 – 41
Irrigation manual

Figure 10 Figure 11
Nematode root knot attack in roots of tomato Leaf spot on a
(Source: University of Arizona, 2002) tomato leaf
(Source:
University of
Florida, 2000)

• Thrips: Symptoms: Silverish mottling of the leaves

Control: Spray Malathion 50 WP, at 10 g/10 litres of water, when first observed
• Nematodes: Symptoms: Individual plants here and there in the field look stunted and knots and
malformed roots
Control: Field treatment difficult and expensive. To use a 4-year rotation with non-
sensitive crops
Diseases: • Late Blight One of the most devastating diseases of tomato, enhanced by high relative humidity
Phytophtora sp.: (>70%) and day temperatures between 22-25°C
Symptoms: Brown necrotic spots on the leaves starting from the top of the leaves; on the
underside the leaves are covered with a white mycelium; brown to black spots on the
stem and fruit, as if attacked by frost. The disease spreads very fast within a week
Control: Is usually late, but remove all infected branches and spray with Bravo 500,
Milraz 76 WP or Dithane M45, at 20 g/10 litres of water, alternating with Ridomil MZ 72,
at 35 g/10 litres of water, routine spraying is advised
• Early Blight Conditions which are wet, with high relative humidity and temperatures 24-28°C
Alternaria solani: Symptoms: On young plants in the seedbed are long, zoned spots on the lower stem.
On the leaves brown zoned spots surrounded by a yellow halo. It also can attack the
stems and fruits
Control: Same as for Late Blight
• Wilts: Can be caused by several micro-organisms: Fusarium oxysporum (Figure 2a), takes 2
weeks to develop, Rhizoctonia solani, takes less than a week to develop, and Verticillium
dahliae (Figure 2b)
Symptoms: Observed when one cuts through the stem: the vascular bundles are brown.
One side of the plant dies
Control: Heat treatment of seed as well as dipping the seedlings in a Thiram solution at
transplanting
• Bacterial Canker: Caused by Corynebacterium sp.
Symptoms: Seen when the vascular system is observed: it is brown. A cut stem put in
water will produce a milky ooze out of the cut end
Control: No control available, except hygiene and heat-treating the seeds
• Leaf Spot: Starts 1 week before flowering
Symptoms: Necrotic spots on the leaves, the inner part is whitish
Control: Routine spray Dithane M45, at 25 g/10 litres of water, or Copper Oxychloride
80%, at 50 g/10 litres of water.
• Mosaic viruses: Symptoms: Stunted plants, with curled leaves, light green in colour, flowers dropping and
brown spots on the fruit
Control: Spray against the insects that spread the virus vectors, like white fly (Bemisia
tabaci). Spray Cymbush 20 EC, at 50 ml/10 litres of water, or Metasystox 25 EC, at 10
ml/10 litres of water, or Parathion or Malathion and or Decis routine spray recommended

42 – Module 3
 Module 3: Agronomic aspects of irrigated crop production

7.16. Watermelon
Scientific name: Citrullus lanatus
Family: Cucurbitaceae
Cultivars: Charleston Grey and Congo, as well as many farmer varieties
Soil: Watermelons grow well in well-drained soils. They are very sensitive to waterlogging. Optimum pH is 5.5-6.5
Climate: Watermelons require higher heat than pumpkins, squash or cucumber. A hot, dry season is best. Wet summers
can cause a lot of leaf disease. Areas below 1 200 m above sea level
Seed amount: 3-5 kg/ha
Spacing: When using the furrow method: 2.5-3 m between the rows and 2.5-3 m within the row. Beds: 1.2 m wide with
furrows 0.50-0.60 m, plants spaced 2.5-3 m
Planting time: Early production seeds can be sown in July-August
Growth period: 4-5 months
Fertilizers: Basal application: 600 kg/ha of Compound D
Top dressing: 100 kg/ha of AN after the first fruit setting and another 3 weeks later
Harvesting: Determining the maturity of watermelons can be difficult. Harvest with the stalk attached, when the green colour
starts to turn yellow. Mature watermelons give a dull sound when tapped whereas immature give a metallic
sound. Others use the stalk that attaches the fruit: when it starts to dry the fruit can be picked
Expected yield: 9-11 tons/ha
Pests: • Root-knot Symptoms: Swollen roots as well as a stunted plant
nematode: Control: Observe a 4-year rotation, avoiding the Solanaceae family (tomato, potato,
paprika, etc.)
• Aphids: Transmits mosaic virus
Symptoms: Poorly elongating vine with curled leaves with aphids
Control: Spray Dimethoate 40 EC, at 7.5 ml/10 litres of water, when observed on plants
• Red Spider Mite: Symptoms: Small reddish insects on the underside of the leaves, causing leaves to
loose colour curling and drying of the leaves
Control: Spray Nuvacron 40, at 50 ml/10 litres of water, when observed on the plants
Diseases: • Fusarium wilt: Soil-borne disease, takes about 2 weeks to
develop Figure 12
Symptoms: Leaves start wilting followed by leaf Fusarium on watermelon
necrosis of the older leaves leaves (Source: University
Control: Dust seed with Thiram and use of Florida, 2000)
resistant cultivars
• Anthracnose: Appears in wet weather conditions
Symptoms: Black spots on the leaves, leaf
stalks and stem as well as sunken lesions on
the fruits; spores on mycelium visible
Control: Routine spray Dithane M45, at 20 g/10
litres of water
• Powdery Mildew: Symptoms: White powdery spots on the leaves;
brown colouring of the leaves from the edge
Control: Use systemic fungicides, for example
Bavistin at 5 g/10 litres of water, once a week
• Downy Mildew: Symptoms: Circular brown spots on the leaves
with a yellowish halo; in advanced stages the attack looks like frost damage
Control: Use Ridomil MZ 72 WP, at 25 g/10 litres of water, once a week or use Copper
Oxychloride 85% WP, at 40 g/10 litres of water, once a week
• Cucumber mosaic Symptoms: Chlorosis of the leaves
virus: Control: Control the vector, which are usually aphids. Rogue out and destroy all infected
plants

Module 3 – 43
 Chapter 8
Agronomic aspects of fruit crops

In the sections below the agronomic aspects of the most treatment of pests and diseases are given. It should be
important fruit crops in the sub-region are given. Again, the noted, however, that different control methods are possible
information refers to the climatic conditions prevailing in as explained in Chapter 4. Integrated Production and Pest
Zimbabwe (Chapter 1) and should be adapted for the other Management (IPPM) is becoming more and more
countries if the conditions are different. For information on successful in the sub-region and its application, wherever
crop water and irrigation requirements, the reader is possible, is highly recommended (Chapter 5).
referred to Module 4. Below, chemical products for

8.1. Apple and pear (pome fruits)

Scientific name: Malus domestica and Pyrus communis
Family: Rosaceae
Cultivars: Low Chill Apple Cultivars: Annah, Maayan, Michal, Ellah, Goldjon and Mutsu. Ellah and Annah act as pollinators
High Chill Apple Cultivars: Golden Delicious, Granny Smith, Starking, Marjorie Pie
Pear Cultivars: Hood, Wilder, William Mild Winter, Pineapple, Cares and LeConte. Hood and Pineapple require
polinators
Soil: Deep and well-drained soils are the best, with a pH of 5.0-5.5. They must contain high organic matter that can
be amended by addition of compost or kraal manure
Climate: Pome fruits are indigenous to cool temperate conditions. They are dormant in winter and drop their leaves, and
begin to grow again when it gets warm in spring. They require a cold winter to enable them to break buds and
produce leaves, flowers and fruits. Most of Africa does not have winter temperatures that are low enough to
grow pome fruits. In Zimbabwe pome fruits can only be grown in cooler Highveld areas that get frost in winter.
The cold period required is called the chilling requirement, which refers to both the number of hours of cold and
the temperature. Different pome fruit cultivars have different chilling requirements. There are low-chilling
requiring cultivars that can be grown in Zimbabwe in the Highveld
Orchard layout: Establish pome fruits in the coolest part of the land. South-facing slopes are cooler than slopes that face in
other directions. Most apple and pear varieties are self-sterile and will therefore need a different variety for
cross-pollination. Preferably, varieties which flower at the same time should be planted
Soil preparation: Dig planting holes of 0.75 m x 0.75 m. Pile soil on one side of the hole with the topsoil on a separate heap from
the subsoil. Mix topsoil with compost/manure and basal fertilizer and reserve subsoil for making basins
Tree spacing: 5 m between the rows and 5 m within the row (= 5 m x 5 m between the plants)
Planting trees: The best time for planting is during the dormant season (late June to mid August). The trees are planted bare
root with no soil covering the roots. Drying of the roots should be avoided by covering the plants or roots with
a moist sacking between uprooting from the nursery and planting. Trees should be planted to the same depth
as they were in the nursery. Cut back trees to a height of about 60-75 cm from the ground
Fertilizers: Year 1: Either 750 g of Compound C per planting hole + one 20 litre bucket of compost or 500 g SSP + 300 g
KCL. Top dress with 200 g/tree of AN about 6 weeks after planting
Years 2 and 3: 200 g/tree of AN in mid August and 100 g/tree in mid November
Year 4 and subsequent: 360 g/tree of Compound J in August, December and March-April
Pruning: • At planting: Cut back trees to about 60-75 cm from the ground. During the first growing season,
remove all suckers arising from below the graft union. This is best done when the shoots
are still small (when they can be rubbed off with the fingers). Removal of larger shoots
may result in wounds that serve as entry points for disease-causing organisms
• 1st winter after Select 3-4 scaffold (main) branches, evenly spaced around the main trunk. These are
planting: the main branches and will be maintained throughout the productive life of the tree. If
trees are to be trained to the centre leader from the top, most shoots should be trained
vertically. The other common training system is the vase-shaped (or open centre, which
means no middle shoot). Any diseased, damaged or dead wood should be removed
(care being taken to keep pruning to the necessary minimum, unless trees are weak and
small). Hard pruning during the early years will delay cropping of the trees

Module 3 – 45
Irrigation manual

Figure 13
Pruning and staking of an apple tree during the 1st season
Stake Stake
Head back at planting
(prune to about 1 m) Tie new leading
branch to stake to
make vertical
Tie down to pegs or
weigh down all other
branches to these
type of angles
Remove branches
that are so low that
they will have fruit to
the ground
Graft

At planting Appearance to be aimed for in 1st year

• 2nd winter after On cropping trees, the objective of pruning is to maintain a balance between vegetative
planting: growth and fruiting. Dead, diseased and damaged wood should also be cut out. All water
shoots are cut out cleanly at their point of origin (thinning out)
Types of pruning cuts:
• Thinning cut: Involves removal of an entire branch by cutting cleanly (flush with the
trunk) from its point of origin. The result is a more open spreading canopy. This system
is more suited to pruning vigorous dense trees
• Heading cut: Involves cutting back a shoot immediately above a bud. This will stimulate
growth of the remaining buds into a compact canopy
Fruit thinning: Do not allow the trees to bear fruit before the 4th year after planting. Remove all flowers during the first 3 years
while building a robust canopy. This is required in order to improve fruit size and remove misshapen fruits. The
best time of thinning is 2-4 weeks after full bloom and should be completed 30-40 days after full bloom. 2-3
fruits per cluster should be left
Harvesting: • Picking: It is important to harvest apples at the right time. Apples should be sweet and not floury
or starchy. If picked too early or too late, they will not store well and will be of poor quality.
Pears, on the other hand, must be mature before picking, but will never ripen until after
picking. Avoid bruising the fruits at picking, use bags or basket to put the fruit in during
picking. Picked fruits should be placed in shade and stored in a cool place
• Appearance of fruit: The colour of the cultivar must be fully developed. The pips or seeds of the fruit should
be light brown or brown. If the seeds are white, it is too early to harvest the fruit. Once
the seeds become too dark brown it is too late to harvest
Pests: • Aphids: They are most notable on the younger shoots
Symptoms: Appearance of ants and distorted leaves at growing tips
Control: Apply Dimethoate, at 10 ml/10 litres of water, or Malathion 25 WP, at 20 g/10
litres of water
• Codling moths: Symptoms: The larvae tunnels into the fruit are filled with crumby brown excrement. The
larva is pale pink, with a brown head. The adult moth has grey front wings with brown
markings across them and bright bronze markings on the edges
Control: Spray with Lebaycid WP, at 10 g/10 litres of water, when 75% of flower petals
have dropped
• Fruit flies: Symptoms: Fruit flies lay their eggs in the fruit as it grows. The larvae feed on the fruit
when they come out of the egg
Control: Spray a mixture of Malathion + sugar, at 10 + 60 g/10 litres of water, in large
drops. The sugar attracts the insects to the poison
• Scale insects: Pernicious scale is the most serious
Symptoms: Dead branches starting from the growing tips, rough greyish bark
Control: Prune and burn infected branches. Spray Parathion or mineral oil after drop and
again 4 weeks later
Disease/disorder: • Powdery Mildew: Symptoms: White mould that grows on leaves and shoots, causing reduced growth
Control: Prune and burn infected shoots and then spray fungicides like Morestan 25%
WP, at 4 g/10 litres of water, once a week until middle of December

46 – Module 3
 Module 3: Agronomic aspects of irrigated crop production

• Scab: Symptoms: Leaves and fruit develop faint Figure 14

olive green spots that gradually turn black
Control: Spray Dithane M45, at 15 g/10 Scab on apple fruit (Source:
litres of water, every seven days until 30 Our Garden Gang, 2002)
days after full bloom
• Bitter-pit: This is physiological disorder, usually
associated with Calcium deficiency
Symptoms: Sunken dark spots on the fruit
surface and small patches of dry brown
tissue within the flesh
Control: Adequate irrigation (avoid water
stress), avoid excessive nitrogen and apply
foliar sprays of Calcium nitrate around
October-November
• Delayed foliation: A result of insufficient winter chilling
Symptoms: Erratic and delayed bud burst
and a prolonged bud-break period. Some buds fail to open altogether, leaving long bare
branches sometimes with die back
Control: Select the coldest site, use dormancy breaking chemicals, for example DNOC,
Dormex, Thiourea + Potassium Nitrate and plant well-adapted cultivars

8.2. Avocado pear

Scientific name: Persea americana
Family: Lauraceae
Cultivars: The selection of cultivars must be based on their suitability for the export market. A cultivar should have a long
storage life, travel well and be of acceptable quality. The maturity period of the cultivars must have a spread to
cover the most suitable export season and give the longest possible season on the local market. The trees must
be regular bearers, giving commercial crops. The following four cultivars are recommended:
Fuerte: ripening period April to August
Pinkerton: ripening period August to October
Hass: ripening period September to November
Ryan: ripening period October to January
Soil: Deep, well-drained alluvial soils with a slightly acid pH. On heavier soils, die back due to phytophthora rot can
be severe
Climate: Being a sub-tropical fruit, it requires frost-free areas. The upper limit for production is 1 100 m
Orchard layout: If the orchard is planted on a slope, it is advisable to plant the trees on the contour lines. Grass waterways
should be selected to take the surplus flow of water during heavy rains. If planting is done on the flat, the trees
may be laid out on the square system
Tree spacing: To use land to maximum advantage and so obtain the highest and fastest return possible on capital, close initial
spacing with tree pruning or removal 10-12 years later should be carried out, otherwise there will be significantly
decreasing yield due to mutual shading. This can be indicated by large numbers of ‘cukes’ (seedless cucumber-
shaped fruit) which are formed due to overcrowding. Fuerte, which is strong grower and forms a spreading tree,
requires a wider spacing than the upright Hass, Pinkerton or Ryan. Spacing between rows should be 9-12 m
Planting trees: The best time to plant out trees is September/October. It is best to transplant towards the beginning of the rainy
season in order to reduce initial irrigation costs and give the trees a long warm season to become well
established. There is no need to dig a large hole for the young tree. The depth of the hole should be the same
depth or slightly shallower than the container. The width of the hole should be about 20 cm wider than the pot
so as to be able to manipulate the plant in the hole and remove the pot by cutting one side with a knife and
pulling it from the ball of the soil. The soil for filling the hole should be mixed with a handful and a half of SSP

Table 16
Recommended spacing for avocados (Source: Cassidy, undated)

Cultivar Initial spacing Final spacing Approximate number

in the row (m) (m) of trees per ha
Fuerte 5.5-6 11-12 x 10 181-167
Hass 4.5 9x9 222
Pinkerton 4.5 9x9 222
Ryan 4.5 9x9 222

Module 3 – 47
Irrigation manual

Fertilizers: Fertilizer should be spread over the entire root area, about 30 cm from the stem to about 45 cm outside the drip
area. Since the roots of avocados are shallow and very sensitive, each application of fertilizer should be
followed by a light irrigation. Quantities of fertilizer used will vary with tree size, cultivar and soil conditions. The
cultivar Hass generally requires almost double that required for other cultivars. Foliar analysis before flower
burst and also in March will aid in fixing the fertilizer programme. The fertilizer application for the first year is
given in six dressings during the summer season. After that, nitrogen and potassium are applied in three equal
applications in July, December and April. The phosphate is applied in December. It is not advisable to apply
heavy nitrogenous fertilizers closer than six weeks before or after blossoming, as fruit yield can be impaired
Since most soils are naturally low in zinc or the zinc is not available, this element must be applied every year.
Spray trees annually to drip with a 0,2% solution of zinc oxide

Table 17
Quantity of fertilizer in grams per year per avocado tree, according to age (Source: Cassidy, undated)

Age (Years) Ammonium Nitrate Super-Phosphate Potassium Chloride

(11.3% P) (60% K2O)
1 150 - 50
2 225 200 150
3 375 250 200
4-5 450 300 350
6-7 750 350 450
8-9 900 400 700
10-12 1125 550 900
Maximum 1750 750 1400

Method to • Water content: The maturity of avocados is related approximately to the moisture content. The fruit is
determine normally ready to be picked when it has a moisture content of 80% or less. The moisture
maturity: content of the fruit is easy to determine. A random sample of at least ten fruits is taken, the
avocado is bisected lengthwise and the seedless half is peeled on one side. A portion of this
side is now grated with a reasonably fine household grater. This is repeated with the other
fruits and a representative sample of exactly 100 grams is obtained. The sample is spread
in an open dish and dried in an oven at low temperature for about 6 hours. Since the initial
sample was exactly 100 grams, the weight loss will give the moisture percentage. If sample
weight is more than 80 grams, the fruits should not be picked
• Ripening time: Once the season is well under way, maturity problems become less severe and the fruit
can be harvested according to size alone. After moisture determination, the following
procedure may be applied. Pick a representative sample of fruits, which in one’s opinion
has attained the average size. Store this fruit at room temperature until it ripens. An
avocado is ripe when it yields slightly to light pressure applied on the surface. If the
samples ripen within 8-10 days and show no sign of shriveling, the fruit may be
considered mature. If the fruit takes more than 10-12 days to ripen, the ripeness test may
be repeated in a week
• Appearance of fruit: Purple or dark-coloured cultivars usually turn from green to dark colour at maturity.
Green cultivars are mature when a yellowish tint appears on the stem, close to the fruit.
The fruit usually has a smooth peel, particularly on the part furthest from the stem
• Appearance of Cut open the fruit to see the membrane enclosing the seed. On immature fruit, the
seed membrane: membrane is fleshy and its colour varies from a yellowish white to light brown. Mature fruits
have a membrane that is usually thin and its colour varies from brown to dark brown
Harvesting: • Start: Harvesting starts 4 years after planting for grafted trees. Handle fruit carefully; any
scratches on the fruit are entry points for post-harvest diseases
• Picking While the fruit is on the tree, it remains hard, it becomes soft and edible only after
picking. Mature fruit ripens evenly. The edible part acquires a smooth, buttery texture
and the peel shows no sign of shriveling. Immature fruit that is picked too early will not
ripen properly and the skin will eventually become shriveled
Storage: The correct storage temperature after harvest will vary with the cultivar. Sensitive types should not be stored at
less than 13°C; tolerant ones can be stored at as low as 4.4°C. Storage temperatures for Hass and Fuerte have
been experimentally determined at 7.2°C. Chilling injury will be seen as a greyish brown discolouration in the
flesh and scalding and pitting of the skin. Failure to soften properly after removal from storage is also a
symptom. Regardless of storage temperatures, a relative humidity of 85-90% should be maintained in the
cooler

48 – Module 3
 Module 3: Agronomic aspects of irrigated crop production

Expected yield: Yields may vary from 4 to 11 t/ha per year, depending mainly upon the age of the avocado tree
Diseases: • Phytophthora Use root rot tolerant rootstocks, like Duke 7, G.22 and G.755
root rot:
• Sun Blotch virus: Transmitted through infected seed
Symptoms: Stunted growth, yellow depressed areas at the stem end of fruit
Control: Difficult to control besides uprooting the tree. Plant clean material
• Anthracnose: Caused by the fungus Colletoricum gloesporioides. Is particularly severe on Fuerte and
often causes losses as high as 70% during wet seasons
Symptoms: Infection occurs from fruit set to maturity during the rainy periods in summer.
After infection, the fungus remains latent in the skin and symptoms usually develop as
brown to black lesions at maturity. The fungus can progress into the flesh of the avocado
fruit, producing a greenish-black decay, which eventually may involve a large portion of
the fruit
Control:
• Post-harvest Resulting from latent or quiescent infections of fruits in the orchard. Common,
Diplodia stem-end especially in humid growing areas
rot (Diplodia Symptoms: After harvest, the fungus colonizes first the stem and then the flesh near the
natalensis): stem. Infection of the fruit stem occurs when temperature and moisture are favourable
during fruit development. Temperature management is important in delaying the
development of rot. Diplodia rot does not develop below 6°C
Control: A post-harvest dip of Thiabendezole largely eliminates Diplodia rot

8.3. Banana
Scientific name: Musa cavendish
Family: Musaceae
Cultivars: Giant Williams, Dwarf Cavendish
Soil: Deep soils, at least 1 m. Sandy loam soils are the best, but bananas can grow on a wide range of well-drained
soils. The pH should be 5.5-6.5. The soil should be free from nematodes
Climate: The banana has a high heat and water requirement. The best temperature range is between 20 and 30°C, with
evenly distributed irrigation or rainfall. It is very sensitive to frost attack. Cold weather negatively affects the
bunch development
Planting material: Bananas are very sensitive to frost. The sword suckers are the best planting material, they must be as uniform
as possible. Remove all roots before planting. Select planting suckers from a healthy orchard. In altitudes less
than 1000 m above sea level, select suckers of Dwarf Cavendish and plant between July and November. The
bunches will emerge between February and April and are harvested in July-October. Suckers selected between
December and March produce bunches of poor quality
Tree spacing: 2.4 m x 2.7 m or 4.0 x 2.0 m
Cultural practices: • Weeds: Keep plantation free of weeds and avoid deep weeding, which damages the shallow root
system
• Desuckering: Growth of suckers is greatest in August to April and low during winter. This is the period
to select the suckers, which must be sword suckers (young suckers on which the first
narrow leaves have begun to unfold) since they have a stronger attachment to the
rhizome. Water suckers, which are small suckers growing around the main shoot, are
unsuitable for followers and should be removed
• Propping: Wind, old age and poor sucker selection may result in falling. Use single wooden stakes
and prop against the throat of the plant. Williams is very prone to wind damage due to
its height and heavy bunch weight.
• Trimming of leaves Removal of dead leaves helps to reduce diseases. Trimming is best done in April and
and bunches: August. Avoid winter trimming. Withered floral remnants at the end of the banana fingers
are removed, which improves appearance and reduces spread of the cigar-end rot
infection. The bell is removed to increase average finger weight
• Bunch covers: Blue polythene bunch covers, open on both sides. Loosely tied above the first hand of
the bunch and hanging about 15 cm below the lowest hand, they protect the fruit from
hail damage. To control pests, spray the bunches before covering. Apply bunch covers
at the onset of the rains and remove them three weeks from maturity
• Windbreaks: In areas where wind is a problem, windbreaks will minimize losses due to wind damage
and leaf tearing. Use wind breaks available within your area
Crop duration: About 5 years

Module 3 – 49
Irrigation manual

Fertilizers: Manure: 10-20 tons/ha before planting

Nitrogen: 400-700 kg/ha of AN, add as a top dressing in four equal amounts in January, March, September and
November
Potassium: 250-750 kg/ha of Muriate of Potash, apply at the same time as AN
Phosphate: 200-350 kg/ha of SSP, apply and incorporate before establishment. Apply again at 150-300 kg/ha
each year in August and September
Lime: Apply 0.5-2 tons/ha of lime when the pH is below 5.5. pH range should be 5.5-6.5
Harvesting: Bunches are harvested when the fruit is about three-quarters full and the fruit starts to change colour from green
to yellow. Packing bunches in boxes padded with a thick layer of foam rubber minimizes bruising
Expected yield: 50 tons/ha per year
Pests: • Burrowing Symptoms: Causes toppling disease that destroys the plant roots, resulting in plants
nematode falling over.
(Radopholus Control: Fenamiphos, a systemic nematicide, controls the burrowing nematode. Apply
similis): soon after outbreak. Practice rotations as well.
Diseases: • Cigar-end rot: This fungal disease is caused by Verticillium theobromae.
Symptoms: The rotted portion of the banana finger is dry and tends to adhere to fruits.
Appears similar to the ash of a cigar
Control: Remove the pistil and perianth parts of the flower 8-11 days after bunch emergence

8.4. Citrus spp.

Scientific name: Citrus spp.
• Sweet orange: Citrus sinensis
• Lemon: Citrus limon
• Grapefruit: Citrus paradisi
• Naartje/Mandarin: Citrus reticulata
Family: Rutaceae
Cultivars: Tables 18, 19 and 20 summarize the cultivars, rootstocks, most suitable advised spacing, as well as the
maturity dates for high, middle and low altitude areas of southern Africa, with the examples taken from the
Zimbabwe experience

Table 18
Cultivar, selection, commercial rootstocks, spacing and maturity dates for citrus in the high
altitude areas (Source: Barrie, 1996)

Cultivar Selection Rootstock Spacing (m) Maturity dates

Navels Palmer R CC,TC 6.0 x 2.5 Mid-May - Mid-June
Bahianinha R CC,TC 6.0 x 2.5 Late June - Mid-July
Royal Late R CC,TC 6.0 x 2.5
Valencia Mid knight P CC,TC, SC 6.0 x 2.5 Mid-August - Late September
Delta P CC,TC, SC 6.5 x 2.75 Mid-July - Mid-August
Easy Peelers Nules R CC,TC 5.5 x 2.5 Mid-April - Late May
Nova CC,TC 5.5 x 2.5 Early April - Early May
Thoro Temple CC,TC 5.5 x 2.5 June
Lemons Eureka R RL 6.5 x 2.75 March - April, June
Lisbon R RL,TC, SC 6.5 x 2.75 April - May

Table 19
Cultivar, selection, commercial rootstock, spacing and maturity dates for citrus in the middle
altitude areas (Source: Barrie, 1996)

Cultivar Selection Rootstock Spacing (m) Maturity dates

Navels Palmer R TC 6.5 x 3.0 Late April - Mid-May
Bahianinha R CC,TC 6.0 x 2.5 Early May - Early June
Royal Late R CC,TC, SC 6.0 x 2.5 Mid-June - Late July
Valencia Mid knight P CC,TC, SC 6.0 x 2.5 Mid-August - Late September
Delta P CC,TC, SC 6.5 x 2.75 Mid-July - Mid-August
Late R TC, CC, SC, RL 6.5 x 3.0 Late August
Lemons Eureka R RL 6.5 x 3.0 March - June
Lisbon R RL,TC, SC 6.5 x 3.0 April - May

50 – Module 3
 Module 3: Agronomic aspects of irrigated crop production

Table 20
Cultivar, selection, commercial rootstock, spacing and maturity dates for citrus in the low
altitude areas (Source: Barrie, 1996)

Cultivar Selection Rootstock Spacing (m) Maturity dates

Valencia Delta P CC,TC, SC 7.0 x 3.0 Mid-July
Late R CC,TC, SC, RL 7.0 x 3.0 August
DuRoi P CC,TC, SC, RL 7.0 x 3.0 August
Grapefruit Marsh P CC,TC, SC 7.0 x 3.0 Late April - May
Star Ruby P CC,TC, SC 6.5 x 2.5 Late April - May
Midseason Tomango M CC,TC 7.0 x 3.0 Late May - June
Lemons Eureka R RL 7.0 x 3.5 March - June
Lisbon R RL,TC, SC 7.0 x 3.5 April - May
Note on abbreviations:
Selection: R = Recommended; P = Potential; M = Marginal
Rootstock: CC = Carrizo Citrange; TC = Troyer Citrange; RL = Rough Lemon; SC = Swingle Citrumelo

Always buy citrus plants from a reputable nursery, which supply clean disease-free plants
Soil: Deep and well-drained soils are best suitable for citrus production. pH 5.5-6.0. The best soils are sandy to
sandy loams. In case of heavy soil, plant the tress on ridges
Climate: The climate interacts with the fruit quality in a number of ways. Some areas are more suitable to navel oranges
than grapefruits. Different areas are more suited to some selections of citrus than others. In Zimbabwe, citrus
can be grown in Lowveld, Middleveld and Highveld areas. Where winds are strong, use windbreaks
Planting Time: August to November

Young trees
Fertilization: For the first 3 years apply 16 grams of AN per tree after every 3 weeks. During the active growing months of
August to March apply 30 grams per tree every 2 weeks. During the active growing period apply a foliar
application every 4-6 weeks of 150 g Urea, 20 g Zinc Oxide, 20 g Copper oxy chloride, 15 g Solubor (Boron)
in 15 litres of water as a mixture or cocktail
Mulching: Mulching is advisable to avoid young trees drying out. Use organic materials like maize stover, keep away from
contact with the stem and watch for ants
Sucker control: Remove all suckers below the graft union every week while they are still soft. Avoid doing so when they get
tough, since removing them then may damage the bark
Pests: • Orange dog: Symptoms: Caterpillars that eat the foliage
Control: By hand or spray Dipel or Biobit, or Carvaryl, at 20g/10 litres of water
• Thrips: Symptoms: Tiny insects that feed on new flush, resulting in distortion of the leaf
Control: They are controlled biologically by predatory mites. Careless application of
chemicals will affect this. Spray a cover spray on leaves and fruits, at 20 g/10 litres of
water. Adding sugar is essential because Tartar Emetic is a stomach poison. Use about
3 sprays per season October, November and December
• Psylla: Symptoms: Transmits Greening Disease and results in leaf deformation and eventual
tree death. Psylla feeds only on the new flush, which in bearing trees usually occurs 3
times per year
Control: Scouting must be carried out thoroughly, treat when Pyslla is detected. Apply
Endosulfan WP at the rate recommended on the label. Stem treatment with Azodrin or
Citrimet will also control Psylla
• Aphids: Symptoms: Presence of ants and curled leaves at growing tips with aphids
Control: Apply Pirimor, at 4 g/10 litres of water, when the insects are first seen
• Budmite: Can distort young growth
Symptoms: Distorted growth at young age
Control: Spray Tedion/Tetradifon on the leaves, at 20 ml/10 litres of water, when 20% of
leaves are infested, or spray Neoron on the fruit, at 3 ml/10 litres in March
• Ants/termites: Control: In young orchards control with Chlorasol, at 400 ml/10 litres of water, or treat ant
nests with 5 g Malathion 25% WP per hole, when they have been seen

Module 3 – 51
Irrigation manual

• Red Scale: Symptoms: Small scale like insects that live on the stem twigs and leaf midribs on trees
of all ages
Control: Spray mineral oil, keep the spray-mix well agitated all the time. Apply 3 sprays
per year when crawlers have been observed
Diseases: • Phytophthora: Nursery trees should be free from this disease
Control: Control every 6 weeks during periods when growth is very active with Aliette
stem paint as a preventative treatment

Bearing trees
Fertilization: Guidelines for bearing trees are given in Table 21 below.

Table 21
Fertilization guidelines for bearing trees in the absence of leaf and soil analysis, in grams/tree
(Source: Dodhill Nursery, undated)

Tree age Ammonium Single Super Muriate of Agricultural

(Years) Nitrate (a) Phosphate (b) Potash (c) Lime (d)
4 400 200 150 200
5 500 300 200 400
6 600 400 250 800
7 800 600 400 1200
8 1000 800 600 1400
9 1200 1000 800 1600
10 1400 1200 1000 1800
>10 1500 1500 1200 2000
Notes:
(a) Split Ammonium Nitrate (AN) into 4 equal dressings from last week of July to last week of August
(b) 1 application in August
(c) Split Muriate of Potash (MOP) into 2 equal dressings mid September and end September
(d) 1 application in November

Harvesting: • Picking: Fruit maturity is determined by the colour and by the acid content versus Total Soluble
Solids (TSS) ratio. The citric acid and TSS (sugars) give the fruit its characteristic flavour.
In general, if acids are low and sugars too high the fruit is insipid. If it is the other way
round, the fruit is sour. Each type of fruit has a range of acceptable ratios that will
indicate internal fruit maturity. Colour standards for different varieties exist and are used
commercially. In general, fruit colour and internal maturity occur at the same time. When
the fruit is mature, withhold water to harden the fruit against picking injuries such as
Oleocellosis. Avoid picking fruits when they are still wet from dew. Pickers should cut
their fingernails short and pick fruit with their palms not finger to avoid injuries to the rind
• Packing: Fruit should be packed in small containers to minimize damage. Rough handling of fruit
at this stage can affect quality and prices. Pack fruits into cartons for export after fruit
has been washed, de-scaled, heat treated, waxed, polished, graded and sized
Storage: Store the fruits under shed and cool conditions, preferably in ventilated plastic pockets
Marketing: The quality of the fruit will determine the prices it will fetch on the market and which market will buy it. Fruit
quality is composed of: fruit size, fruit colour, rind blemishes, rind thickness, juice percentage, acid versus TSS
ratio and fruit toughness. A grower who produces high quality fruit standards will have the flexibility to sell the
crop to all potential markets
Pests: • Red Scale: Red Scale is one of the most important pests of Citrus
Symptoms: Heavy infestations of Red Scale can cause fruit drop, leaf drop, die back of
twigs, resulting in the eventual death of the tree
Control: For trees less than 3 years of age, control by use of mineral oil sprays applied
at a concentration of 1.25%. Keep agitating the mixture and avoid spraying when
temperatures are above 30°C. Apply after scouting when crawlers are observed
• Ants: Control: Paint the stem regularly with Chlodasol, at 400 ml/10 litres of water, or treat ant
nests with 5 g Malathion 25% WP per hole. Once trees are 3 years old, an ant-band
should be fitted. Ant bands comprise 3 layers. The first layer is a strip of rough-woven
fibrous material of about 10 cm wide. This should be wrapped one and half times round
the tree. On top of this, apply 2 layers of 8 cm wide plastic. This should not touch the
tree to avoid water being trapped underneath it. On top of the plastic, put a thin layer of

52 – Module 3
 Module 3: Agronomic aspects of irrigated crop production

ant-bar, a sticky material 25 mm wide with a flat-ended stick. This traps ants and stops
them from going up into the tree canopy. Inspect the ant-bar once a month
• Thrips: Symptoms: Cause serious blemish to the rind of the fruit, thus downgrading the fruit.
They also feed on young flush and cause severe distortion of the leaves, reducing yields
Control: Apply Tartar Emetic (Tratox or Thritox) together with sugar as a coarse spray
over the leaves and fruit, at 20 g/10 litres of water + 20 g sugar/10 litres of water. 3
sprays per season will be required
• Mites on fruit: Rust mites, flat mites
Symptoms: Small scale-like insects that live on the stem twigs and leaf midribs on trees
of all ages
Control: They should be controlled when 10% of the leaves are infested. Use Torque at
the rate recommended on the label
• Mites on leaf: Lowveld mites, Red mites, Bud mites. Lowveld mites and Red mites occur in winter
Symptoms: Distorted leaves and fruits
Control: Apply Tedion/Tetradifon, at 20 ml/10 litres of water, when 20% of the leaves are
infested. Bud mites can be controlled by Neoron, at 3 ml/10 litres water in March
• Grey mite: Attacks leaves and fruits
Symptoms: Distorted leaves and fruits
Control: Use Torque at the rate recommended on the label, when 10% of the leaves are
infested
• Psylla: Transmits a major citrus disease, called Citrus Greening, which may eventually cause
death of the tree. Psylla feeds on new flush, which in bearing trees usually occurs 3
times per year
Symptoms: Distorted leaves
Control: After scouting, apply a foliar spray of Endosulfan WP at the rate recommended
on the label
• Aphids: Symptoms: Transmit Tristeza virus to Grapefruit, causing tree decline and death. High
aphid infestation causes leaf distortion
Control: Apply Pirimor, at 4 g/10 litres of water
• Mearly bug/ These pests are well controlled biologically. Chemical control is often costly and
soft scale: ineffective. Concentrate on ant control
• Fruit fly / False Symptoms: These pests attack the ripening fruit. The stings act as entry points for
Codling moth: infection, causing the fruit to go rotten and drop
Control: The major part of control is sanitation. Collect once a week all stung, rotten and
dropped fruit and bury it 1 m deep. From March, trees should be baited weekly as an
additional measure for fruit fly control. About 200 ml of a solution of Malathion 25% WP
+ sugar, 30g + 800 g/10 litres of water, or Protein Hydrolysate, at 40 g/10 litres of water,
should be applied as a course spray to the top of every tree in every second row. The
next week the trees that were not baited should be baited and so on

8.5. Grape
Scientific name: Vitis vinifera, Vitis labrusca
Family: Vitaceae
Cultivars: Cultivars are given in Table 22 below.

Table 22
List of table grape cultivars (Source: Parsons, undated)

Cultivars Time of ripening Vigour Yield potential Disease resistance

Golden City Nov-Dec Medium Medium Resistant to Anthracnose,
Berry rot, Powdery Mildew
Seneca Nov-Dec Strong Heavy Fairly susceptible to diseases
Sultana Jan-Mar Strong Medium
Black Pirobella Nov-Dec Medium High Fairly resistant to Anthracnose
and Powdery Mildew
Muska Nov-Dec Medium Good Fairly resistant to Anthracnose
Giant Isabella Jan-Feb Vigorous Good Resistant

Module 3 – 53
Irrigation manual

Soil: Soils must be well-drained, with a pH of around 5.5

Climate: Summer rainfall areas do not provide ideal conditions for the production of grapes, due to higher prevalence of
diseases, and reduction in heat and temperature due to overcast weather conditions. During periods when rains
are delayed in December, high sugar content grapes may be harvested. The best conditions for the production
of grapes are in areas where winters are cold and summers hot and dry with long sunny days. In Zimbabwe,
as an example where longest days are shorter than those in many countries, it is not easy to grow grapes with
high sugar content and good quality because of the short days and summer rains
Land preparation: The land should be deeply ploughed and all weeds should be removed. Dig square holes of 60 cm x 60 cm and
1 m deep. Place the topsoil and sub-soils separately. Add 500 g of SSP and well-decomposed manure or
compost. Mix with the topsoil before filling, using topsoil first
Tree spacing: 3 m to 3.25 m between the rows and 1.5 m within the row
Planting trees: In summer rainfall areas, site rows so that the prevailing wind blows along them. This reduces the spread of
diseases. Vines should be planted to the same depth as the nursery with the bud/graft union above ground after
root trimming. Firm the soil after planting and apply some water as soon as possible. The plant population will
be about 2 100-2 200 at a spacing of 3 m x 1.5 m
Trellising: In areas where it rains in summer, it is important to trellis grapevines for the following reasons:
• Robust support is provided to the vines and wind damage will be reduced
• Air circulation is improved and the vines are able to dry out readily following rain, which reduces disease incidence.
• Cultural operations like weeding, irrigation, pruning and harvesting are made easier
The disadvantages of trellising are the direct cost and labour involved in tying the wires and the vines to the
trellis
• Fence trellis Supporting poles are spaced 7-10 m apart, with intermediate supports at 2 m intervals.
system: Three wires are secured to the supports, the lowest being 1 m above ground level, the
second about 25-30 cm above the first and the third the same distance above the second
(Figure 15). Vines are trained to the low wire and upper wire(s) used for support. Some
bunches will be hidden, while others may be exposed to sun scorch and aeration is not very
good. This is the cheapest form of trellising but can result in poor spray penetration

Figure 15
Fence trellis system for grapes (Source: Parsons, undated)
1.00 m

Figure 16
Perold trellis system for grapes (Source: Parsons, undated)

54 – Module 3
 Module 3: Agronomic aspects of irrigated crop production

Figure 17
Slanting trellis system for grapes (Source: Parsons, undated)

• Perold and duplex A horizontal crosspiece of about 6 cm long is attached at its centre to the top of an
trellis system: upright 1.3 m above ground level and at right-angles to the direction of the row. Two
wires are attached to the crosspiece, one at each end. A third wire is attached to the
upright, 30 cm below the crosspiece (Figure 16). Vines are trained up to the low wire and
the upper wires are to support the shoots. This system gives some protection against
wind, allows a greater leaf surface to be exposed to sunlight, and protects fruits from
sunburn. The system is best suitable for machine harvesting of grapes
• Slanting trellis The trellis is constructed as in Figure 17 below. If treated, gum-poles are used. They
system: should be 12 cm in diameter for the end posts and 8-10 cm for the line posts and
crosspieces. When attaching the wires, the lowest should be positioned and tightened
first in one direction, then the highest wire in the opposite direction to give maximum
tautness and preventing twisting of the framework.This is the system most commonly
used on table grapes. It allows for a large leaf area to be exposed to sunlight, while
providing good protection from sun scorch to bunches of grapes. This system allows light
to penetrate to bunches enhancing fruit colouring. The bunches hang free, making
thinning or picking easier. Disease control is good, as air circulation is plentiful and the
spray cover effective. The sloping crosspiece of the trellis does not impede the
movement of machinery between rows
• Overhead trellis This consists of a horizontal system of wires, about 2 m from the ground and
system: supported on poles. The vines are trained up to the overhead wires enabling the
bunches to hang freely.
Fertilizers: The fertilizer application programme is as shown in Table 23 below.

Table 23
Grapes fertilizer application programme (Source: Parsons, undated)

Period of application Fertilizer application per vine (grams) *

AN SSP MOP
1. At planting, to each hole 500 30
2. For young vines 15
Monthly top-dressing, August to March 15
In July apply 15 30 30
3. For bearing vines: Three year old trees:
In July apply 50 90 45
Six weeks after bud burst 50
Post-harvest 25 90 45
4. Increase annually until maximum is reached at seven
years, which is:
In July apply 150 150 90
Six weeks after bud burst 150
Post-harvest 75 150 90
* AN = Ammonium Nitrate; SSP = Single Super Phosphate; MOP = Muriate of Potash

Module 3 – 55
Irrigation manual

• Correction of trace- Zinc:

element deficiency: For best results pruning cuts should be soaked with a solution of 500 g Zinc Sulphate in 5
litres of water. Apply a foliar spray two or three weeks before blossoming containing: 50-
100 g Zinc Sulphate plus 25-50 g slaked lime plus a wetter dissolved in 10 litres of water
Boron:
Solubor can be sprayed at 1 kilogram in 500 litres water, 4-6 weeks after bud burst, or
apply fertilizer borate at the rate of 14-28 g per vine once a year where there is a
deficiency and only every 3-4 years for maintenance applications
Iron:
Apply in the form of chelate organic iron, at 100 g per vine in the soil, or spray, at 10 g/10
litres of water
Manganese:
If manganese deficiency is detected, spray Manganese Sulphate, at 20-25 g/10 litres of
water when shoots are 150-250 mm long. Avoid excess application of Manganese,
otherwise toxicity will occur
Cultural practices: • Weeding: Weeds can be eliminated by ploughing prior to planting, followed by discing between
rows and hand weeding
• Mulching: Grass or straw mulch can be used to control weeds and conserve moisture
• Training: Grapes grown in summer rainfall areas should be trained on trellises in the following
ways (Figure 18.1-18.4):
• After planting in the vineyard, the strongest shoot is cut back to two good buds, above
the graft union for grafted trees (Figure 18.1)
• Stake the strongest branch formed from the buds until it reaches the first horizontal
wire, which is to support the first pair of arms. Remove all other side shoots
• When the tip of the vine reaches the wire, the tip is pinched to encourage the buds below
the pinch to grow out (Figure 18.2). The first two shoots arising below the wire are trained
along the supporting wire in opposite directions, allowing all shoots growing on these
arms (Figure 18.3). It is essential that the two arms should arise from below the wire and
not have to be bent over from above. The arms and shoots that will grow can be pruned
in winter (Figure 18.4)
• When the vines fail to reach the wire in one season or are very weak they should be
cut back to three or four buds and treated as younger vines from then on
• Pruning: Winter is the main pruning time, while the vines are dormant. Figures 18.5 and 18.6
illustrate the general procedures of the pruning operations The reasons for pruning are:
• To control vine growth, so that balance is maintained between vegetative and fruiting
growth. Each vine can nourish and ripen successfully only a certain number of bunches.
The quantity is dependent upon the age and vigour of the vine, the leaf surface area and
the number of fertile buds
• To remove old, diseased or damaged vines
• To establish the shape of the vine wanted for the particular trellising system used and
to enable cultural operations to be carried out without damaging the vine
Maturity: Grapes must be mature when harvested, as they do not continue to ripen after being removed from the vine
and must have an acceptable sugar to acid ratio. In general, the sugar levels increase as the grapes mature
while the proportion of acid decreases. Sweetness varies with different cultivars. The time of harvest is
determined by the change of colour and sugar levels in the berries
Harvesting: Table grapes must be harvested by hand, removing from the bunch any unripe or damaged berries. Careful
packing is important, handling each bunch only by its stem and keep them cool after harvesting
Expected yields: 3rd year after planting: 0.5 kg/vine; 4th year after planting: 1.5 kg/vine; 5th year after planting: 3.5 kg/vine; 6th year
after planting: 7.0 kg/vine. Multiplying these figures with the number of vines per ha (for example 2000 vines/ha)
gives the annual yield per ha. Grape vines should give maximum yields 6-7 years after establishment, provided
management is correct and no major setbacks are met, such as severe hailstorms, severe disease and pest attacks
Pests: • Ants and termites: Ants may be attracted to vines by the exudations from Mealy bugs and by the juice from
damaged berries. Termites may actively damage vines by tunneling both in and
underneath the plants and they often affect wooden trellising supports
Control: Apply Chlordane 30%, at 400 ml/10 litres of water, for both pests to the soil
around the vines
• Beetles: Chafer beetles and snout beetles are leaf-eating insects that cause considerable
damage in a vineyard, usually early in the season. Both types of beetles feed during the
night and return to the soil near the vines during the day
Symptoms: Lacerated leaves with reduced leaf area
Control: When the need arises apply Carbaryl 85%, at 12.5 g/10 litres of water, to the
vines and to the soil around them late in the day. Vine shoots should not be allowed to
touch the ground, as they provide access to plants by the beetles

56 – Module 3
 Module 3: Agronomic aspects of irrigated crop production

Figure 18
Training and pruning of vines in which fruitful buds occur near base of the canes
(Source: Parsons, undated)

1. At planting, cut back to 2. Upon reaching the first wire, 3. Main arms being trained
two good buds pinch out tip of the vine along supporting wire

4. In winter, the main arms are 5. One year later, extension

pruned to 225 mm from stem, growth beyond 450 mm is 6. Showing pruning
cones to two buds removed, new ones are pruned of bearing wood
as in 4, or older ones as in 6

7(a)
7(b) One year later

Diagrams 7(a) and (b) show modification of later pruning for vines in which
only buds twelve or more from base of cones are fruitful

Module 3 – 57
Irrigation manual

• Fruit flies: They are about the size of a house fly and two species which occur are the Natal fruit-fly
(Pterandrus rosa) but are not as common the Mediterranean fruit-fly (Ceratitis capitata)
Symptoms: Eggs are laid in the ripening fruit and the larvae hatch and feed inside the
berries, causing them to rot
Control: Spray or use of a bait, made of Malathion 25% WP + a fly attractant (for
example maize-meal), at 30 g + 60 g/10 litres of water
• Fruit-piercing moth: These migratory moths cause a great deal of damage in some seasons
Symptoms: The damage is done by the adult moths, which generally fly upwind into the
vineyard at night and pierce the ripe fruit, rendering it vulnerable to other pests and
diseases. During the day the moths rest in vegetation beyond the vineyard
Control: When damage is observed, spray at night with a Carbaryl, at 30 g/10 litres of water
• Fruit-sucking moth Damage caused by these moths is only secondary and they are only able to feed from
damaged berries
• Mealy bug Mealy bugs affect leaves and shoots first and bunches later. As ants keep away the
natural predators, their control is important in controlling infestations of Mealy bugs. In
addition, the vines must be sprayed thoroughly when attacks occur with Carbaryl 85%,
at 12 g/10 litres of water, or dust with Carbaryl 15% D, at 200g/100 m2
• Nematodes These are microscopic in size and generally attack the roots
(eelworms) Symptoms: Vine appears unhealthy and on lifting the plant galls (small swellings) may
be found on the roots
Control: Apply Dibromo-Chloro-Propane EC, at 50 ml/10 litres of water, or drench, at 1
litre/m2. Use nematode resistant rootstocks
• Phylloxera: Symptoms: This is an aphid-like insect, which usually attacks the roots of vines but can also
attack the above ground parts
Control: No chemical is registered for the control of this pest on vines. Use resistant
rootstocks and rigid phytosanitary regulations with regard to the importation of grapevines
• Scale: Scale pests are sometimes found on vines. These are small sedentary insects when adult,
having a protective covering. The normal winter-spray programme should help with control
• Thrips: Symptoms: Attack the flowers and young fruits early in the season. They are
troublesome on table grapes because the berry skins are disfigured by the corky lesions,
which result from feeding by the insects
Control: Preventive control measures must be applied early in the growing season: spray
Malathion 25% WP, at 10 g/10 litres of water
Diseases: • Anthracnose Symptoms: This fungus causes irregularly-shaped lesions on the leaves, stems and
(Elsinoe ampelina): berries. The lesions on the leaves are small at first but enlarge and have brown margins with
grey centres, which drop out in time. On the stems, the lesions become elongated and
young growth is distorted. On the berries, the spots are circular with purplish borders
Control: Spray Copper Oxychloride, at 50 g/10 litres of water, or Captan, at 10 g/10 litres
of water. To be applied early in the growing season until main rains. Burn all infected
pruned material
• Downy Mildew Symptoms: Appearance of pale-yellow, oily-looking spots on the upper surface of the vine
(Plasmopara leaf. Leaves in the center of
viticola): the plant affected first. White Figure 19
fungal growth develops on Downy Mildew on a grape leaf
the underside of the leaf, at (Source: Levèthe et al., undated)
times the whole leaf may be
affected. These turn brown
and defoliation may occur.
Flowers and young berries
may become infected and
covered with a downy growth,
which may lead to distortion
or even death of the clusters.
The disease develops during
wet weather conditions and
may be stimulated by
overhead irrigation
Control: Spray Mancozeb
80%, at 20 g/10 litres of
water, or Metiram 80 WP, at
20 g/10 litres of water, from
the onset of the main rains

58 – Module 3
 Module 3: Agronomic aspects of irrigated crop production

• Powdery Mildew This fungus affects green parts of the vine as well as the flowers and berries
(Uncinula necator): Symptoms: A white powdery appearance initially in spots that spread later. When the
powdery growth is wiped off, the area underneath is seen to be brown. Growth is poor
and die-back may occur. Flowers that are attacked may wither and die without setting
fruit. Immature berries are susceptible and may show retarded growth and splitting. High
temperatures encourage the disease
Control: Spray the same chemicals that control Anthracnose
• Die-back: Caused by Botryosphaeria vitis and Botryosphaeria ribis. These fungi are responsible for
most of the die-back, which occurs in vines
Symptoms: Cankers develop on the bark, which blackens and cracks to reveal small
black lumps embedded in the wood. The leaves wilt and die when the canker girdles the
stem
Control: Prune and remove the source of infection by burning all prunings and dead
leaves
• Dead arm Not a common disease but when it occurs it causes the death of a whole arm or branch
(Fusicoccum of the infected vine
viticolum): Symptoms: Red-brown spots develop on the green shoots, petioles and leaves, while on
the canes they are deep, continuous and may causes canes to crack. Death of the
branch occurs during winter and is noticed in spring when it fails to produce leaves.
During prolonged wet weather, infection can occur through wounds
Control: Irrigate by furrow or risers, in order to keep foliage and branches dry. Spray
Copper Oxychloride, at 10 g/10 litres of water. Early pruning with burning of the prunings
is advised
• Root rots: Fungi that cause root-rot may attack grapevines and certain rootstocks are more
susceptible than others are. There is no chemical control in vines, but precautions can
be taken to prevent infection. These are: avoid planting in infected soil or in shallow,
poorly-drained areas, avoid over irrigating and planting weak vines
• Fruit rots: Botrytis cinerea and Rhizopus sp. may attack ripening bunches, but neither is prevalent
under conditions in Zimbabwe. Much more common is a physiological condition called
Water Berry that
causes shrinking Figure 20
and browning of
Fruit rot (Rhizopus sp.) on grapes (Source: Levèthe et
fruits. Botrytis
al., undated)
may be controlled
by application of
Benomyl (see
label for recom-
mended rate) at
the early bloom
stage and again 3
or 4 weeks before
harvest

• Virus diseases: Several viruses attack grapevines. Infected vines should be burnt and infected soil
fumigated before re-planting. All propagating material should be virus free
• Bacterial diseases: Crown Gall, caused by Agrobacterium tumefaciens, is the main bacterial disease known
to affect grapevines. Avoid infecting vines by pruning tools and cultivating equipment.
Bacterial Blight is known to occur at times. It causes cancerous lesions of buds and
wood. If it occurs, infected vines should be cut back and copper sprays used to protect
health vines
Physiological • Caused by climatic Hail damage is seen as shattered leaves and defoliation, pitted berries (many of which
Disorders: factors: drop), cracks and pits in stems and often broken shoots. The damage affects not only
that season’s crop, but also that in the following year owing to the damaged wood and
reduced leaf surface that reduces food reserves and fruit bud formation. If hail strikes
early in the season, damaged shoots can be pruned to spurs, allowing the growth of new
shoots in that season for the following season’s crop
Moisture stress at flowering and in the following four weeks, especially when associated
with high temperatures, may cause poor fruit set and berries drop
Lighting and late frost can at times cause damage to vines

Module 3 – 59
Irrigation manual

• Caused by Zinc deficiency can cause seedless berries and poorly formed clusters (see under
nutritional and ‘fertilizers’ how to correct)
soil factors: Boron deficiency may prevent normal pollen development, with resultant poor fruit set
(see under ‘fertilizers’ how to correct). Inadequate watering may cause high salinity in
the soil, which means high total concentration of salts. Symptoms may include poor
yields, stunted vines and leaves browning from the edges. To correct this problem, it is
necessary to leach the salts from the soil by heavy watering, provided the soil is well-
drained and the water is of very low salt content

8.6. Mango
Scientific name: Mangifera indica
Family: Anacardiaceae
Cultivars: • Tommy Aktins: High-quality fruit and excellent scarlet red colour. Suitable for growing in most mango
growing areas. Fruits weigh up to 450 g. Harvesting period mid-December to end
January
• Zill: Colour is scarlet to dark red when mature, excellent internal quality and a long shelf life.
The fruit tends to ripen prematurely around the seed. The flesh becomes watery, soft and
yellowish around the seed before fruit ripens fully on the outside. Pick at the mature
green stage to reduce the problem. The cultivar is resistant to bacterial black spot
infection. The fruit weight is about 350g. Harvesting period early December to early
January
• Fascell: Produces fruit that is scarlet to dark red. It is a medium-sized fruit, good internal quality.
Good and regular fruit bearer. Cultivar is resistant to black spot. Harvesting period mid-
December to end of January
• Van Dyke: Good cropping cultivar with excellent external colour and flesh quality. Medium-sized
fruit and is produced in mid-season
• Sensation: Produces beautiful coloured 250 g oval fruit of excellent quality, but which does tend to
ripen unevenly on trees prone to biennial bearing. Sensation is very resistant to bacterial
black spot. Cropping season is from the end of January to mid-March
• Kent: A late cultivar with greenish-yellow fruit colour with a dark overall blash, excellent flesh
quality, and a heavy regular bearing. Can be recommended only for warm areas where
the season is long enough for the fruit to mature. It is very susceptible to bacterial black
spot, and is harvested early March to end of April
• Keitt: Produces a large plump fruit, which ripens late. If grown under suitable climatic
conditions, which include a warm late summer, it produces fruit of excellent external and
internal quality. The fruit weighs 900 g and the cropping season is from early March to
end of April. However, based on its performance in Chiredzi Research Station, “Keitt” is
not recommended in Zimbabwe
Soil: Light, friable soils. Depth of 75 cm. Good drainage. Mangos are sensitive to acid soils
Climate: Select one of the above cultivars that suits the climate. Grow early, mid-season and late cultivars in the low
altitude areas with warm temperatures and low rainfall. Production period from early December to mid-April.
Avoid late cultivars in the high altitude areas where temperatures get cool from March to July
Production areas: Frost-free with high temperatures from early August to April
Fruit colour and For the best on the market, be it local or for export, the mango should be free of fibre, of attractive
quality: colour and good flavor and should without the turpentine taste
Production period: Spreading the production period by using a range of cultivars from mid-November to April is an advantage. This
should influence the selection of the cultivar.
Orchard • Site selection: Select a warm lying, frost-free area where irrigation is possible. Plant the orchard on a
establishment: warm northern-facing side to avoid frost. In high altitude areas, young plants can be
protected from frost by sheltering them with grass. Avoid mulching the trees, since mulch
attracts frost. Soils should be loose and friable sandy loams with a minimum depth of 75
cm. Avoid heavy soils
• Land preparation: The land must be well prepared, ripped to a depth of 60 cm and levelled. If the slope is
more than 2%, soil conservation measures are necessary. Windbreaks are not
recommended, there must be free flow of air
• Tree spacing: Since mango trees bear fruit on the outside, they require a free space of 1.2 m all round,
otherwise fruiting is greatly inhibited. It is preferable, therefore, to space mango trees too
widely rather than too closely. The recommended space when the trees are 12 years old
should be 10.5 m x 10.5 m. The cultivar ‘Tommy Atkins’ can be spaced at 7 m x 7 m to

60 – Module 3
 Module 3: Agronomic aspects of irrigated crop production

8 m x 8 m eventually. Such a wide space, however, wastes land during the first 12 years.
Since mango trees bear early, the grower should consider double or quadruple density
planting even if he has plenty of land available. The main initial cost to the farmer will be
the cost of the trees. Once the farmer has enough trees to supply bud wood, he/she can
propagate her/his own trees. After about 12 years, the removal of the filler trees will be
necessary. If the farmer decides to only double density plant along the rows, he/she can
interplant with three rows of papaya, which have a life of 4 years
• Orchard layout: If the land is fairly level, the grower can plant on the square system. This is done by
marking out the base line and at the same time putting a peg for each plant position. The
rows are then set out at right angles to the baseline
• Planting the trees: Each hole is dug in the exact position where the marking peg was. The size of the hole
should be about 75 cm x 75 cm on top and of sufficient depth to allow the tree to be
planted at soil level. The soil to be put back into the hole should be mixed with ½ kg
Single Super Phosphate. The plant (still in the plastic container) is placed in the hole and
raised, if necessary, by putting soil underneath to about 5 cm above the surrounding
ground level to allow for settling. The plastic container is carefully removed and the hole
is filled with soil. The best planting period is in October, which allows the trees to be well
established during the coming rainy season
• Care of young To encourage rapid growth, for the first 3 years young mango trees are given more
trees: nitrogen in proportion to their size than bearing trees. The nitrogen should be split into 4
applications during the growing season and applied in a circle 0.5 m away from the vase
of the stem the first year and afterwards in a circle around the drip area. Regular
irrigation should be given year round and the ground should be kept clean from weed
growth well outside the drip area. When the trees are 3 years old they are treated as
mature trees
• Care of mature Although most of the mango tree roots are in the first 60 cm of soil, several strong roots
trees: will penetrate more than 4 m deep, which accounts for the drought resistance of the
trees. Clean cultivation over the root spread should be shallow and regular. Paraquat
herbicide can be used to keep the root area of young trees free from weeds. Mature
trees give a dense shade underneath and to a large extent this suppresses weed growth.
Soil absorbs heat during the day and releases it to the atmosphere during the night.
Mulching the root area of mangoes restricts the release of heat from the soil and may
result in frost and damage to the trees
Fertilizers: Mangoes grow best in soils with pH values of 6.0-7.2. At lower or higher pH values, plants may suffer from trace
element deficiencies
Phosphate: The available phosphate content of the soil should be at least 20 ppm P2O5 (resin extraction
method). No reaction to phosphate application can be expected if the soil contains more than 50 ppm
phosphorus
Potash: The recommended potassium status of the soil for mango cultivation lies somewhere between 80 and
200 ppm
Application: 220 g of AN and 220 g of SSP per tree per year of age, up to a maximum of 5 kg AN per tree per
year for old trees (> 20 years). Under lowveld conditions no Potassium is applied, however leaf analysis must
be done. Where it is necessary to apply potassium, only the sulphate form should be used, as mangoes are
sensitive to the chloride ion
Application time: During the first 3 years the fertilizers are applied in at least 4 split applications throughout the
growing season. From the 4th year onwards, the phosphate is applied in the winter, the potash in September and
the nitrogen in split applications: (i) just before flowering, (ii) immediately after harvest and (iii) after harvesting
Pruning: Young trees: The framework of the young tree is formed so that 3-5 leaders grow from the trunk. Strong
cropping branches are suitably spaced, growing outwards from these leaders. Branches that are too near the
ground are removed. Formative pruning should be done before the shoots get too long, otherwise large
branches must be removed and the trees suffer a setback
Tree size control: Topping the main leaders may control the tree height. The shoots, which develop near the
apex of the topped leaders, must be thinned out. Where trees are touching, cropping will decline. It is better in
this case to thin out trees rather than trim back
Harvesting: The fruit is picked when the outer ground colour development has reached the correct change for the particular
cultivar. When harvesting, the fruit should be clipped from the trees leaving about 1 cm of stalk on the fruit. The
picked fruit is gently placed in crates. The crates of fruit should be kept under shade. It may be necessary to
carry out up to 10 pickings per tree per season
Expected yields: 15-25 tons/ha per year can be expected annually from the 6th year from intensive mango orchards
Storage: Mangoes should be stored at 13°C and 85-90% relative humidity. Although the fruit will keep 2-3 weeks in
storage, the shortest possible storage time should be used to allow for the inevitable storage period during
transit and longer shelf life in the market

Module 3 – 61
Irrigation manual

Pests: • Fruit flies Mangoes are attacked by both the Mediterranean and the Natal fruit flies. The control of
diseases such as bacterial Black Spot, which rapture the skin of the fruit, are of great
importance as the fruit flies are attracted to the infected fruit
Control: Exercise orchard hygiene by removing and burying all decaying fruit. Bait with
Malathion 25% WP + sugar, at 30 g + 800 g/10 litres of water, from the time the fruit
matures until harvesting gives satisfactory control
• Mango weevil: This is now distributed throughout the world where mangoes are grown
Symptoms: The adult female lays her eggs singly on the surface of young fruits and
covers each with a cement-like secretion. The hatched larvae penetrate to the seed of
the fruit when they feed. The development from larva to adult is comparatively long. In
the case of early mango cultivars it is longer than the ripening period of the fruit and in
consequence of minor importance. Where the development of the larva is shorter than
the ripening period of late cultivars, the adult weevil leaves the fruit by tunneling through
the flesh thereby causing damage and secondary infection
Control: Since there is no alternative host, the main source of infection are seeds lying
around, where the weevil can enter and stay during winter. Regular removal of decaying
fruit and seed should be carried out during the season. The fruit and seed should be
buried at least 60 cm deep
• White mango Symptoms: These immobile insects appear as raised white spots on the under and
scale: upper surfaces of leaves, and also sometimes on branches and fruit
Control: Use Folidol (Parathion) 25% WP, at 200 g/litre of water, in winter immediately before
flowering. It is effective, though it is highly toxic. Malathion can be used, but is only effective
on young mobile scales in the ‘crawler’ stage. A light oil spray can also be used in winter
Diseases: • Anthracnose: Caused by fungus Colletotricum geasesporioides
Symptoms: It generally infects the fruit during the critical period from flowering until the fruit
are ¾ size. The most serious aspect of this disease is that the fungus invades the skin of
the young fruit and remains in a latent state until fruit ripening begins, giving rise to black
spots which may coalesce, resulting in extensive rotting. This disease is often referred to as
ripe-rot and is present in most mango-producing countries throughout the world
Control: Use Copper Oxychloride and Copper/Zineb mixture at the same rate as
recommended for bacterial Black Spot. Or use Mancozeb 80% WP or Maneb 80% WP,
at 220g/100 litres of water. First spray should be 3 weeks after petal fall (when the fruit
is about pea or marble size) and a second spray when the fruit is full size. Hot water
treatments have been suggested as a post-harvest control of Anthracnose on mangoes.
The hot water treatment consists of submerging a batch of fruit in water of 52°C for 5
minutes. Improved effectiveness in killing latent infections of both Anthracnose and
Diplodia stem end rot has been reported if a fungicide is included in the water during
heat treatment. Dipping fruits in Benomyl, 500 ppm, or Thiobendazole, 900 ppm, has
been reported effective against latent infections of anthracnose on mangoes
• Bacterial Black This is a severe mango disease. The appearance of Anthracnose is usually delayed until
Spot: maturity, but bacterial Black Spot may be seen on young green fruits and for this reason
is referred to as ‘green rot’. It becomes most active at the onset of the rains, with the
spreading of infection from the old lesion to the healthy fruit. If moist conditions continue,
the disease spreads rapidly, causing severe losses
Symptoms: The main diagnostic symptom of bacterial Black Spot is that the surface lesions
have raised cracks, unlike the smooth surface of Anthracnose lesion. Recommendations on
suitable fruit cultivars must be finally decided on the susceptibility of the cultivars to the two
serious diseases referred to above. The problem becomes complicated because some of
the cultivars that are resistant to Anthrachnose are susceptible to bacterial Black Spot and

Figure 21
Anthracnose on a mango leaf and fruit (Source: University of Florida, 2000)

a. Anthracnose on leaf b. Anthracnose on fruit

62 – Module 3
 Module 3: Agronomic aspects of irrigated crop production

vice-versa. Black Spot is transmitted through the grafting wood and is not transmitted by
seed. To establish bacterial Black-Spot-free orchards, seedlings raised locally can be
grafted onto suitable cultivars with disease-free graftwood
Control: Spray Copper Oxychloride 85% WP, at 300 g/100 litres of water, or a
commercial mixture of 64% Copper Oxychloride WP and 20% Zineb WP, at 400 g/100
litres of water. The first spray should be applied at fruit setting and thereafter every 14
days in moist conditions and every 28 days in dry conditions. A safety period of 14 days
must be observed before harvest. The spray may cause russeting on fibreless cultivars
• Powdery Mildew This affects the flowers, leaves and young fruit. Under a severe attack, the flowers die
(Oidiom and the fruit fails to set
mangiferae): Symptoms: White powdery growth on the flower clusters and undersurface of the young
leaves. Powdery Mildew is particularly destructive when the weather is cool and dry at
flowering
Control: Use Bupirimate 23% EC, at 40 ml/100 litres of water, Chinomethionate 25% WP,
at 25 g/100 litres of water, or Pyrazophos 30% EC, at 40 ml/100 litres of water. Spraying
flowers with Sulphur and Sulphur/Copper Oxychloride powder also controls the disease.
To effectively control this disease without adversely affecting crop size, it is important to
spray as soon after bud break as possible. Dusting the tree flowers with Sulphur or with
the Sulphur/Copper Oxychloride mixture is as effective as the fungicidal sprays. Failing
early effective control, it may be necessary to repeat the treatments several times at 14
day intervals until fruit set
• Flower Symptoms: The disease is characterized by the development of a swollen apical bud,
malformation: which gives rise to a number of flowers with shortened inter-nodes and scale-like leaf
structures forming a compact mass resembling a cauliflower
Control: Remove all infected shoots by pruning them back to healthy wood. The wound
must be sealed and the prunings burned. Badly infected trees must be removed
completely and burned

8.7. Passion fruit (Maracuja, Grenadilla)

Scientific name: Passiflora edulis
Family: Passifloraceae
Cultivars: Purple Granadilla and Yellow Granadilla
Soil: Passion fruit can grow on a wide range of soils, as long as they are well-drained and disease-free
Climate: Passion fruit can be planted year round in frost-free areas. The optimum temperatures for production are
between 20 and 30°C. Growth is poor when temperatures drop to 6°C. Above 32°C vegetative growth is
promoted at the expense of flowering and fruit yield. Older vines are frost tolerant to some extent, but young
vines are very susceptible to frost damage. Temperatures below 20°C reduce pollination. Selecting cooler south
facing slopes in hot areas and warmer north facing slopes in cooler areas will benefit the crop. Wind causes
fruit to be bruised, reducing appearance and quality. Where winds are strong, windbreaks are recommended
Planting time: In cooler areas, plant from September to December
Plant material: Obtain seedlings from a reputable nursery
Transplanting: Transplant when seedlings are 15 cm tall. They must have been hardened off well. Plant during cool weather
and plant to the same depth
Planting method: High density: Intensive system. Low density: Extensive system
Plant population: Intensive system: 16 000-25 000 plants/ha. Extensive system: 5 000-7 000 plants/ha
Crop duration: 12 months from seed or 5-7 months from transplanting
Trellising: A trellis must be constructed strongly to avoid collapse. Rows should be oriented in a north-south direction to
maximize exposure to the sun
• Intensive system: In this system an overhead trellis is used, on which plants form a canopy (Figures 22 and
23). Rows are spaced 4 m apart and the within row spacing is 10 cm to give a plant
population of 25 000 plants/ha. Each vine is trained to the top wire and horizontally in
the direction of the prevailing wind, until it reaches the opposite row. Vines must be
wound loosely around wires to prevent damaging the plants. Remove all suckers
• Extensive system: The crop is grown on a simple vertical system (Figures 24 and 25). Rows are planted 1
m and 2.5 m apart alternately, to facilitate tractor movements. Plants are planted in pairs,
20 cm apart with 2 m separating each pair. Plant population of 5 714 plants/ha. One plant
is trained to the top horizontal wire and along it. The second plant is trained to the low
horizontal wire. Laterals are allowed to grow and hand down. Remove all suckers from
these laterals on a regular basis

Module 3 – 63
Irrigation manual

Figure 22
Passion fruit high-density (intensive system) trellis plan: Plan view (Fresh Produce Producers’
Association, 1999) 4.0 m

1m

4.0 m
10 cm
spacing

Legend

16 Gauge wire
22 Gauge wire
Treated pole - 3 inch butt
Treated pole - 2 inch butt
Untreated ple - 2 inch butt

Figure 23
Passion fruit high-density (intensive system) trellis plan: Side view (Fresh Produce Producers’
Association, 1999)
Treated pole
Treated pole
12 Gauge wire 22 Gauge wire 2nd Butt
2nd 3rd Butt

8 Gauge wire
2m

0.1 m
0.7 m

Ground level
4.0 m

Figure 24
Passion fruit low-density (extensive system) trellis plan: Side view (Fresh Produce Producers’
Association, 1999)
2 inch Gum pole
String
16 gauge wire

8 gauge wire

16 gauge wire
2.0 m

16 gauge wire

4.0 m

2.0 m

64 – Module 3
 Module 3: Agronomic aspects of irrigated crop production

Figure 25
Passion fruit low-density (extensive system) trellis plan: Cross-section (Source: Fresh Produce
Producers’ Association, 1999)

Plant population - 5 714 plants/ha

16 Gauge wire - 1 742 m (275 kg)
8 Gauge wire - 6 000 m (60 kg)
2,7 m x 2” Treated gum poles - 1 429 2.5 m 1m

Cultural • Training: Correct trellising is essential to give sufficient light to colour the fruits, to reduce
practices: insect pests and disease pressure and facilitate management. Irrespective of the system
used, the following should be observed:
The main stem should be wound loosely around wires
Laterals must be untangled to allow them to hang freely
During pruning, the scateurs must be sharp and wounds painted with an inert paint.
Tools should be disinfected when moved from one plant to the other
• Cutting back: Flowers and fruits develop in current season growth, hence pruning is advised to
rejuvenate growth, increase air circulation and light penetration. Pruning should be
carried out in dry weather to reduce diseases, once a year after fruit harvest
Intensive system:
Severe pruning from year one is advised. Remove all the suckers. After harvest cut back
to 30 cm above the ground, 12-16 months after transplanting
Extensive system:
Vines are cut back after harvesting all the fruits from the hanging laterals, 12-14 months
after transplanting. Spray to prevent possible Phytophthora infection. Cut back main
leaders to about 30 cm below their respective wires. Protect against Anthracnose by
painting the cut wounds with a strong fungicide
• Weeding: Hand weeding is advised avoiding damage to the shallow root system. Mechanical weed
control is not encouraged
Fertilizers: Manure: 10-20 tons/ha before planting
Phosphate: 200 kg/ha Single Super Phosphate, apply and incorporate before establishment
Intensive system: Before planting: 150 kg/ha of a compound mixture of N:P:K ratio of 10:20:10
Before flowering: monthly 50 kg/ha of Ammonium Nitrate and 150 kg/ha of Compound J.
After flowering: monthly 100-150 kg/ha of Ammonium Nitrate, 100 kg/ha of Muriate of
Potash (MOP) and 75 kg/ha of Lime
After cutting back: 200 kg/ha Compound J
Extensive system: Before planting: 100 kg/ha of a compound mixture of N:P:K ratio of 10:20:10
Before flowering: monthly 30 kg/ha of Ammonium Nitrate and 75 kg/ha of Compound J
After flowering: monthly 75-100 kg/ha of Ammonium Nitrate, 75 kg/ha of Muriate of
Potash (MOP) and 75 kg/ha of Lime
After cutting back: 150 kg/ha of Compound J
Harvesting: Pick fruits when they are 90-95% coloured, depending on the distance to market. Keep fruit in the shed after
picking. Intensive system yields are 15-30 tons/ha. Extensive system yields are 8-15 tons/ha
Pests: Regular scouting is advised. Avoid spraying when bees and other pollination insects are active
• Fruit fly and Symptoms: These insects lay eggs in the fruit while the fruit is young and developing. A
Pumpkin fly: round depression is formed, with a small hole in the middle. A soft brown area develops
around the spot
Control: Use weekly bait sprays of Malathion 25% WP + sugar, at 30g + 800 g/10 litres
of water
• Nematodes: Common in sandy soils. Affects root development. Preventative control with nematicides
before planting is advised. Biennial drenches in August and February
• Thrips: Symptoms: Their feeding and egg-laying may cause small white blemishes on the fruit.
Common during warm dry September conditions. They cause distorted leaf growth and
enhance flower drop
Control: Apply Thiodan 50 WP, at 10 g/10 litres of water

Module 3 – 65
Irrigation manual

• Tip wilters: These are large black stinkbugs with spiny projections on thorax and legs. Their sap-
sucking activity causes the wilting and dying of shoot tips. Hand collection is the most
effective control
• Green Stink Bugs: Cause damage by piercing young fruit, that later becomes discoloured and not of good
quality. Hand picking is the best method
Diseases: • Damping Off: Caused by a number of pathogens like Pythium and Rhizoctonia
Symptoms: Wilting seedlings, with water-soaked girdling of the stem at or just below soil
surface
Control: Good nursery practices and dressing the seeds with fungicides
• Leaf and Fruit spot: Caused by a number of fungal pathogens, such as Septoria, Alternaria and Cladosporium.
Symptoms: Necrotic, round to angular lesions on both the fruit and the leaves and on
shoots. The disease spreads when conditions are wet and humid. Affected leaves later
die and drop off, while the fruits are downgraded
Control: Good pruning and orchard management is essential to minimize disease
• Powdery Mildew: Causes leaves to become yellow and drop off
Symptoms: White powdery patches on the undersides of the affected leaves
Control: Spray Bavistan, at 5 g/10 litres of water, or wettable Sulphur (read the label for
the recommended rate of application)
• Phytophthora: Causes yellowing of the vines, starting at the tips
Symptoms: Dark water-soaked areas on the stem, which develop to swollen areas. The
swelling becomes corky and dry and the bark gets rough and cracks, resulting in wilting
and death of the plant. It is a common disease in older plantations
Control: Good drainage and use of chemicals like Bravo and Dithane M45, at the rate
recommended on the label
• Bullets disease or Caused by a virus
mosaic woodness: Symptoms: Fruit becomes lumpy, with a thick skin and little pulp
Control: Plant virus-free seedlings and remove and destroy infected vines
• Anthracnose: Occurs where vines have been damaged or cut
Symptoms: The tissue near the wound dies, spreading down the plant and causing its death
Control: Paint cut and damaged areas with a strong fungicidal solution of Dithane M45,
at 30 g in a little water to make a paste

8.8. Peach, plum, apricot and nectarine (stone fruits)

Scientific name: Prunus persica, Prunus domestica, Prunus armenica and Prunus persica
Family: Rosaceae
Cultivars: There are two main types of peach cultivars. Freestone used for fresh eating, with soft flesh that separates
easily from the stone. Clingstone used for canning as well as fresh eating, with firm flesh joining the stone.
There are some semi-freestone peach cultivars as well. Most of the low-chilling peach and apricot cultivars are
self-fertile and do not need pollinator cultivars. A list of some examples of names and characteristics of low
chilling requirement cultivars is given in Table 24 below. It is important to note that new cultivars for stone fruit
are always being released, especially from South Africa.
Soil: The soil should be deep and well-drained with pH 5.0-5.5 (CaCl2) and a high organic matter content, which can
be obtained by the addition of well rotted compost or kraal manure. This, however, will also encourage termites
Climate: Stone fruits originated from cool temperate regions, where they drop their leaves in winter and begin to grow
again when it gets warm in spring. These fruits require a cold winter to grow new leaves, produce flowers and
set fruit. If the winter is not cold enough, the trees will not flower and produce leaves or they flower and produce
new leaves over a long period of time. This will result in poor fruit yields and occasionally the tree dies. In
Zimbabwe, stone fruits can only be grown in the cooler upland areas that get frost in winter. Like pome fruits,
stone fruits have chilling requirements. Peaches need the least cold, followed by nectarines, plums and
apricots. Different stone fruit cultivars have different chilling requirements. Low-chilling requiring cultivars
should be grown in countries like Zimbabwe. They should be planted in the coolest part of the land. South-
facing slopes are cooler than slopes facing other directions. Bottom of slopes and along rivers and streams,
where cold air collects at night, are ideal places for a stone fruit orchard
Orchard • Site selection: Sites that receive the highest chilling, for example the bottom of a slope, are most
establishment: suitable. However these sites should not be susceptible to late frost, since the flowers of
deciduous fruit trees are very sensitive to frost
• Land preparation: Trees, natural bush or old fruit trees, should be ring barked at least two seasons prior to
envisaged planting in order to control Armillaria root rot. These trees should then be
removed including as much root material as possible. If possible, there should be two
seasons with no trees growing in the field

66 – Module 3
 Module 3: Agronomic aspects of irrigated crop production

Table 24
List of stone fruit cultivars (Source: Forestry Commission, 1995)

Stone Fruit Flesh Colour Stone Use

Peach
Babcock White Semi-free Fresh, export
Boland White Semi-free Fresh
Earlibelle White Semi-free Fresh
Safari Yellow Free Fresh
Sunray Yellow Semi-free Fresh
Kakamas Deep yellow Cling Canning
Apricot
Alpha Light yellow Fresh, drying
Early Cape Light orange Fresh, drying
Late Cape Light orange Drying
Piet Cillie Orange Fresh, drying
Plum Pollinator
Eclipse Red on Yellow Santa Rosa
Methley Red No pollinator
Satsuma Red Santa Rosa
Harry Pickstone Yellow No pollinator needed
Songold Yellow No pollinator needed
Ruebennel Red No pollinator needed

• Tree spacing: Peach and Nectarine: 7 m x 7 m. Apricots and Plum: 5.5 m x 5.5 m. Plum trees need
pollinators. Plant in alternation, if the commercial cultivar and pollinator are of equal
commercial value. If the pollinator is of no commercial value, plant one pollinator for
every nine trees.
• Planting the trees: The dormant season (late June to mid-August) is best time for planting. The trees are
planted bare root with no soil covering the roots. Drying of the roots should be avoided
by covering plants or roots with a moist sacking between uprooting from the nursery and
planting. Trees should be planted to the same depth as they were in the nursery. Cut
back trees to a height of about 60-75 cm from the ground
• Care of young Stone fruit trees should be allowed to produce fruit in the 4th year, after the tree structure
trees: is well made.
Pruning: Stone fruit trees must be pruned every year. Pruning, which is the cutting of branches of trees, is an art that
requires patience and experience. It is done for the following reasons:
To increase the size of fruit – pruned trees produce fewer but larger fruits
To reduce and control the height of the tree, so that all the fruits can be reached when picking
To remove diseased and dead wood
• At planting: Cut back trees to about 60-75 cm from the ground. During the first growing season,
remove all suckers arising from below the graft union. This is best done when the shoots
are still small (when they can be rubbed off with the fingers). Removal of larger shoots
may result in wounds that serve as entry points for disease-causing organisms
• 1st winter after Select 3-4 scaffold (main) branches, evenly spaced around the main trunk. These are the
planting: the main branches and will be maintained throughout the productive life of the tree. If trees
are to be trained to the centre leader from the top, most shoots should be trained vertically.
The other common training system is the vase-shaped or open centre training, meaning
that there is no middle shoot. Any diseased, damaged or dead wood should be removed
and care should be taken to keep pruning to the necessary minimum, unless trees are
weak and small. Hard pruning during the early years will delay cropping of the trees
• 2nd winter after On cropping trees, the objective of pruning is to maintain a balance between vegetative
planting: growth and fruiting. In peaches, fruit are borne on one-year old wood. It is important to
encourage new growth by cutting back alternate side branches to about a 1/3 of their
original length and to a weaker shoot. Dead, diseased and damaged wood should also
be cut out. All water shoots are cut out cleanly at their point of origin (thinning out). There
are two types of pruning cuts:
Thinning cut: this involves complete removal of an entire branch by cutting cleanly (flush
with the trunk) from its point of origin. The result is a more open spreading canopy. This
system is more suited to pruning vigorous dense trees
Heading cut: this involves cutting back a shoot immediately above a bud. This will
stimulate growth of the remaining buds into a compact canopy

Module 3 – 67
Irrigation manual

Fertilizers: Initial:
Either 750-1000 g of Compound J per planting hole, mixed with the topsoil plus 1000 g lime if necessary, or
600 g SSP + 300 g Potassium Sulphate (K2SO4) + 200 g AN. After planting, top dress with 50 g AN per tree
every six weeks until March
2nd cropping year:
In August: 150 g AN and 75 g Potash per tree. In November: 75 g AN and 40 g Potash per tree
3rd cropping year:
In August: 250 g AN and 125 g Potash per tree. In November: 125 g AN and 70 g Potash per tree
Depending on the growth and productivity of the tree, the amounts may be increased in subsequent years to a
maximum of 500 g per tree for AN and 300 g per tree for Potash. Alternatively, in August 500 g of Compound
J can be given per tree and in November 250 g of Compound J. These amounts may be increased to a
maximum of 1000 g per tree for August and 500 g for November
These are only approximate recommendations. It is best to obtain soil analysis results and recommendations
Fruit thinning: This is required in order to improve fruit size and remove misshapen fruits. The best time of thinning is 2-4
weeks after full bloom and should be completed 30-40 days after full bloom and before the stone (seed)
hardens. The fruit should be thinned to one fruit per 15 cm space, which is roughly one hand span
Harvesting: The time of picking the stone fruit depends on how far away the markets are. If the fruits need to be transported
over quite a distance, harvest when they first change colour. If the fruits are for selling locally, then pick when
the colour is fully developed. Stone fruits are soft and easily damaged if they are being transported. To avoid
this, pack them in straw or soft paper in wooden or cardboard trays that can only accommodate one layer.
Pests: • Codling moths: Symptoms: The larvae tunnels into the fruit are filled with crumby brown excrement. The
larva is pale pink, with a brown head. The adult moth has grey front wings with brown
markings across them and bright bronze markings on the edges
Control: Spray Lebaycid WP, at 10 g/10 litres of water, when 75% of flower petals have
dropped
• Fruit flies: The flies are smaller than houseflies and have black bands on the wings
Symptoms: They lay eggs in immature fruits and the larvae hatch and feed in the fruit
causing a lot of damage
Control: Bait with Malathion 25% WP + sugar, at 30 g + 800 g/10 litres of water, or use
Lebaycid, at the rate on the label. It is important to start the control from flowering onwards
• Scale insects: Pernicious scale is the most serious
Symptoms: Dead shoots and branches, as well as fruit drop. Trees grow badly
Control: Prune out and burn infected branches. Spray Parathion 25% WP, at 20 g/10
litres of water, after leaf drop and again 4 weeks later in winter when trees are dormant
Diseases: • Rust: Symptoms: Small yellow spots appear on the upper surface of leaves with brown
pustules on the underside. These spots may spread and early defoliation may occur
Control: Use Dithane M45, at 20 g/10 of litres of water, just before the buds open 10 days
after flower petals drop. Apply again after 3 weeks and 3 weeks after that and then after
harvest
• Leaf curl: Symptoms: Part of the leaf becomes puckered and curled and has a yellowish to red
colour. It usually occurs in spring. Once the leaf curl fungus is on the new spring leaf
growth, it cannot be controlled. Spraying must therefore be preventative
Control: Use Lime Sulphur, at 1 litre/10 litres of water. Apply before the end of May when
most leaves have dropped. Spray Lime Sulphur again 2 weeks before the buds begin to
grow in spring, at 500 ml/10 litres of water, or Copper Oxychloride, at 50 g/10 litres of water
• Gum spot: Symptoms: A fungal disease, which appears as sunken, round purple spots on leaves
that change to brown and fall out. Purple brown cankers or bumps on young shoots that
crack and ooze gum. This can cause the shoot to die
Control: Prune all infected shoots. Collect and burn the prunings. Spray Lime Sulphur,
at 1 litre/10 litres of water, plus Copper Oxychloride, at 40 g/10 litres of water. Apply
Copper Oxychloride before the end of May when most leaves have dropped and again
2-3 weeks before the buds begin to grow in spring, at 50 g/10 litres of water
• Powdery Mildew: A fungal disease that infects leaves, young shoots and fruit
Symptoms: The young leaves are covered in a white powder, and may curl up and
become narrow. The older leaves have white powdery blotches on the underside. The
leaves may dry and drop. On the fruit, there are white patches that become hard and
crack. The disease is common in wet weather in autumn and spring
Control: Remove all infected shoots during pruning and burn them. Apply Lime Sulphur,
at 500 ml/10 litres of water, just before the buds open. Spray again Lime Sulphur, at 250
ml/10 litres of water, when buds are pink. From mid-October, spray Lime Sulphur every
2 weeks until December, at 65 ml/10 litres of water

68 – Module 3
 Chapter 9
Agronomic aspects of field crops

The sections below give the agronomic aspects of the most products for treatment of pests and diseases. As explained in
important field crops in the sub-region. The information Chapter 3, wherever possible organic fertilizer should be
refers to the climatic conditions prevailing in Zimbabwe added. It should be noted that different control methods of
(Chapter 1) and should be adapted for other countries, if the pesta and diseases are possible as explained in Chapter 4.
conditions are different. For information on crop water and Integrated Production and Pest Management (IPPM) is
irrigation requirements, the reader is referred to Module 4. becoming more and more successful in the sub-region
The names and quantities of chemical fertilizers for (Chapter 5) and its application, wherever possible, is highly
fertilization are also given below, as are the chemical recommended.

9.1. Dry bean

Scientific name: Phaseolus vulgaris
Family: Leguminosae
Cultivars: Several varieties available but the most common is the Sugar bean
Soil: Well-drained soils, with good organic matter content. pH 5.0-5.5
Climate: Sensitive to frost. Summer crop between August and March
Seed amount: 130 kg/ha
Planting depth: 2.5 cm
Spacing: 40-60 between the rows and 7 cm within the row
Planting time: Beans can not stand any frost while high temperatures will affect flowering and pod setting. Lowveld: plant at
the end of the summer. Highveld: Do not plant during winter, if there is frost in the area
Growth period: 4-4.5 months, including harvest
Fertilizers: Basal application: 600 kg/ha of Compound D
Top dressing: Beans can fix nitrogen naturally and too much nitrogen fertilizer will promote vegetative growth
only. Depending on the state of the crop, there may be need for a shot of 100 kg/ha AN to start off the growth.
One application of 100 kg/ha AN after flowering could also be necessary
Harvesting: Harvest when pods are almost dry but not too dry to shatter in the field. Beans need to be harvested and placed
in an open shed during the rains or in the open air to further dry before thrashing
Expected yield: 3-5 tons/ha
Pests: • Bean Stem Generally regarded as the principal insect pest of beans throughout Africa. It attacks also
Maggot (BSM) other crops, including cowpea and soybean
(Beanfly): Symptoms: The leaves of damaged plants show mining tracks where the maggots feed.
The lower parts of the stems become dry, swollen and cracked. Attack by this pest often
causes death of young bean plants. Damage by the BSM is more serious in dry areas
where yield losses can be as high as 50 to 100%
Control: Improved management practices. Improving fertility leads to vigorously growing
plants that are able to tolerate BSM infestation and damage better. Seed dressing with
various insecticides, such as Thiodan 50WP, at 5 grams/kg of seed at least during the
seedling (and most susceptible) stage. Foliar application of some botanical insecticides
including neem seed extracts during the early seedling stages. Mulching with cut weeds
or straw and earthing up soil in ridges or mounds around the base of the plant, which
promotes root establishment
• Aphids: Symptoms: Stunted growth with inside curled leaves with aphids at growing tips
Control: Use Metasystox 25 EC, at 10 ml/10 litres of water
• Caterpillars: Symptoms: Eat holes in the leaves at night and are dangerous in initial stage
Control: Use Carbaryl 85% WP, at 20 g/10 litres of water
• Red Spider Mite: Symptoms: Small, red insects on underside of leaves, making small webs, sucking sap
and making the leaves dry and curl
Control: Apply Metasystox 25 EC, at 10 ml/10 litres of water on the lower side of leaves

Module 3 – 69
Irrigation manual

Diseases: • Bacterial Blight: Symptoms: Yellow haloes on leaves and pods

Control: Use resistant varieties. Apply Copper Oxychloride 85% WP, at 40 g/10 litres of
water, to suppress
• Bacterial pustule Symptoms: Water-soaked spots on pods
of leaves Control: Use resistant varieties and apply Copper oxychloride 85% WP, at 40 g/10 litres
(Xanthomonas sp.): of water, to suppress
• Anthracnose: Symptoms: Sunken, dry spots on leaves and pods
Control: Use of Dithane M45, at 30 g/10 litres of water every 10 days
• Scab: Symptoms: Malformations on pods
Control: Use Dithane M45, at 30 g/10 litres of water, every 10 days
• Angular leaf spot: Symptoms: Spots on pods, but not water-soaked
Control: Apply Dithane M45, at 30 g/10 litres of water, every 10 days
• Rust: Symptoms: Brown pustules on leaves
Control: Use Dithane M45, at 30 g/10 litres of water, every 10 days

9.2. Groundnut
Scientific name: Arachis hypogea
Family: Leguminosae
Cultivars: Long season variety: Flamingo
Short season variety: Nyanda and Falcon. These varieties are common on the Zimbabwe market
Soil: Deep well-drained soils, pH 5.2-5.8. In lighter soils, kernels will be easy to lift and clean
Climate: Summer crop, best planting in October-March
Seed amount: 100 kg/ha
Planting depth: 5-8 cm
Spacing: Long season variety: 45 cm between the rows and 10-15 cm within the row. Plant population 125 000-150 000 per ha
Short season variety: 45 cm between the rows and 5-7.5 cm within the row. Plant population 250 000-300 000 per ha
Planting time: Long season variety: end of September to early October in the Highveld; mid-October in the Lowveld
Short season variety: end of October to early November in the Highveld; mid-November in the Lowveld
Growth period: Long season variety: 5-6 months
Short season variety: 3.5-4.5 months
Fertilizers: Basal application: 400 kg/ha Compound S or Compound D
Top dressing: Nitrogen is not usually applied to groundnuts, unless it becomes very necessary during the early
stages of growth. Gypsum to be applied at flowering on top of the plants at 200 kg/ha
Harvesting: Harvest when 40% of the leaves are dry. Lift and leave pods to dry on racks
Expected yield: 3 tons/ha
Pests: • Cutworms: Symptoms: Dying young shoots, cut at the groundlevel
Control: Apply Azodrin 40, at 20 ml/10 litres of water, or bait with Dipterex where these
are a problem. Control as a routine faster seed emergence
• Aphids: Symptoms: Sucking plant juice, making plants sticky, which attracts ants. The leaves
start curling
Control: Apply Thiodan at 12
g/10 litres of water, or
Figure 26
Dimethoate 40 EC at 10 ml/10
litres of water, when the first Groundnut leaf spot (Source: Collet, 1973)
signs of the pest have been
observed
Diseases: • Cercospora Leaf Symptoms: Brown or black
Spot and Rust: circular spots on the leaves
and elongated lesions on the
petioles and stems. Rust is
seen as rusty spots
underneath the leaves
Control: When the frost
symptoms are observed, use
Dithane M45, at 20 g/10 litres
of water, or Copper
Oxychloride or Bravo

70 – Module 3
 Module 3: Agronomic aspects of irrigated crop production

• Botrytis or grey Symptoms: Grey sporing

Figure 27
mould: mycelia on stems, which will
eventually wilt and die Groundnut web blotch (Source: Collet,
Control: Use Bavistin, at 300- 1973)
500 g/ha, once the disease
symptoms have appeared
• Phoma, leaf or Symptoms: Large grey to black
web blotch: spots on the leaves
Control: Use Dithane M45 or
Bavistin

9.3. Maize
Scientific name: Zea mays
Family: Graminae
Cultivars: Seed Co varieties: Late maturity: SC 709, SC 713
Medium maturity: SC621, SC 625, SC627
Early maturity: SC501, SC513, SC515, SC 517, SC 521
Very early maturity: SC401, SC403, SC 405, SC 407
Pannar varieties: Medium maturity: PAN 473, PAN 35, PAN 31
Medium-late maturity: PAN 6243, PAN 6479, PAN 61, PAN 6777
All the above varieties are more common on the Zimbabwe market
Soil: Wide range of soils, well-drained, high organic matter. pH 5.0
Climate: Summer crop. Temperature range 10-30°C, optimum 20-24°C
Seed amount: Requires about 25 kg/ha, depending on seed size and on the plant population the farmer is aiming at
Planting depth: 5-7 cm. Presoaking the seed not only improves the germination percentage, but also reduces the days to seed
emergence
Spacing: Long season varieties: 90 cm between the rows and 30-50 cm within the row. Put two kernels per station.
Plant population: 36 000-52 000 per ha
Short season varieties: 90 cm between the rows and 25 cm within the row.
Plant population: 36 000-60 000 per ha. The high populations are for irrigated crops
Planting time: Green Maize: In high altitude areas prone to frost, plant in mid-July when the threats of frost and cold are over
Grain Maize: Plant from August to October, depending on the coincidence of harvest and rainy season
Growth period: Green maize: Maximum 4 months
Grain maize: Long season varieties 152 days; medium season variety 148 days; short season varieties 126 to
137 days
Fertilizers: Basal application: 300 kg/ha of Compound D
Top dressing: 200-300 kg/ha of AN
It is important that the compound be placed below the seed. On heavy soils, top dressing with AN can be done
once at knee high or 5 weeks after planting. On sandy soils the top dressing can be split twice at 5 weeks and
11 weeks after planting
Expected yield: 1-13 tons/ha, depending on cultivar, the availability of water for supplementary irrigation and production method
Pests: • Stalk borer: Symptoms: Windows or holes in the unfolding leaves from the centre
Control: Apply a few granules of Dipteres or Thiodan 1% G down each funnel about 4
weeks after germination
• Aphids: Symptoms: Distorted growth, sugary appearance on the leaves and aphid presence
Control: Apply Metasystox 25% EC, at 40 ml/10 litres of water, full cover spray
• Armyworm: Apply Carbaryl 85% WP, at 25 g/10 litres of water
Diseases: Leaf streak virus, Rust, Leaf Blight and Grey leaf spot are some of the most common diseases of maize, which
cannot be controlled easily, except by using resistant varieties, crop rotation and hygienic practices.

Module 3 – 71
Irrigation manual

9.4. Rice
Scientific name: Oryza sativa
Family: Graminae
Cultivars: Check with the research institutions in the country
Soil: Irrigated rice requires heavy soils with a low permeability so as to reduce water losses. Permeability can be reduced
to a certain extent by intensive puddling of the soil. Rice has a high tolerance to acidity with optimum pH between
5.5 and 6. Rice is moderately tolerant to salinity. Yield decreases for different salinity levels are: 0% at ECe of
3.0 mmhos/cm, 10% at ECe of 3.8 mmhos/cm, 25% at ECe of 5.1 mmhos/cm, 50% at ECe of 7.2 mmhos/cm and
100% at ECe of 11.5 mmhos/cm
Climate: Temperatures should not fall below 10°C. Low temperatures during early growth stages result in a longer maturation
period. Low temperatures during panicle initiation are especially harmful and may result in sterility of the grains
(empty panicles). Temperatures between 22 and 30°C are required for good growth at all stages, but during
flowering and yield formation small differences between day and night temperatures (up to 10°C) are conducive to
high yields. Much sunshine, a slight wind and a fairly low relative air humidity will also lead to high yields. Dry weather
during ripening and harvesting is essential for an even maturation of the crop and a low percentage of brokers
Seed amount: 80-100 kg/ha in case of direct sowing. 20-40 kg/ha when sown in nurseries for transplanting
Seedbeds: Ratio of nursery : field is 1 : 20 to 1 : 30. Seeds are often pre-germinated, which involves soaking in water for
24 hours and subsequent germination for 24-48 hours
Transplanting: Takes place when seedlings have 5-6 leaves (after 3-4 weeks)
Spacing: Optimum spacing varies between 0.15 m x 0.15 m and 0.30 m x 0.30 m
Soil preparation: The most important aspects of soil preparation are: the control of weeds; the creation of a good physical
substratum for the crop; and sometimes a reduction of water seepage. Soil preparation can be carried out by
hand (hoe), animals (plough) or tractor
Growth period: From 90-210 days, depending on the variety, temperature and sensitivity to day length
Fertilizers: Large doses of nitrogen, usually sulfate or ammonia or urea, are justified only in case of responsive high
yielding varieties (HYV). During the sunny season, usually higher levels of N are applied than in the rainy
season, when rice crop utilizes nitrogen more efficiently. The nutrients removed by a crop of 4 tons/ha of paddy
are: 60 kg of N, 30 kg of P2O5 and 30 kg of K2O
Harvesting: Smallholders usually harvest by hand, removing panicle by panicle, or alternatively by cutting the panicles of
the whole plant with a sickle
Expected yield: Under fully-controlled irrigation with high inputs: 6-8 tons/ha
Under controlled flood irrigation good yields are 3-4 tons/ha
Pests: • Stem borer: Of the Tryporyza, Chilo and Sesamia species, their larvae tunnel into the stems which
finally die, resulting in complete sterile panicles (dead hearts)
• Hoppers: Green leaf hoppers and brown plant hoppers, which suck the plants and may act as
vectors of various virus diseases
• Seed bugs: Sucking the seeds in the dough stage, resulting in empty seeds
• Rats and birds: The latter especially are difficult to control
Diseases: • Rice blast A fungus disease which can show up in various growth stages (seedling blast, leaf blast
(Piricularia oryzae): and neck rot)
Symptoms: Lesions on the leaves and empty head
Control: Measures include early planting, avoiding excessive or high levels of nitrogen,
proper flood management, resistant varieties, and fungicides. Varietal resistance is the
most effective method of controlling rice blast. Some foliar fungicides can reduce the
incidence of blast, but severe losses can occur on susceptible varieties even when
fungicides are applied

Figure 28
Rice blast leaf lesions (Source: Texas A&M University, 2001)

72 – Module 3
 Module 3: Agronomic aspects of irrigated crop production

• Brown spot A fungus disease, especially in fields where growing conditions are poor. Significant
(Helminthosporium development of brown spot is often indicative of a soil fertility problem
oryzae): Symptoms: Brown lesions on the leaves
Control: Brown spot may be reduced by balanced fertilization, crop rotation, and the use
of high quality planting seed. Foliar fungicides are not economical for controlling brown
leaf spot on most commercial long grain varieties. Rice seed with infected glumes can
result in diseased seedlings. Seed treatment fungicides reduce the incidence and
severity of seedling blight caused by this fungus
• Sheath blight Causes the stem to rot near the water level
(Corticum sasaki):
• Rice yellow mottle Is the only known virus disease of rice in Africa, and it is indigenous to the continent. This
virus (RYMV): relatively recent disease is limited to rainfed and irrigated lowlands and can be lethal to
the infested plants if infection occurs early

9.5. Wheat
Scientific name: Triticare triticum
Family: Graminae
Cultivars: Scan, Scholar, Scarlet, Shangwa, SC Nduna. These are all available on the Zimbabwe market
Seed amount: Depends on the method of sowing used. Broadcasting uses more seed: 130 kg/ha
Spacing: If using a drill, rows are spaced 30 cm apart
Planting time: May
Growth period: Most available varieties are of the spring wheat type, which takes 100-130 days to mature
Fertilizers: Basal application: 600 kg/ha of Compound C
Top dressing: 350 kg/ha of AN, applied twice during the first 8 weeks
Expected yield: 3.5-10 tons/ha
Pests: • Quelia: Weaver birds that are gregarious and feed on the grain. The Department of National
Parks and Wild Life Management takes care of the control of very large colonies. For
smaller colonies collective ground spraying should be organized
• Wheat aphid: Light-green body with narrow dark-green longitudinal strip down the middle of its back
Small aphids sap-sucking on the under surface of the leave
Symptoms: Development of black sooty mould growing on leaves, which is the result of
sugar secretions by the aphids
Control: Spray Dimethoate, at 500 ml/ha, full cover spray
• Caterpillars, Symptoms: Lacerated leaves and stems, with holes
beetles, leaf- Control: Use suitable insecticide, for example Carbrayl, Malathion, etc.
hoppers, termites:
Diseases: • Stem rust: Parasitic fungus damaging the plant by utilizing nutrients and water required for kernel
formation. Enhanced by warm moist weather. Does not appear before end of July
Symptoms: Elongated red-brown, powdery pustules that develop on stems, leaves, leaf
sheaths, awns and glumes. The pustules also perforate leaves
Control: Use resistant varieties. Do not sow before the 1st of May, because of risk of
infection
• Leaf rust: Appears earlier in the crop on the leaves and is followed by stem rust
Symptoms: Small circular orange-red pustules on the leaves and shoots. Pustules
appear more on the upperside of the leaf
Control: As for stem rust
• Root rot: Too-frequent irrigation combined with warm weather promotes the disease
Symptoms: Retarded growth, the crown and lower nodes turn brownish, root system
poorly developed, brown lesions on the leaves and glumes, black point at germ end of
the seed
Control: Observe a 3-year rotation with broad-leafed crops

Module 3 – 73
 Chapter 10
Preparations necessary for marketing horticultural crops

The objective of growing vegetables or fruits is to make a 10.2. The Relationship between producer,
profit. The farmer produces a crop that can be sold to their distributor and consumer
best advantage.
To be successful, growing for markets must be based on
economic realities and be capable of supplying cash to those
10.1. Characteristics of vegetables and fruits involved. The final objective is to satisfy the needs, tastes
and gastronomic habits of the consumer. To succeed, the
10.1.1. Seasonality producer of horticultural crops should have a perfect
In order to obtain maximum yields, each vegetable crop understanding of the qualities sought by all clients as far as
requires special climatic conditions to develop normally. the shape, size, colour, taste and consistency of all products
According to geographic locations, favourable cropping are concerned. The farmers should choose varieties that
periods vary in both their duration and their particular best suit the market requirements. The nearer the farmer’s
annual seasons. In areas where vegetable seasons are limited produce approaches the qualities required by the
to one, there is always a case of excess produce on the consumer, the better their chance of obtaining the best
market, followed by a shortage during off-season periods. price. Unfortunately, direct and regular individual contacts
between producers and consumers are very difficult to
10.1.2. Susceptibility to damage
establish due to the physical distances that separate them.
Nevertheless, the producer should seek out such
With the exception of some vegetable crops, like potatoes information during marketing.
and mature bulb onions and fruits like avocados, most
harvested vegetables and fruits are greatly subject to
10.3. Harvesting
damage from mechanical shocks or climatic factors such as
heat from the sun and cold. This sensitivity creates the need Harvesting involves the separation of plants or plant organs
for a whole series of precautions in their handling, storing, from their natural support. This causes shock to the
packing and transport. Harvested crops must be treated tissues, which causes physiological reactions with
very carefully if their appearance is to remain attractive and important effects on the future condition of the crop. The
their internal composition undamaged. harvested crop must reach the consumer in as near a state
as possible to the harvested crop. For this, the following
10.1.3. Perishability must be observed:

Vegetables and some fruits have a high proportion of water 1. Recognition of the point of optimum maturity is
in their composition and this makes them easily subject to important for the successful harvesting of certain fruit
chemical and physical changes and hence to rapid and vegetable fruit crops, such as the tomato and
deterioration. Maintaining their fresh condition under the watermelon. If such crops are harvested too early, the
climatic conditions of most African countries requires great process of maturation is affected. If harvested too late,
care and a good practical knowledge of post-harvest the ripening process is highly accelerated. For other
physiology. vegetable crops, like fine beans and leafy vegetables, the
degree of maturity is less critical. For these crops the
ideal stage of harvesting is variable and depends on the
10.1.4. Diversity
taste and habits of the consumer served by the market
The list of the various species and varieties of vegetables and concerned.
fruits that can be grown is long. Each different species of
2. Correct handling is a very critical factor in the
vegetable crop or fruit needs its own special treatment for
harvesting operation, because of the fragility and
packing, storing and all other operations in preparation for
perishability of most vegetables. Picking or lifting of
the market. There are also different practices in the actual
crops is best carried out manually, at least for those
business of marketing. Some vegetables and fruits are sold
vegetables intended for consumption in a fresh state.
by number, some by weight and others in bunches.

Module 3 – 75
Irrigation manual

The personnel employed for harvesting should be 10.4. Storing the produce before marketing
selected according to their skill and dexterity. They
In the case of perishable produce like fruits and some
should be trained to carry out their task delicately and
vegetables, storing is the preservation of the crop for
rapidly. The grower must supervise the work and insist
shorter or longer periods crops under conditions that
constantly that all rough handling is avoided. Every
permit conservation of good external and internal quality
shock and small wound, even those not observable, will
together with all the characteristics required by the
shorten the life of the vegetable or cause deterioration
consumer. For the smallholder farmer storage under
later. Such damage will reduce the quality and hence
naturally ventilated conditions is the best. It is sometimes
the profitability. Attention should be paid to the
necessary to store produce for a considerable period, so as
weather. Heat, rain and dew may all damage the
to space out the sales and avoid glutting the market. The
appearance of the crop after picking or lifting. It is best
site for the storage facility should be relatively elevated and
to limit harvesting to fine mornings or cool evenings.
well-exposed to the dominant winds. It can be located in
3. The use of suitable harvesting containers is very the shade of a tree where there is a constant flow of
important in preserving the quality of the crop. It is relatively cool dry air. The design of the store should be
convenient to use some type of field box or basket to simple and adapted to the climate. The crop should be
collect the crop and carry it to a packing area before spread on well-aerated open racks in a layer not exceeding
marketing. It is important that such containers are about 20 cm in depth. The store must be kept clean and
suited to the crop concerned and cause no damage to baskets and boxes packed so that they do not interfere with
the crop. The containers must always be cleaned. Most the free circulation of air. The material used to construct
smallholder farmers are still rather careless in this the building should be chosen from locally available
regard and use any old 5-kg boxes or 20-litres tins, material, within the means of the farmer.
which they never wash. Others use old baskets mended
with iron wire, with points of wire sticking out in the 10.5. Packing and grading
interior.
Packing concerns the preservation of the produce in the
4. Careful selection during harvesting is always required best possible conditions of freshness, appearance, hygiene
to avoid mixing bad and good produce. Diseased or and general attractiveness, hence protecting its market
damaged produce may infect the healthy produce. All values. Absence of packing is a source of considerable
malformed, immature and over-ripe material should losses, affecting the more fragile and perishable fruit and
be removed. Harvesting can be carried out in three vegetable crops. When packing for the local market, the
phases. First, the complete elimination of all diseased produce must be:
or decayed produce that cannot be left on the plant or
in the field. Second, the collection of all healthy Y Thoroughly cleaned
produce of good quality and marketable. Third, the Y Graded into two categories of quality
collection of produce of second quality with minor
damage of blemish or other faults that reduces quality. Y Graded according to size
This method reduces the grading process after harvest Y Packed in boxes or baskets suitable for delivery to the
although it does require more labour. market
5. A number of vegetables crops and fruits require a When preparing produce for export to other countries, it is
period of recuperation after picking or lifting, if they essential to be in possession of information on the current
are to maintain their freshness and quality. Nearly all regulations. In many countries produce must now be
the fruit and vegetable crops like tomatoes, packed in a certain way. In general the following treatments
watermelons, fine beans, bananas, pome and stone are required:
fruits need a period of rest, which may vary in duration
according to species. This means storing them for Y Cleaning (washing, brushing and disinfecting)
several hours in a cool, slightly humid, clean and fairly Y Pre-grading
dark room, and immediately after picking. This rest
Y Quality grading
period often results in the appearance of a few small
bruises or wounds on some fruits that were not Y Protection
noticeable before. These can then be removed and the Y Size grading
quality of the produce for the market is enhanced.
Y Packing export type and standard

76 – Module 3
 Module 3: Agronomic aspects of irrigated crop production

10.6. Transport produce is very necessary. Bad road conditions will inflict
further damage on produce before it reaches the market.
Farmers should assess the transport and road conditions
Frequency and reliability of transport as well as distances to
before setting up a horticultural production enterprise for
the market should be assessed and planned for before the
the purposes of selling. In hot climates where the distances
enterprise is established.
to be covered are long journeys that are undertaken in
daylight, special protection and proper packing for the

Module 3 – 77
 References

Agritex. 1983. Horticultural Handbook. Internal Document (unpublished). Harare, Zimbabwe.

Cassidy, M., Rice L.W., Nzima M.D.S. and Fenner R. Undated. Tropical and subtropical fruit production in Zimbabwe. Prepared
and distributed by Horticulture Promotion Council. Harare, Zimbabwe.
Collett, W.E. 1973. Groundnuts in Rhodesia. Department of Conservation and Extension. Salisbury, Rhodesia.
Dodhill Nursery. undated. Aspects of Citriculture in Zimbabwe. Citrus short course (unpublished). Chegutu, Zimbabwe.
Euroconsult. 1989. Agricultural compendium for rural development in the tropics and subtropics. Elsevier, The Netherlands.
FAO. 1986. Yield response to water. Irrigation and Drainage Paper 33. Prepared by: J. Doorenbos, A.H. Kassam et al., Rome,
Italy.
FAO. 1988. Vegetable production under arid and semi-arid conditions in Tropical Africa. Plant Production and Protection Paper
89. Rome, Italy.
FAO. 1999. Vegetable seedling production manual. Plant Production and Protection Paper 155. Rome, Italy.
FAO. 2000a. IPM to IPMM? By: Global IPM Facility. Rome, Italy.
FAO. 2000b. Summary of innovations in IPPM Field Schools: IPPM is not FOR farmers, it is BY farmers. Prepared by: Kevin Gallagher,
Global IPM Facility. Rome, Italy.
FAO, Toxic Trail, Community IPM. 2002. Community Integrated Pest Management. http://www.communityipm.org/ToxicTrail.htm
Forestry Commission. 1995. Growing fruit trees. Zimbabwe.
Fresh Produce Producers Association. 1999. Vegetable growers handbook. A Commodity Association of the Horticultural
Promotion Council of Zimbabwe.
International Agricultural Centre (IAC). 2000. International course on integrated pest management: strategies to control diseases, insect
pests and weeds. Wageningen, The Netherlands.
Iowa State University. 2000. Entomology Image Gallery. Entomology Department. USA. http://www.ent.iastate.edu/imagegal/
Lethève, X, Gova, M, and Mawere, G. Undated. Important vegetable pestst and diseases in Zimbabwe: Identification and control.
Agritex Horticulture Training Programme. Zimbabwe.
Maynard, D.N. and Hochmuth, G.J. 1997. Knott’s handbook for vegetable growers. John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Publishers.
Nyanga Experiment Station. 1989-1995. Annual Reports. Horticultural Research Institute, Department of Research and
Specialist Services. Zimbabwe.
Our Garden Gang. 2002. Plant problems and treatments. http://www.ourgardengang.trip.com
Parsons, B. Undated. Grape production in Zimbabwe. Prepared for Agritex. Zimbabwe.
Purdue University 1993. Vegetable insect identification. Prepared by: Rick Foster and John Obermeyer. Department of
Entomology. USA.
Schippers, R. R. 2000. African indigenous vegetables. An overview of the cultivated species. Chatham; UK: Natural Resources
Institute/ACP-EU Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation.

Module 3 – 79
Irrigation manual

Stocking, Michael and Murnaghan, Niamh. 2000. Land degradation: guidelines for field assessment. Overseas Development
Group, University of East Anglia, Norwich, NK
Texas A&M University. 2001. Rice diseases. Department of Plant Pathology & Microbiology.
http://www.plantpathology.tamu.edu
University of Arizona. 2002. Plant disease identification. Extension Plant Pathology, Department of Plant Pathology.
http://ag.arizona.edu/plpext/diseases/disease.htm
University of Florida. 2000. Plant Pathology Guidelines for Master Gardeners. Prepared by: Ken Pernezny, Gary Simone, Janice
Collins, Richard Lentini. Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences (IFAS). USA.
University of Wisconsin. 2000. Wisconsin’s school integrated pest management manual. Prepared by: John Stier, Karen Delahaut,
Phil Pellitteri, Brian Backer. USA.
Verkerk, Robert. 2001. Farmers’ friends: recognition and conservation of natural enemies of vegetable pests. Field guide for extension
staff and trainers in Zimbabwe. London, UK.
Zimbabwe Farmers Union. 1997. Horticultural handbook for small-scale growers.

80 – Module 3
 Irrigation Manual
Module 4

Crop Water Requirements and

Irrigation Scheduling

Developed by

Andreas P. SAVVA
and
Karen FRENKEN

Water Resources Development and Management Officers

FAO Sub-Regional Office for East and Southern Africa

In collaboration with

Kennedy MUDIMA, Irrigation Engineer Consultant

Mawira CHITIMA, Irrigation Engineer Consultant
Lee TIRIVAMWE, National Irrigation Engineer, Zimbabwe

Harare, 2002
 Contents
List of figures xi
List of tables xii
List of abbreviations x

1. INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Evaporation, transpiration and evapotranspiration 1
1.2. Factors affecting crop evapotranspiration 1
1.3. Evapotranspiration concepts 2
1.3.1. Reference crop evapotranspiration 2
1.3.2. Crop evapotranspiration under standard conditions 2
1.3.3. Crop evapotranspiration under non-standard conditions 2
1.4. Crop water and irrigation requirements 2
1.5. Irrigation scheduling 3

2. ESTIMATING REFERENCE CROP EVAPOTRANSPIRATION 5

2.1. The need for a standardized ETo calculation method 5
2.2. Pan evaporation method 5
2.2.1. Pan evaporation 5
2.2.2. The Class A pan 6
2.2.3. Adjustments 7
2.2.4. Siting and maintenance of evaporation pans 8
2.3. FAO Penman-Monteith method 9
2.3.1. Penman-Monteith Equation 9
2.3.2. Sources of climatic data 9
2.3.3. Calculation procedures for ETo using the FAO Penman-Monteith Equation 10
2.3.4. Estimating ETo with missing climatic data 21

3. REFERENCE CROP EVAPOTRANSPIRATION (ISO-ETo) MAPS 25

3.1. Development of iso- ETo maps 25
3.2. Use and application of iso- ETo maps 25

4. ESTIMATING CROP EVAPOTRANSPIRATION OR CROP WATER REQUIREMENTS UNDER

STANDARD CONDITIONS 35
4.1. Crop coefficient approach for calculating ETc 35
4.1.1. Single crop coefficient approach 35
4.1.2. Dual crop coefficient approach 35
4.1.3. Selection of the approach to be used 36
4.2. Factors determining the crop coefficient 36
4.2.1. Crop type 36
4.2.2. Climate 36
4.2.3. Soil evaporation 37
4.2.4. Crop growth stages 37
4.3. Crop coefficient curves 39
4.4. Length of growth stages 40
4.5. Crop coefficients 44
4.5.1. Determination of Kc ini 47
4.5.2. Determination of Kc mid and Kc end 49

Module 4 – iii
Irrigation manual

4.6. Constructing the Kc curve 50

4.7. Calculating ETc 51
4.8. Factors affecting ETc 53
4.8.1. Climatic factors 53
4.8.2. Soil water factors 54
4.8.3. Irrigation method 54
4.8.4. Cultural practices 54

5. ESTIMATING IRRIGATION REQUIREMENTS 57

5.1. Crop water requirements versus irrigation requirements 57
5.2. Importance of estimating irrigation requirements 57
5.3. Net irrigation requirements 57
5.3.1. Crop evapotranspiration 57
5.3.2. Dependable and effective rainfall 57
5.3.3. Groundwater contribution 60
5.3.4. Water stored in the soil 61
5.3.5. Leaching requirements 61
5.4. Calculating net irrigation requirements 64
5.5. Calculating gross irrigation requirements 65

6. ESTIMATING CROP WATER AND IRRIGATION REQUIREMENTS USING COMPUTER PROGRAMMES 67

6.1. The FAO CROPWAT model 67
6.2. Estimating crop water and irrigation requirements for smallholder farmers 67
6.2.1. Cropping programmes and rotations 68
6.2.2. Calculating the reference crop evapotranspiration (ETo) and the effective rainfall 69
6.2.3. Calculating the crop water and irrigation requirements for each crop 70
6.2.4. Calculating the net and gross irrigation requirements for the total scheme 76

7. SOIL-WATER-PLANT RELATIONSHIP 79
7.1. Soil texture 79
7.2. Soil structure 80
7.2.1 Soil structure types 80
7.2.2. Soil pore space 81
7.3. Soil water potential 81
7.3.1. Matric potential 82
7.3.2. Solute potential 82
7.3.3. Gravitational potential 83
7.3.4. Pressure potential 83
7.4. Water movement in the soil 83
7.4.1. Infiltration 83
7.4.2. Deep percolation and surface runoff 84
7.4.3. Depletion 84
7.5. Effective root zone depth 86

8. YIELD RESPONSE TO WATER 91

8.1. Critical growth periods 91
8.2. Estimating yield reduction due to water stress 91

9. IRRIGATION SCHEDULING 95
9.1. Irrigation scheduling based on measurement of daily crop water use 95
9.1.1. The use of the Class A pan for irrigation scheduling 95

iv – Module 4
 Module 4: Crop water requirements and irrigation scheduling

9.1.2. The use of tensiometers for irrigation scheduling 98

9.2. Irrigation scheduling based on crop water requirement calculations 102
9.2.1. Irrigation frequency 102
9.2.2. Manual calculation of the irrigation scheduling programme for a drag-hose sprinkler
irrigation system 104
9.2.3. Manual calculation of the irrigation scheduling programme for a surface irrigation system 110
9.2.4. Irrigation scheduling using computer programmes 113
9.3. Variations in scheme irrigation scheduling 119
9.3.1. Rigid schedules 119
9.3.2. Rotational schedules 119
9.3.3. Flexible schedules 120
9.3.4. On-demand irrigation 120

5. REFERENCES 121

Module 4 – v
 List of figures
1. Water loss through the process of evapotranspiration 1
2. Reference crop evapotranspiration ( ETo), crop evapotranspiration under standard conditions (ETc)
and crop evapotranspiration under non-standard conditions (ETc adj) 3
3. The Class A pan 6
4. Two cases of evaporation pan siting and their environment 7
5. Reference evapotranspiration map for Ethiopia for the month of April 26
6. Location of meteorological stations in Ethiopia 27
7. Reference evapotranspiration map for Kenya for the month of February 28
8. Location of meteorological stations in Kenya 29
9. Reference evapotranspiration map for South Africa for the month of January 30
10. Location of meteorological stations in South Africa 31
11. Reference evapotranspiration map for Zimbabwe for the month of October 32
12. Location of meteorological stations in Zimbabwe 33
13. General procedures for calculating ETc under standard conditions 36
14. Typical Kc values for different types of full grown crops 37
15. Extreme ranges expected in Kc for full grown crops as climate and weather change 37
16. Crop growth stages for different types of crops 38
17. Typical ranges expected in Kc for the four growth stages 38
18. Generalized crop coefficient curve for the single crop coefficient approach 39
19. Average Kc ini as related to the level of ETo and the interval between irrigation and/or significant rain
during the initial growth stage when wetting events are light to medium (3-10 mm per event) for all soil types 48
20. Average Kc ini as related to the level of ETo and the interval between irrigation greater than or equal
to 40 mm per event, during the initial growth stage for a) coarse textured soils and b) medium and
fine textured soils 48
21. Adjustment (additive) to the Kc mid values from Table 21 for different crop heights and mean daily
wind speeds (u2) for different humidity conditions 49
22. A typical crop coefficient (Kc) curve 50
23. Crop coefficient curve drawn for maize grown close to Kutsaga Research Station 52
24. Ratio between peak and mean ETc for different climates during months of peak water use 53
25. Contribution of groundwater to moist root zone in mm/day 60
26. Soil moisture types and their effect on downward movement of water 81
27. Gravitational, matric and pressure potentials 82
28. Average water extraction patterns in soil without restrictive layers 86
29. Details of the ceramic cup of a tensiometer 99
30. Standard tensiometers 99
31. Quick-draw portable tensiometer 100
32. Placing tensiometers 101
33. Cumulative infiltration rate curve 110

vi – Module 4
 List of tables
1. Pan coefficients (Kp) for Class A pan for different pan siting and environment and different levels of
mean relative humidity and wind speed 7
2. Meteorological data for Harare Kutsaga Research Station 10
3. Psychrometric constant (γ) for different altitudes (z) 10
4. Saturation vapour pressure (e°) for different temperatures 11
5. Slope of saturation vapour pressure curve (D) for different air temperatures (T) 12
6. Values of Tmean and ∆ for Kutsaga Research Station 12
7. Monthly vapour pressure deficit values for Kutsaga Research Station 13
8. Daily extraterrestrial radiation (Ra) for different latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere for the
15th day of the month 14
9. Daily extraterrestrial radiation (Ra) for different latitudes in the Southern Hemisphere for the
15th day of the month 15
10. Mean daylight hours (N) for different latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere for the 15th day of the month 16
11. Mean daylight hours (N) for different latitudes in the Southern Hemisphere for the 15th day of the month 17
12. Conversion factors for cloudiness into equivalent values of n/N 17
13. σ(TK)4 values at different temperatures 18
14. Monthly net radiation for Kutsaga Research Station 19
15. Conversion factors (multipliers) to convert wind speed measured at given height (over grass) to wind
speed measured at standard height of 2 m above ground level 20
16. Monthly wind speed at Kutsaga Research Station, adjusted to 2 m height above ground level 20
17. Mean monthly reference crop evapotranspiration ( ETo) values (in mm/day) for Kutsaga Research Station 22
18. Calculation sheet for ETo (FAO Penman-Monteith method) using Tables 3, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13 24
19. General selection criteria for the single and dual crop coefficient approaches 36
20. Length of crop development stages for various planting periods and climatic regions (days) 40
21. Single (time-averaged) crop coefficients Kc and mean maximum plant heights for non-stressed,
well-managed crops in sub-humid climates (RHmin ≈ 45%, u2 ≈ 2 m/sec) for use with the FAO
Penman-Monteith ETo 44
22. Evapotranspiration of a maize crop on a decade by decade basis 52
23. Mean monthly rainfall at Kutsaga Research Station 58
24. Rainfall grouping for the month of January for Kutsaga Research Station in order to carry out a
probability analysis 58
25. 80% dependable rainfall for Kutsaga Research Station (mm) 59
26. Average monthly effective rainfall, as related to average monthly ETc and mean monthly rainfall, USDA method 59
27. Effective dependable rainfall for the maize crop grown near Kutsaga Research Station 59
28. Crop tolerance and yield potential of selected crops, as influenced by irrigation water salinity (ECw) or
soil salinity (ECe) 62
29. Leaching requirements for maize planted at Kutsaga Research Station for the period under consideration 64
30. Efficiencies for different irrigation systems 65
31. Gross irrigation requirements for the maize crop grown at Kutsaga Research Station 65
32. Cropping pattern for Mahalapye proposed irrigation scheme 68
33. Crop rotation programme for Mahalapye proposed irrigation scheme 68

Module 4 – vii
Irrigation manual

34. ETo for Mahalapye, computed by CROPWAT 7.0 69

35. Effective rainfall for Mahalapye, computed by CROPWAT 7.0 70
36. General crop data for tomatoes 71
37. Crop water and irrigation requirements for tomatoes from CROPWAT 7.0 71
38. General crop data for cabbages 72
39. Crop water and irrigation requirements for cabbages from CROPWAT 7.0 72
40. General crop data for rape 73
41. Crop water and irrigation requirements for rape from CROPWAT 7.0 73
42. General crop data for onions 74
43. Crop water and irrigation requirements for onions from CROPWAT 7.0 74
44. General crop data for potatoes 75
45. Crop water and irrigation requirements for potatoes from CROPWAT 7.0 75
46. General crop data for green maize 76
47. Crop water and irrigation requirements for green maize from CROPWAT 7.0 76
48. Crop water and irrigation requirements for Mahalapye proposed irrigation scheme 77
49. Cropping pattern for Mahalapye proposed irrigation scheme from CROPWAT 7.0 78
50. Scheme irrigation requirements for Mahalapye proposed irrigation scheme from CROPWAT 7.0 78
51. Guide for estimating soil moisture conditions, using the ‘feel and appearance’ method 80
52. Components of soil water potential 81
53. Factors affecting the infiltration rate 85
54. Ranges of maximum effective root zone depth (RZD) and allowable soil water depletion fraction (P) for
no stress, for common crops 87
55. Plant feeder root depths (effective root zone depth) (RZD) 89
56. Critical periods for plant moisture stress 92
57. Yield response factor Ky 93
58. ETc/Epan ratios for different crops and varying season lengths in different agro-ecological regions in Zimbabwe 95
59. Example of Class A pan record keeping, which takes place at 08.00 hours just before bringing the water
level to the zero point (reading in mm) 97
60. Manually-calculated irrigation schedule for tomatoes 104
61. Manually-calculated irrigation schedule for cabbages 104
62. Manually-calculated irrigation schedule for rape 105
63. Manually-calculated irrigation schedule for onions 105
64. Manually-calculated irrigation schedule for potatoes 105
65. Manually-calculated irrigation schedule for green maize 106
66. Summary irrigation schedule on a monthly basis 106
67. Irrigation programme for tomatoes 107
68. Irrigation programme for cabbages 108
69. Irrigation programme for rape 109
70. Farm irrigation programme (0.5 ha holding) for the month of January 109
71. Summary irrigation schedule on a monthly basis for the surface irrigation system with Ea = 50% 111
72. Simplified irrigation schedule for beans, onions and tomatoes during the month of June 111
73. Flow rate and duration of irrigation for each crop during the month of June 112
74. Gross irrigation requirement, contact time and number of farmers irrigating at the same time 112
75. Summary irrigation schedule for the month of June 112

viii – Module 4
 Module 4: Crop water requirements and irrigation scheduling

76. Soil data 114

77. Irrigation scheduling for tomato from CROPWAT 7.0 116
78. Irrigation scheduling for cabbage from CROPWAT 7.0 117
79. Irrigation scheduling for rape from CROPWAT 7.0 118
80. Total net and gross irrigation requirements derived from manual and CROPWAT irrigation schedules 118

Module 4 – ix
 List of abbreviations
CWR Crop Water Requirement
e vapour pressure
E Evaporation
EC Electrical Conductivity
ET Evapotranspiration
FC Field Capacity
IR Irrigation Requirement
IWMI International Water Management Institute
K Crop Coefficient
LAI Leaf Area Index
Le Leaching efficiency
LR Leaching Requirement
N Daylight Hours
P Depletion
PWP Permanent Wilting Point
R Radiation
RH Relative Humidity
RZD Root Zone Depth
SM Soil Moisture
T Temperature
T Transpiration
Y Crop Yield

x– Module 4
 Chapter 1
Introduction

1.1. Evaporation, transpiration and roots also determine the transpiration rate, as do
evapotranspiration waterlogging and soil salinity. Crop characteristics,
environmental aspects and cultivation practices also have
In a cropped field water can be lost through two processes
an influence on the transpiration.
(Figure 1):
1. Water can be lost from the soil surface and wet The combination of these two separate processes, whereby
vegetation through a process called evaporation (E), water is lost on one hand by evaporation from the soil
whereby liquid water is converted into water vapour surface and on the other hand by transpiration from a plant,
and removed from the evaporating surface. Energy is is called evapotranspiration (ET). Evaporation and
required to change the state of the molecules of water transpiration occur simultaneously and there is no easy way
from liquid to vapour. The process is affected by of distinguishing between the two processes.
climatological factors such as solar radiation, air When the crop is small evaporation is the main process, but
temperature, air humidity and wind speed. Where the once the crop is fully grown and completely covers the
evaporating surface is the soil surface, the degree of ground transpiration becomes the dominant process. It has
shading of the crop canopy and the amount of water been estimated that at crop sowing 100% of the total ET
available at the evaporating surface are the other factors comes from evaporation, while at full crop cover
that affect the evaporation process. evaporation accounts for about 10% of ET and
2. The second process of water loss is called transpiration transpiration for the remaining 90%.
(T), whereby liquid water contained in plant tissues
vaporizes into the atmosphere through small openings in 1.2. Factors affecting crop
the plant leaf, called stomata. Transpiration, like direct evapotranspiration
evaporation, depends on the energy supply, vapour
pressure gradient and wind. Hence solar radiation, air The main factors affecting evapotranspiration are climatic
temperature, air humidity and wind terms should be parameters, crop characteristics, management practices
considered when assessing transpiration. The soil water and environmental aspects.
content and the ability of the soil to conduct water to the The main climatic factors affecting evapotranspiration are
solar radiation, air temperature, air humidity and wind
Figure 1 speed.
Water loss through the process of
evapotranspiration (Source: FAO, 1998a) The crop type, variety and development stages affect
evapotranspiration. Differences in crop resistance to
transpiration, crop height, crop roughness, reflection,
canopy cover and crop rooting characteristics result in
different evapotranspiration levels in different types of
crops under identical environmental conditions.
Factors such as soil salinity, poor land fertility, limited use of
fertilizers and chemicals, lack of pest and disease control,
poor soil management and limited water availability at the
root zone may limit the crop development and reduce
evapotranspiration. Other factors that affect evapo-
transpiration are groundcover and plant density. Cultivation
practices and the type of irrigation system used can alter the
microclimate, affect the crop characteristics or affect the
wetting of the soil and crop surface. All these affect
evapotranspiration.

Module 4 – 1
Irrigation manual

1.3. Evapotranspiration concepts Differences in leaf anatomy, stomata characteristics,

aerodynamic properties and even albedo (solar radiation
1.3.1. Reference crop evapotranspiration reflected by the surface) cause ETc to differ from ETo
under the same climatic conditions. Due to variations in
The evapotranspiration from a reference surface not short
crop characteristics throughout its growing season, Kc for a
of water is called the reference crop evapotranspiration
given crop changes from sowing till harvest. The concept of
and is denoted by ETo. The reference surface is a
Kc values will be discussed in detail in Chapter 4.
hypothetical grass reference crop with specific
characteristics. The concept of ETo was introduced to
study the evaporative demand of the atmosphere 1.3.3. Crop evapotranspiration under non-standard
independently of crop type, crop development stage and conditions
management practices. As water is abundant at the The crop evapotranspiration under non-standard
evapotranspiring surface, soil factors do not affect conditions, ETc adj, is the evapotranspiration from crops
evapotranspiration. Relating evapotranspiration to a grown under management and environmental conditions
specific surface provides a reference to which that differ from the standard conditions. When cultivating
evapotranspiration from other surfaces can be related. It crops in the field, the real crop evapotranspiration may be
removes the need to define a separate evapotranspiration different from ETc due to non-optimal conditions such as
level for each crop and stage of growth. occurrence of pests and diseases, soil salinity, poor soil
The only factors affecting ETo are climatic parameters. As a fertility and waterlogging.
result, ETo is a climatic parameter and can be computed ETc adj is calculated by using a water stress coefficient (Ks)
from weather data. ETo expresses the evaporative demand of and/or by adjusting Kc for all kinds of other stresses and
the atmosphere at a specific location and time of the year and environmental constraints on crop evapotranspiration. The
does not consider crop and soil factors. The calculation calculation procedures for ETc adj will not be covered in
procedures for estimating ETo are discussed in Chapter 2. this Module. For more details on this concept the reader is
The preparation of iso-ETo maps is described in Chapter 3. referred to the FAO (1998a).
The concepts of ETo, ETc and ETc adj are illustrated in
1.3.2. Crop evapotranspiration under standard
conditions
Figure 2.

The crop evapotranspiration under standard conditions,

1.4. Crop water and irrigation requirements
denoted as ETc, is the evapotranspiration from disease-free,
well-fertilized crops, grown in large fields under optimum Crop water requirements (CWR) encompass the total
soil water conditions and achieving full production under amount of water used in evapotranspiration. FAO (1984)
the given climatic conditions. The values of ETc and CWR defined crop water requirements as ‘the depth of water
(Crop Water Requirements) are identical, whereby ETc needed to meet the water loss through evapotranspiration
refers to the amount of water lost through of a crop, being disease-free, growing in large fields under
evapotranspiration and CWR refers to the amount of water non restricting soil conditions, including soil water and
that is needed to compensate for the loss. fertility, and achieving full production potential under the
given growing environment’. CWR is equal to ETc and will
ETc can be calculated from climatic data by directly be dealt with in Chapter 4. The use of computer
integrating the effect of crop characteristics into ETo. Using programmes for the estimation of ETc or CWR is explained
recognized methods, an estimation of ETo is done. in Chapter 6.
Experimentally determined ratios of ETc/ ETo, called crop
coefficients (Kc), are used to relate ETc to ETo as given in Irrigation requirements (IR) refer to the water that must be
the following equation: supplied through the irrigation system to ensure that the
crop receives its full crop water requirements. If irrigation
Equation 1 is the sole source of water supply for the plant, the
irrigation requirement will always be greater than the crop
ETc = ETo x Kc
water requirement to allow for inefficiencies in the
Where: irrigation system. If the crop receives some of its water
ETc = Crop evapotranspiration (mm/day) from other sources (rainfall, water stored in the ground,
ETo = Reference crop evapotranspiration underground seepage, etc.), then the irrigation
(mm/day) requirement can be considerably less than the crop water
Kc = Crop coefficient

2– Module 4
 Module 4: Crop water requirements and irrigation scheduling

Figure 2
Reference crop evapotranspiration (ETo), crop evapotranspiration under standard conditions (ETc) and
crop evapotranspiration under non-standard conditions (ETc adj) (Source: FAO, 1998a)

Climate Grass reference crop ETo

+ =

Kc ETc

ETo x =

Ks x Kc adj ETc adj

ETo x =

requirement. Chapter 5 describes the manual calculation condition, texture, structure, depth, organic matter, bulk
for the irrigation requirements and Chapter 6 describes the density, salinity, sodicity, acidity, drainage, topography,
estimation of the irrigation requirements through the use of fertility and chemical characteristics all affect the extent to
computer programmes. which a plant root system penetrates into and uses available
moisture and nutrients in the soil. Many of these factors
1.5. Irrigation scheduling influence the water movement in the soil, the water-
holding capacity of the soil, and the ability of the plants to
Once the crop water and irrigation requirements have been use the water. The irrigation system used should match all
calculated, the next step is the preparation of field irrigation or most of these conditions.
schedules. Three parameters have to be considered in
preparing an irrigation schedule: The estimated values for available water-holding capacity
and intake are shown as broad ranges in this Module. The
Y The daily crop water requirements
values in local soil databases need to be continuously
Y The soil, particularly its total available moisture or refined to fit the actual field conditions. In the field, the
water-holding capacity actual value may vary from site to site, season to season and
Y The effective root zone depth even within the season. Within the season, it varies
depending on the type of farm and tillage equipment,
Plant response to irrigation is influenced by the physical number of tillage operations, residue management, type of
condition, fertility and biological status of the soil. Soil crop and water quality.

Module 4 – 3
Irrigation manual

Soils to be irrigated must also have adequate surface and Chapter 7 describes the soil-water-plant relationship,
subsurface drainage, especially in the case of surface while Chapter 8 deals with yield response to water.
irrigation. Internal drainage within the crop root zone can Finally, Chapter 9 describes different irrigation
either be natural or from an installed subsurface drainage scheduling methods.
system.

4– Module 4
 Chapter 2
Estimating reference crop evapotranspiration

The FAO Penman-Monteith method is now the sole revision and updating of the procedures. As an outcome of
recommended method for calculating ETo and this this consultation, the FAO Penman-Monteith method is now
method, its derivation and the required meteorological data recommended as the sole standard method for the definition
are presented in this Chapter. Section 2.1 explains the need and calculation of the reference crop evapotranspiration. It
for a standardized method to calculate the reference has been found to be a method with a strong likelihood of
evapotranspiration ( ETo). However, because of its practical correctly predicting ETo in a wide range of locations and
value, the Pan Evaporation method is still in use in some climates. The method provides values that are more
parts of Southern Africa and will therefore be briefly consistent with actual crop water use worldwide. In addition,
presented in Section 2.2, before presenting, in more detail, the method has provisions for calculating ETo in cases where
the sole recommended Penman-Monteith method in some of the climatic data are missing. The use of older FAO
Section 2.3. or other reference evapotranspiration calculation methods is
no longer advisable.
2.1. The need for a standardized ETo
calculation method 2.2. Pan Evaporation method
ETo can be calculated from meteorological data. Several Despite the FAO Penman-Monteith being the sole
empirical and semi-empirical methods have been recommended method for calculating ETo, the Pan
developed over the last 50 years to estimate reference crop Evaporation method is still widely used in some parts of
evapotranspiration from climatic variables. Some of the East and Southern Africa. This is mainly because the
methods that have been developed are the Blaney-Criddle, method is very practical and simple, which appeals to many
Radiation, Modified Penman and Pan Evaporation farmers and practitioners. For this, a description of the
methods. The different methods catered for users with method is given below.
different data availability and requiring different levels of
accuracy. In all four methods the mean climatic data for a 2.2.1. Pan evaporation
10-day or a 30-day period are used. ETo is expressed in
The evaporation rate from pans filled with water can be
mm/day, representing the mean daily value for the period
easily determined. In the absence of rainfall, the amount of
under consideration. Details of these methods are given in
water evaporated during a given period corresponds to the
FAO (1984).
decrease in water depth in the pan during the given period.
The development of more accurate methods of assessing Pans provide a measurement of the combined effect of
crop water use together with advances in science and radiation, wind, temperature and humidity on an open
research revealed the weaknesses in the above-mentioned water surface. The pan responds in a similar manner to the
four methodologies. The performances of the methods were same climatic factors affecting crop transpiration. However,
analyzed for different locations and it became evident that the several factors produce differences in the loss of water from
methods do not behave the same way in different locations a water surface and from a cropped surface.
around the world. Deviations from computed to observed
Despite the difference between pan evaporation and
values were often found to exceed the values indicated by
reference crop evapotranspiration, the use of pans to
researchers. For example, the Modified Penman method was
predict ETo for periods of 10 days or longer is still
frequently found to overestimate ETo by up to 20% for low
practiced. The measured evaporation from a pan (Epan) is
evaporative demands. The other three methods showed
related to the reference crop evapotranspiration (ETo)
variable adherence to the reference crop evapotranspiration
through an empirically derived pan coefficient (Kp) as given
standard of grass. This revealed the need for formulating a
in the following equation from FAO (1998a):
standard and more consistent method for calculating ETo.
Equation 2
In May 1990, FAO organized a consultation of experts,
scientists and researchers to review the methodologies on the ETo = Kp x Epan
calculation of crop water requirements and to advise on the

Module 4 – 5
Irrigation manual

Where: circulation of air. It is preferable that stations be located in

ETo = Reference crop evapotranspiration the centre or on the leeward side of large cropped fields.
(mm/day)
Kp = Pan coefficient Pan readings are taken daily in the early morning, at the
Epan = Pan evaporation (mm/day) same time that precipitation is measured. Measurements
are made in a stilling well that is situated in the pan near
one edge. The stilling well is a metal cylinder of about 10
2.2.2. The Class A pan
cm in diameter and some 20 cm deep, with a small hole at
Various types of evaporation pans exist. The most common the bottom.
type is the Class A pan. Below follow the description and
specifications as given in FAO (1998a). Pan coefficients are pan specific as the colour, size and
position of the pan have influence on the measured results.
The Class A evaporation pan is circular, 120.7 cm in In selecting the correct pan coefficient, consideration
diameter and 25 cm deep (Figure 3). It is made of should be given to the pan type, the groundcover in the
galvanized iron (22 gauge) or Monel metal (0.8 mm). The station where the pan is sited, its surroundings and the
pan is mounted on a wooden open frame platform, which general wind and humidity conditions. The siting of the pan
is 15 cm above ground level. The soil is built up to within and the pan environment also influence the results. This is
5 cm of the bottom of the pan. The pan must be level. It is particularly true where the pan is placed in fallow rather
filled with water to 5 cm below the rim, and the water level than cropped fields. Two cases are normally considered:
should not be allowed to drop to more than 7.5 cm below Case A, where the pan is sited on a short green (grass) cover
the rim. The water should be regularly renewed, at least and surrounded by fallow soil, and Case B, where the pan
weekly, to eliminate extreme turbidity. The pan, if is sited on fallow soil and surrounded by a green crop
galvanized, is painted annually with aluminium paint. (Figure 4).
Screens over the pan are not a standard requirement and
should preferably not be used. Pans should be protected by As mentioned, the pan coefficient will differ depending on
fences to prevent animals from drinking the water in the the type of pan and the size and state of the upwind buffer
pan. zone (the fetch in Figure 4). Table 1 provides the means of
selecting appropriate Kp values applicable to the Class A
The area surrounding the pan should preferably be covered pan for different groundcover, fetch and climatic
by grass, 20 by 20 m, open on all sides to permit free conditions.

Figure 3
The Class A pan (Source: FAO, 1998a)

6– Module 4
 Module 4: Crop water requirements and irrigation scheduling

Figure 4
Two cases of evaporation pan siting and their environment (Source: FAO, 1998a)

Table 1
Pan coefficients (Kp) for Class A pan for different pan siting and environment and different levels of mean
relative humidity and wind speed (Source: FAO, 1984)

Class A pan Case A: Case B:

Pan placed in short green cropped area Pan placed in dry fallow area
Wind speed Windward side Mean relative humidity (%) Windward side Mean relative humidity (%)
(m/sec) distance of green low medium high distance of dry low medium high
crop (fetch) (m) <40 40-70 >70 fallow (fetch) (m) < 40 40-70 >70
Light 1 0.55 0.65 0.75 1 0.70 0.80 0.85
<2 10 0.65 0.75 0.85 10 0.60 0.70 0.80
100 0.70 0.80 0.85 100 0.55 0.65 0.75
1 000 0.75 0.85 0.85 1 000 0.50 0.60 0.70
Moderate 1 0.50 0.60 0.65 1 0.65 0.75 0.80
2-5 10 0.60 0.70 0.75 10 0.55 0.65 0.70
100 0.65 0.75 0.80 100 0.50 0.60 0.65
1 000 0.70 0.80 0.80 1 000 0.45 0.55 0.60
Strong 1 0.45 0.50 0.60 1 0.60 0.65 0.70
5-8 10 0.55 0.60 0.65 10 0.50 0.55 0.65
100 0.60 0.65 0.70 100 0.45 0.50 0.60
1 000 0.65 0.70 0.75 1 000 0.40 0.45 0.55
Very strong 1 0.40 0.45 0.50 1 0.50 0.60 0.65
>8 10 0.45 0.55 0.60 10 0.45 0.50 0.55
100 0.50 0.60 0.65 100 0.40 0.45 0.50
1 000 0.55 0.60 0.65 1 000 0.35 0.40 0.45

2.2.3. Adjustments reduced by up to 20%. For areas with moderate levels

Under some conditions not accounted for in Table 1, the of wind, temperature and relative humidity, the listed
given Kp values may need some adjustment. This is the case values may need to be reduced by 5-10%. No or little
in areas with no agricultural development or in areas where reduction in Kp is needed in humid, cool conditions.
the pans are surrounded by tall crops. Not maintaining the Y When the pan is surrounded by tall crops, such as
standard colour of the pan or installing screens can also maize, the listed Kp values need to be increased by up
affect the pan readings and hence will require some to 30% for dry, windy climates and 5-10% for calm,
adjustment on the Kp value The following adjustments are humid environments.
recommended by FAO (1984):
Y The listed Kp values are for galvanized pans painted
Y In areas with no agricultural development and annually with aluminum paint. If the pan is painted
extensive areas of bare soil (large fetch), the listed Kp black, an increase of Epan up to 10% should be
values given for arid windy areas may need to be considered.

Module 4 – 7
Irrigation manual

Example 1

Given the following meteorological data for the months of January and October respectively for a location in Southern
Africa:
January: October:
Epan = 148 mm Epan = 236 mm
Relative Humidity (RH)mean = 77% Relative Humidity (RH)mean = 54%
Wind speed = 1.42 m/sec Wind speed = 2.01 m/sec
The Class A pan used is screened and located in a green area surrounded by short irrigated field crops throughout
the year, extending at least 100 m around the pan. What are the ETo values for the two months?
Since screening reduces the evaporation by 10% the above Epan figures will be increased by 10%.
Therefore:
Epan = 148 x 1.10 = 162.8 mm for the month of January
Epan = 236 x 1.10 = 259.6 mm for the month of October
The pan is installed on a green surface with short crops and thus Case A applies (Table 1).
Using Table 1, with a RH of >70%, a fetch of 100 m and a wind velocity of < 2 m/sec, the pan coefficient for the month
of January will be: Kp = 0.85
Similarly, for the month of October where wind velocity is moderate (2.01 m/sec) and the RH is 54%: Kp = 0.80
Using Equation 2, the ETo values will be:
ETo = 162.8 x 0.85 = 138.4 mm for the month of January or 4.5 mm/day
ETo = 259.6 x 0.80 = 207.7 mm for the month of October or 6.7 mm/day

Y If pans are screened, a reduction of Epan by up to 10% Y The level at which the water is maintained in the pan is
should be expected and the figures should thus be important. It should be maintained between 5 and 7.5
increased by 10%. cm below the rim so that variations in air movement
due to the part of the pan above the water level do not
Y The turbidity of the water in the pan usually does not
occur unnecessarily. When the water level drops below
affect Epan by more than 5%.
7.5 cm from the rim of the pan, water should be added
The above adjustments indicate that the use of tables may until the level is about 5 cm from the top. After heavy
not be enough to consider all local environmental factors rainfall it may be it may be necessary to remove water
influencing Kp and that local adjustment may be necessary. to drop the level to the 5 cm mark.
Y The mounting of the pan on a wooden open frame
2.2.4. Siting and maintenance of evaporation pans platform is necessary to allow free air movement
beneath the pan. It is important, therefore, to keep the
It is important to site and maintain the evaporation pan
area under the pan free from weeds or grass at all times.
correctly, in order to obtain reasonably accurate results.
Attention should be paid to the following aspects: Y The pan must be kept clean. Any frogs or insects that
get into the pan must be removed, nor should grass,
Y Siting is one of the most important aspects in the use
leaves or algae be allowed to accumulate in it, especially
of the evaporation pan. Ideally, the evaporation pan
on the water surface. A dirty pan will have atypical
should be sited near the fields and downwind of the
thermal properties and possibly a lower evaporating
crops. For practical farming purposes, however, it is
surface area than a clean pan. The pan should be
advised to site the pan in the vicinity of the homestead
emptied, thoroughly cleaned and refilled with clean
or farm buildings where there is easy access for
water at about four week intervals.
maintenance and recording. The evaporation pan
should be placed in a large, secure, wire enclosure to Y The pan should be painted annually with aluminium
prevent animals from entering and drinking the water. paint. Care should be taken not to scratch the paint
It is absolutely essential that it is sited so that it is not when cleaning. The frame for the screen should also be
sheltered from the sun and wind by tall grass, trees, painted with aluminum paint.
buildings or other obstacles.

8– Module 4
 Module 4: Crop water requirements and irrigation scheduling

The evaporation pan is widely used as a practical tool for ∆ = Slope of saturation vapour pressure
irrigation scheduling, which is dealt with in Chapter 9. curve at temperature T (kPa/°C)
γ = Psychrometric constant (kPa/°C)

2.3. FAO Penman-Monteith method The equation uses standard climatological records of solar
As explained in Section 2.1, the FAO Penman-Monteith radiation (sunshine), air temperature, humidity and wind
method is now the sole recommended method for speed for daily, weekly, ten-day or monthly calculations.
determining reference crop evapotranspiration (ETo). This The selection of the time step with which ETo is calculated
method overcomes the shortcomings of all other previous depends on the purpose of the calculation, the accuracy
empirical and semi-empirical methods and provides ETo required and the time step of the climatic data available.
values that are more consistent with actual crop water use Some of the data are measured directly in weather stations.
data in all regions and climates. Other parameters are related to commonly measured data
and can be derived with the help of direct or empirical
The method has been developed by unambiguously defining equations. To ensure the integrity of computations, weather
the reference surface as ‘a hypothetical reference crop with measurements should be made at 2 m (or converted to that
an assumed crop height of 0.12 m, a fixed surface resistance height) above an extensive surface of green grass shading
of 70 sec/m and an albedo of 0.23’ (FAO, 1998a). The the ground that is not short of water. It is important to
surface resistance describes the resistance of vapour flow verify the units in which the weather data are reported so
through the transpiring crop and evaporating soil surface. that any common units can be converted to standard units.
The reference surface closely resembles an extensive surface
of green grass that is of uniform height, actively growing, Apart from the climatological records the equation
completely shading the ground and adequately watered. The requires the site location. Altitude above sea level (m) and
requirement that the grass surface should be both extensive latitude (degrees north or south) of the location should be
and uniform results from the assumption that all fluxes are specified. These data are needed to adjust some weather
one-dimensional upwards. The reference crop parameters for the local average value of atmospheric
evapotranspiration (ETo) provides a standard to which: pressure (a function of the site elevation above mean sea
level) and to compute extraterrestrial radiation (Ra) and,
Y Evapotranspiration at different periods of the year or in
in some cases, daylight hours (N). In the calculation
other regions can be compared
procedures for Ra and N the latitude is expressed in
Y Evapotranspiration of other crops can be related radians (= decimal degrees x π/180). A positive value is
through the use of crop coefficients used for the Northern Hemisphere and a negative value for
the Southern Hemisphere.
2.3.1. Penman-Monteith Equation
The Penman-Monteith Equation is given by the following 2.3.2. Sources of climatic data
equation (FAO, 1998a): The meteorological factors determining evapotranspiration
are weather parameters, which provide energy for
Equation 3
vaporization and remove water vapour from the evaporating
900
surface. The principal weather parameters to consider are
0.408 ∆ (Rn - G) + γ u2 (es - ea) air temperature, air humidity, solar radiation and wind
T + 273
ETo =
∆ + γ (1 + 0.34 u2)
speed.

Where: Meteorological data are recorded at various weather stations.

ETo = Reference evapotranspiration (mm/day) Agrometeorological stations are sited in cropped areas where
Rn = Net radiation at the crop surface instruments are exposed to atmospheric conditions similar
(MJ/m2 per day) to those for the surrounding crops. In these stations air
G = Soil heat flux density (MJ/m2 per day) temperature and humidity, wind speed and sunshine
T = Mean daily air temperature at 2 m duration are typically measured at 2 m above ground level on
height (°C) an extensive surface of grass or short crop. Data collected at
u2 = Wind speed at 2 m height (m/sec) stations other than agrometeorological stations require
es = Saturation vapour pressure (kPa) careful analysis of their validity before use.
ea = Actual vapour pressure (kPa)
es - ea = Saturation vapour pressure deficit In most countries in East and Southern Africa a national
(kPa) meteorological service commonly publishes meteorological

Module 4 – 9
Irrigation manual

bulletins, listing processed climatic data from the various Zimbabwe, which is located at an altitude of 1 479 m above
stations. These services should be contacted for sea level, 17°56' South Latitude and 31°05' East Longitude,
information on local climatic data, collected at various types will be used for this exercise (Table 2).
of weather stations in the country, for use as input data in
the FAO Penman-Monteith Equation. Psychrometric constant (γ)
Since 1984 FAO has created databases of mean monthly For details on the psyschrometric constant (γ) the reader is
agroclimatic data for various climatic stations around the referred to FAO (1998a). Table 3 summarizes the values of
world, such as those given in FAO Irrigation and Drainage γ as a function of altitude, using the following equation:
Papers No. 46 & 49 (FAO, 1992; FAO, 1993). The
Equation 4
International Water Management Institute (IWMI) has also
published electronic databases for parts of the world. cp P
γ = = 0.665 x 10-3 P
The databases can be consulted in order to verify the ελ
consistency of the actual database or to estimate missing Where:
climatic parameters. They should only be used for cp = Specific heat at constant pressure =
preliminary studies as they contain, in general, mean 1.013 x 10-3 MJ/kg per °C
monthly data only and some stations have incomplete data. P = Atmospheric pressure (kPa)
The information found from the databases should never ε = Ratio molecular weight of water vapour/dry air =
replace actual long-term data. 0.622
λ = Latent heat vaporization =
2.45 MJ/kg (at 20°C)
2.3.3. Calculation procedures for ETo using the FAO
Penman-Monteith Equation
The altitude of Kutsaga Research Station is 1 479 m. Using
The use of the FAO Penman-Monteith Equation in Table 3, the value of γ is estimated, with the aid of
calculating ETo will be illustrated step by step in this interpolation, to be 0.056 kPa/°C.
section. Data from the Harare Kutsaga Research Station in

Table 2
Meteorological data for Harare Kutsaga Research Station (Source: Department of Meteorological services,
Zimbabwe, 1978)

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Tmax (°C) 26.1 25.9 26.1 25.4 23.5 21.3 21.4 23.8 26.9 28.7 27.0 26.1
Tmin (°C) 15.7 15.6 14.3 12.5 9.1 6.7 6.1 7.8 10.6 13.8 15.1 15.7
RHmean (%) 76 77 72 67 62 60 55 50 45 48 63 73
Sunshine (hrs) 6.6 6.6 7.7 8.2 8.7 8.4 8.8 9.5 9.7 9.4 7.1 6.1
Wind speed (knots) * 6.1 6.0 6.4 6.3 6.1 6.4 6.9 7.7 8.7 9.1 7.5 6.7
*Measured at 14m above ground level

Table 3
Psychrometric constant (γ) for different altitudes (z) (Source: FAO, 1998a)

z (m) γ (kPa/°C ) z (m) γ (kPa/°C) z (m) γ (kPa/°C) z (m) γ (kPa/°C)

0 0.067 1000 0.060 2000 0.053 3000 0.047
100 0.067 1100 0.059 2100 0.052 3100 0.046
200 0.066 1200 0.058 2200 0.052 3200 0.046
300 0.065 1300 0.058 2300 0.051 3300 0.045
400 0.064 1400 0.057 2400 0.051 3400 0.045
500 0.064 1500 0.056 2500 0.050 3500 0.044
600 0.063 1600 0.056 2600 0.049 3600 0.043
700 0.062 1700 0.055 2700 0.049 3700 0.043
800 0.061 1800 0.054 2800 0.048 3800 0.042
900 0.061 1900 0.054 2900 0.047 3900 0.042
1000 0.060 2000 0.053 3000 0.047 4000 0.041

10 – Module 4
 Module 4: Crop water requirements and irrigation scheduling

Air temperature Equation 6

The mean air temperature, which is also needed for the e°(Tmax) + e°(Tmin)
calculation of the slope of saturation pressure curve ∆ (see es =
2
below), is given by the following equation:
Where:
Equation 5 es = Mean saturation vapour pressure (kPa)
e°(Tmax) = Saturation vapour pressure at the
Tmax + Tmin maximum air temperature (kPa)
Tmean =
2 e°(Tmin) = Saturation vapour pressure at the
minimum air temperature (kPa)
Where:
Tmean = Mean daily temperature (°C)
Equation 7
Tmax = Mean daily maximum temperature (°C)
Tmin = Mean daily minimum temperature (°C) 17.27 T
e°(T) = 0.6108 exp
T + 237.3
Vapour pressure Where:
T = Mean air temperature (°C)
Mean saturation vapour pressure (es) exp[..] = 2.7183 (base of natural logarithm)
As the saturation vapour pressure is related to the air raised to the power [..]
temperature, it can be calculated from the air temperature.
Table 4 provides the relationship between temperature (T) The values of e°(Tmax) and e°(Tmin) for Katsuga Research
and saturation vapour pressure (e°). Details on this Station were derived through interpolation using Table 4
relationship can be found in FAO (1998a). From Table 4 and are presented in Table 7, together with the es calculated
the e° values corresponding to Tmax and Tmin are selected using Equation 6.
and averaged in order to obtain es, as given by the following
equation:

Table 4
Saturation vapour pressure (e°) for different temperatures (T) (Source: FAO, 1998a)

T (°C) e° ( kPa) T (°C) e° ( kPa) T (°C) e° ( kPa) T (°C) e° ( kPa)

1.0 0.657 13.0 1.498 25.0 3.168 37.0 6.275
1.5 0.681 13.5 1.547 25.5 3.263 37.5 6.448
2.0 0.706 14.0 1.599 26.0 3.361 38.0 6.625
2.5 0.731 14.5 1.651 26.5 3.462 38.5 6.806
3.0 0.758 15.0 1.705 27.0 3.565 39.0 6.991
3.5 0.785 15.5 1.761 27.5 3.671 39.5 7.181
4.0 0.813 16.0 1.818 28.0 3.780 40.0 7.376
4.5 0.842 16.5 1.877 28.5 3.891 40.5 7.574
5.0 0.872 17.0 1.938 29.0 4.006 41.0 7.778
5.5 0.903 17.5 2.000 29.5 4.123 41.5 7.986
6.0 0.935 18.0 2.064 30.0 4.243 42.0 8.199
6.5 0.968 18.5 2.130 30.5 4.366 42.5 8.417
7.0 1.002 19.0 2.197 31.0 4.493 43.0 8.640
7.5 1.037 19.5 2.267 31.5 4.622 43.5 8.867
8.0 1.073 20.0 2.338 32.0 4.755 44.0 9.101
8.5 1.110 20.5 2.412 32.5 4.891 44.5 9.339
9.0 1.148 21.0 2.487 33.0 5.030 45.0 9.582
9.5 1.187 21.5 2.564 33.5 5.173 45.5 9.832
10.0 1.228 22.0 2.644 34.0 5.319 46.0 10.086
10.5 1.270 22.5 2.726 34.5 5.469 46.5 10.347
11.0 1.313 23.0 2.809 35.0 5.623 47.0 10.613
11.5 1.357 23.5 2.896 35.5 5.780 47.5 10.885
12.0 1.403 24.0 2.984 36.0 5.491 48.0 11.163
12.5 1.449 24.5 3.075 36.5 6.106 48.5 11.447

Module 4 – 11
Irrigation manual

Slope of saturation vapour pressure curve (∆) Where:

17.27 T
This is the slope of the relationship between saturation 0.6108 exp = e° (Table 4)
T + 237.3
vapour pressure and temperature. For details, the reader is
referred to FAO (1998a). Table 5 summarizes the values of T = mean daily temperature (Equation 5)
the slope of saturation vapour pressure curve for different For Katsuga Research Station, the values of Tmean can be
air temperatures calculated. The value of ∆ is a function of calculated using Equation 5. These values are then used in
the mean air temperature (see above) and is calculated Table 5 to estimate D, using interpolation. The results
using the following equation: derived are summarized in Table 6.
Equation 8
Actual vapour pressure (ea)
17.27 T
4 098 0.6108 exp The calculation of the actual vapour pressure (ea) is
T + 237.3
∆ = dependent on the meteorological data available. It can be
(T + 237.3)2
derived from the dew point temperature data or from the
relative humidity (RH) data. Since in most climatological
stations relative humidity data are readily available, this is
what is commonly used to determine ea.

Table 5
Slope of saturation vapour pressure curve (∆) for different air temperatures (T) (Source: FAO, 1998a)

T (°C) ∆ (kPa/°C) T (°C) ∆ ( kPa/°C) T (°C) ∆ (kPa/°C) T (°C) ∆ (kPa/°C)

1.0 0.047 13.0 0.098 25.0 0.189 37.0 0.342
1.5 0.049 13.5 0.101 25.5 0.194 37.5 0.350
2.0 0.050 14.0 0.104 26.0 0.199 38.0 0.358
2.5 0.052 14.5 0.107 26.5 0.204 38.5 0.367
3.0 0.054 15.0 0.110 27.0 0.209 39.0 0.375
3.5 0.055 15.5 0.113 27.5 0.215 39.5 0.384
4.0 0.057 16.0 0.116 28.0 0.220 40.0 0.393
4.5 0.059 16.5 0.119 28.5 0.226 40.5 0.402
5.0 0.061 17.0 0.123 29.0 0.231 41.0 0.412
5.5 0.063 17.5 0.126 29.5 0.237 41.5 0.421
6.0 0.065 18.0 0.130 30.0 0.243 42.0 0.431
6.5 0.067 18.5 0.133 30.5 0.249 42.5 0.441
7.0 0.069 19.0 0.137 31.0 0.256 43.0 0.451
7.5 0.071 19.5 0.141 31.5 0.262 43.5 0.461
8.0 0.073 20.0 0.145 32.0 0.269 44.0 0.471
8.5 0.075 20.5 0.149 32.5 0.275 44.5 0.482
9.0 0.078 21.0 0.153 33.0 0.282 45.0 0.493
9.5 0.080 21.5 0.157 33.5 0.289 45.5 0.504
10.0 0.082 22.0 0.161 34.0 0.296 46.0 0.515
10.5 0.085 22.5 0.165 34.5 0.303 46.5 0.526
11.0 0.087 23.0 0.170 35.0 0.311 47.0 0.538
11.5 0.090 23.5 0.174 35.5 0.318 47.5 0.550
12.0 0.092 24.0 0.179 36.0 0.326 48.0 0.562
12.5 0.095 24.5 0.184 36.5 0.334 48.5 0.574

Table 6
Values of Tmean and ∆ for Kutsaga Research Station

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Tmean(°C) 20.9 20.8 20.2 19.0 16.3 14.0 13.8 15.8 18.8 21.3 21.1 20.9
∆ (kPa/°C) 0.152 0.151 0.146 0.137 0.118 0.104 0.102 0.115 0.136 0.155 0.154 0.152

12 – Module 4
 Module 4: Crop water requirements and irrigation scheduling

If RHmax and RHmin values are available then the actual Radiation
vapour pressure is calculated using the following equation:
Net Radiation (Rn)
Equation 9
One of the major inputs to the FAO Penman-Monteith
RHmax RHmin Equation is the net radiation at the crop surface (Rn). The
e° (Tmin) x + e° (Tmax) x net radiation is the difference between the incoming net
100 100
ea = shortwave radiation (Rns) and the outgoing net longwave
2
radiation (Rnl):
Where:
ea = Actual vapour pressure (kPa) Equation 11
e° (Tmin) = Saturation vapour pressure at daily
minimum temperature (kPa) Rn = Rns - Rnl
e° (Tmax) = Saturation vapour pressure at daily
maximum temperature (kPa)
Where:
RHmax = Maximum relative humidity (%)
Rn = Net radiation (MJ/m2 per day)
RHmin = Minimum relative humidity (%)
Rns = Net incoming shortwave radiation(MJ/m2
per day)
In the absence of RHmax and RHmin another equation can Rnl = Net outgoing longwave radiation (MJ/m2
be used to estimate ea: per day)

Equation 10
Rn is normally calculated from the measured shortwave
RHmean e° (Tmax) + e° (Tmin) RHmean
radiation (Rs)
ea = x = x es
100 2 100 To explain the calculation of Rn, it is important to first
Where: explain some concepts and define certain parameters in the
RHmean = the mean relative humidity, defined process of deriving the inputs of Equation 12 for the
as the average between RHmax and calculation of Rs.
RHmin
Extraterrestrial radiation (Ra)
Vapour pressure deficit (es - ea) Extraterrestrial radiation (Ra) is the solar radiation received
The vapour pressure deficit is the difference between the at the top of the earth’s atmosphere on a horizontal surface.
mean saturation vapour pressure (es) and the actual vapour The local intensity of the radiation is determined by the
pressure (ea) for a given time period. angle between the direction of the sun’s rays and the
normal (perpendicular) to the surface of the atmosphere.
At Kutsaga Research Station, we have meteorological data This angle will change during the day and will be different
on Tmax, Tmin and RHmean. Using Table 4 and Equation 6 at different latitudes and in different seasons. The angle is
to calculate es and Equation 10 to calculate ea, the vapour zero, if the sun is directly overhead. As seasons change, the
pressure deficit (es - ea) calculations for Kutsaga Research position of the sun, the length of the day and, hence, Ra
Station are presented in Table 7. change. Ra for each day of the year and for different

Table 7
Monthly vapour pressure deficit values for Kutsaga Research Station

Unit Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Tmax (°C) 26.1 25.9 26.1 25.4 23.5 21.3 21.4 23.8 26.9 28.7 27.0 26.1
Tmin (°C) 15.7 15.6 14.3 12.5 9.1 6.7 6.1 7.8 10.6 13.8 15.1 15.7
RHmean (%) 76 77 72 67 62 60 55 50 45 48 63 73
e° (Tmax) (kPa) 3.381 3.341 3.381 3.244 2.896 2.533 2.549 2.949 3.544 3.937 3.565 3.381
e° (Tmin) (kPa) 1.784 1.772 1.630 1.449 1.156 0.982 0.942 1.059 1.279 1.578 1.716 1.784
es (kPa) 2.582 2.556 2.506 2.346 2.026 1.758 1.746 2.004 2.412 2.758 2.641 2.582
ea (kPa) 1.962 1.968 1.804 1.572 1.256 1.055 0.960 1.002 1.085 1.324 1.664 1.885
(es-ea) (kPa) 0.620 0.588 0.702 0.774 0.770 0.703 0.786 1.002 1.327 1.434 0.977 0.697

Module 4 – 13
Irrigation manual

latitudes can be estimated by calculation using equations. Northern Hemisphere and Table 9 for the Southern
The relevant equations and calculation procedures are Hemisphere. These values represent Ra on the 15th day of
presented in detail in FAO (1998a). Some values of Ra for each month and provide a good estimate (error < 1%) of
different latitudes are summarized in Table 8 for the Ra averaged over all days within the month.

Table 8
Daily extraterrestrial radiation (Ra) for different latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere for the 15th day of the
montha (Source: FAO, 1998a)

Latitude Northern Hemisphere: Values in MJ/m2 per dayb

Degree Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
70 0.0 2.6 10.4 23.0 35.2 42.5 39.4 28.0 14.9 4.9 0.1 0.0
68 0.1 3.7 11.7 23.9 35.3 42.0 38.9 28.6 16.1 6.0 0.7 0.0
66 0.6 4.8 12.9 24.8 35.6 41.4 38.8 29.3 17.3 7.2 1.5 0.1
64 1.4 5.9 14.1 25.8 35.9 41.2 38.8 30.0 18.4 8.5 2.4 0.6
62 2.3 7.1 15.4 26.6 36.3 41.2 39.0 30.6 19.5 9.7 3.4 1.3
60 3.3 8.3 16.6 27.5 36.6 41.2 39.2 31.3 20.6 10.9 4.4 2.2
58 4.3 9.6 17.7 28.4 37.0 41.3 39.4 32.0 21.7 12.1 5.5 3.1
56 5.4 10.8 18.9 29.2 37.4 41.4 39.6 32.6 22.7 13.3 6.7 4.2
54 6.5 12.0 20.0 30.0 37.8 41.5 39.8 33.2 23.7 14.5 7.8 5.2
52 7.7 13.2 21.1 30.8 38.2 41.6 40.1 33.8 24.7 15.7 9.0 6.4
50 8.9 14.4 22.2 31.5 38.5 41.7 40.2 34.4 25.7 16.9 10.2 7.5
48 10.1 15.7 23.3 32.2 38.8 41.8 40.4 34.9 26.6 18.1 11.4 8.7
46 11.3 16.9 24.3 32.9 39.1 41.9 40.6 35.4 27.5 19.2 12.6 9.9
44 12.5 18.0 25.3 33.5 39.3 41.9 40.7 35.9 28.4 20.3 13.9 11.1
42 13.8 19.2 26.3 34.1 39.5 41.9 40.8 36.3 29.2 21.4 15.1 12.4
40 15.0 20.4 27.2 34.7 39.7 41.9 40.8 36.7 30.0 22.5 16.3 13.6
38 16.2 21.5 28.1 35.2 39.9 41.8 40.8 37.0 30.7 23.6 17.5 14.8
36 17.5 22.6 29.0 35.7 40.0 41.7 40.8 37.4 31.5 24.6 18.7 16.1
34 18.7 23.7 29.9 36.1 40.0 41.6 40.8 37.6 32.1 25.6 19.9 17.3
32 19.9 24.8 30.7 36.5 40.0 41.4 40.7 37.9 32.8 26.6 21.1 18.5
30 21.1 25.8 31.4 36.8 40.0 41.2 40.6 38.0 33.4 27.6 22.2 19.8
28 22.3 26.8 32.2 37.1 40.0 40.9 40.4 38.2 33.9 28.5 23.3 21.0
26 23.4 27.8 32.8 37.4 39.9 40.6 40.2 38.3 34.5 29.3 24.5 22.2
24 24.6 28.8 33.5 37.6 39.7 40.3 39.9 38.3 34.9 30.2 25.5 23.3
22 25.7 29.7 34.1 37.8 39.5 40.0 39.6 38.4 35.4 31.0 26.6 24.5
20 26.8 30.6 34.7 37.9 39.3 39.5 39.3 38.3 35.8 31.8 27.7 25.6
18 27.9 31.5 35.2 38.0 39.0 39.1 38.9 38.2 36.1 32.5 28.7 26.8
16 28.9 32.3 35.7 38.1 38.7 38.6 38.5 38.1 36.4 33.2 29.6 27.9
14 29.9 33.1 36.1 38.1 38.4 38.1 38.1 38.0 36.7 33.9 30.6 28.9
12 30.9 33.8 36.5 38.0 38.0 37.6 37.6 37.8 36.9 34.5 31.5 30.0
10 31.9 34.5 36.9 37.9 37.6 37.0 37.1 37.5 37.1 35.1 32.4 31.0
8 32.8 35.2 37.2 37.8 37.1 36.3 36.5 37.2 37.2 35.6 33.3 32.0
6 33.7 35.8 37.4 37.6 36.6 35.7 35.9 36.9 37.3 36.1 34.1 32.9
4 34.6 36.4 37.6 37.4 36.0 35.0 35.3 36.5 37.3 36.6 34.9 33.9
2 35.4 37.0 37.8 37.1 35.4 34.2 34.6 36.1 37.3 37.0 35.6 34.8
0 36.2 37.5 37.9 36.8 34.8 33.4 33.9 35.7 37.2 37.4 36.3 35.6
a Values for Ra on the 15th day of the month provide a good estimate (error < 1%) of Ra averaged over all days within the month. Only for high latitudes,
greater than 55° (N or S), during winter months may deviations be more than 1%.
b Values can be converted to equivalent values in mm/day by dividing by λ = 2.45 (see Table 3).

14 – Module 4
 Module 4: Crop water requirements and irrigation scheduling

Table 9
Daily extraterrestrial radiation (Ra) for different latitudes in the Southern Hemisphere for the 15th day of the
montha (Source: FAO, 1998a)

Latitude Southern Hemisphere: Values in MJ/m2 per dayb

Degree Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
70 41.4 28.6 15.8 4.9 0.2 0.0 0.0 2.2 10.7 23.5 37.3 45.3
68 41.0 29.3 16.9 6.0 0.8 0.0 0.0 3.2 11.9 24.4 37.4 44.7
66 40.9 30.0 18.1 7.2 1.5 0.1 0.5 4.2 31.1 25.4 37.6 44.1
64 41.0 30.8 19.3 8.4 2.4 0.6 1.2 5.3 14.4 26.3 38.0 43.9
62 41.2 31.5 20.4 9.6 3.4 1.2 2.0 6.4 15.5 27.2 38.3 43.9
60 41.5 32.3 21.5 10.8 4.4 2.0 2.9 7.6 16.7 28.1 38.7 43.9
58 41.7 33.0 22.6 12.0 5.5 2.9 3.9 8.7 17.9 28.9 39.1 44.0
56 42.0 33.7 23.6 13.2 6.6 3.9 4.9 9.9 19.0 29.8 39.5 44.1
54 42.2 34.3 24.6 14.4 7.7 4.9 6.0 11.1 20.1 30.6 39.9 44.3
52 42.5 35.0 25.6 15.6 8.8 6.0 7.1 12.2 21.2 31.4 40.2 44.4
50 42.7 35.6 26.6 16.7 10.0 7.1 8.2 13.4 22.2 32.1 40.6 44.5
48 42.9 36.2 27.5 17.9 11.1 8.2 9.3 14.6 23.3 32.8 40.9 44.5
46 43.0 36.7 28.4 19.0 12.3 9.3 10.4 15.7 24.3 33.5 41.1 44.6
44 43.2 37.2 29.3 20.1 13.5 10.5 11.6 16.8 25.2 34.1 41.4 44.6
42 43.3 37.7 30.1 21.2 14.6 11.6 12.8 18.0 26.2 34.7 41.6 44.6
40 43.4 38.1 30.9 22.3 15.8 12.8 13.9 19.1 27.1 35.3 41.8 44.6
38 43.4 38.5 31.7 23.3 16.9 13.9 15.1 20.2 28.0 35.8 41.9 44.5
36 43.4 38.9 32.4 24.3 18.1 15.1 16.2 21.2 28.8 36.3 42.0 44.4
34 43.4 39.2 33.0 25.3 19.2 16.2 17.4 22.3 29.6 36.7 42.0 44.3
32 43.3 39.4 33.7 26.3 20.3 17.4 18.5 23.3 30.4 37.1 42.0 44.1
30 43.1 39.6 34.3 27.2 21.4 18.5 19.6 24.3 31.1 37.5 42.0 43.9
28 43.0 39.8 34.8 28.1 22.5 19.7 20.7 25.3 31.8 37.8 41.9 43.6
26 42.8 39.9 35.3 29.0 23.5 20.8 21.8 26.3 32.5 38.0 41.8 43.3
24 42.5 40.0 35.8 29.8 24.6 21.9 22.9 27.2 33.1 38.3 41.7 43.0
22 42.2 40.1 36.2 30.6 25.6 23.0 24.0 28.1 33.7 38.4 41.4 42.6
20 41.9 40.0 36.6 31.3 26.6 24.1 25.0 28.9 34.2 38.6 41.2 42.1
18 41.5 40.0 37.0 32.1 27.6 25.1 26.0 29.8 34.7 38.7 40.9 41.7
16 41.1 39.9 37.2 32.8 28.5 26.2 27.0 30.6 35.2 38.7 40.6 41.2
14 40.6 39.7 37.5 33.4 29.4 27.2 279 31.3 35.6 38.7 40.2 40.6
12 40.1 39.6 37.7 34.0 30.2 28.1 289 32.1 36.0 38.6 39.8 40.0
10 39.5 39.3 37.8 34.6 31.1 29.1 29.8 32.8 36.3 38.5 39.3 39.4
8 38.9 39.0 37.9 35.1 31.9 30.0 30.7 33.4 36.6 38.4 38.8 38.7
6 38.3 38.7 38.0 35.6 32.7 30.9 31.5 34.0 36.8 38.2 38.2 38.0
4 37.6 38.3 38.0 36.0 33.4 31.8 32.3 34.6 37.0 38.0 37.6 37.2
2 36.9 37.9 38.0 36.4 34.1 32.6 33.1 35.2 37.1 37.7 37.0 36.4
0 36.2 37.5 37.9 36.8 34.8 33.4 33.9 35.7 37.2 37.4 36.3 35.6
a Values for Ra on the 15th day of the month provide a good estimate (error < 1%) of Ra averaged over all days within the month. Only for high latitudes,
greater than 55° (N or S), during winter months may deviations be more than 1%.
b Values can be converted to equivalent values in mm/day by dividing by λ = 2.45 (see Table 3).

Solar or shortwave radiation (Rs) Rs can be measured in weather stations with pyranometers,
Part of the extraterrestrial radiation (Ra) is scattered, radiometers or solarimeters. In some stations values of solar
reflected or absorbed in the process of entering the radiation are part of the climatological data available. If it is
atmosphere. The amount of radiation that reaches the not measured it can be calculated through the use of an
earth’s surface is called solar radiation (Rs). It depends on equation which relates solar radiation to extraterrestrial
Ra and the transmission through the atmosphere, which is radiation and relative sunshine duration:
largely dependent on cloud cover.

Module 4 – 15
Irrigation manual

Equation 12 The maximum duration of sunshine (N) can be calculated

using equations. However, to simplify the calculation
n
Rs = 0.25 + 0.5 Ra procedures, values of N for different latitudes can be read
N
from Table 10 for the Northern Hemisphere and Table 11
Where: for the Southern Hemisphere.
Rs = Solar or shortwave radiation (MJ/m2 per day)
n = Actual sunshine hours (hour)
The actual duration of sunshine (n) is recorded with a
N = Maximum possible duration of sunshine
sunshine recorder and is part of the climatological data
hours or daylight hours (hour) provided by weather stations. The n/N ratio can also be
n/N = Relative sunshine duration obtained from data on cloud cover, if data on sunshine
Ra = Extraterrestrial radiation (MJ/m2 per day) hours are not available, using the general conversions in
Table 12.

Table 10
Mean daylight hours (N) for different latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere for the 15th day of the montha
(Source: FAO, 1998a)

Latitude Northern Hemisphere

Degree Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
70 0.0 6.6 11.0 15.6 21.3 24.0 24.0 17.6 12.8 8.3 2.3 0.0
68 2.1 7.3 11.1 15.3 19.7 24.0 22.3 17.0 12.7 8.7 4.1 0.0
66 3.9 7.8 11.2 14.9 18.7 22.0 20.3 16.4 12.7 9.0 5.2 1.9
64 5.0 8.2 11.2 14.7 17.9 2.0 19.2 16.0 12.6 9.3 6.0 3.7
62 5.7 8.5 11.3 14.4 17.3 19.2 18.4 15.7 12.6 9.5 6.6 4.8
60 6.4 8.8 11.4 14.2 16.8 18.4 17.7 15.3 12.5 9.7 7.1 5.6
58 6.9 9.1 11.4 14.1 16.4 17.8 17.2 15.1 12.5 9.9 7.5 6.2
56 7.3 9.3 11.5 13.9 16.0 17.3 16.8 14.8 12.4 10.1 7.9 6.7
54 7.7 9.5 11.5 13.8 15.7 16.8 16.4 14.6 12.4 10.2 8.2 7.1
52 8.0 9.7 11.5 13.6 15.4 16.5 16.0 14.4 12.4 10.3 8.5 7.5
50 8.3 9.8 11.6 13.5 15.2 16.1 15.7 14.3 12.3 10.4 8.7 7.9
48 8.6 10.0 11.6 13.4 15.0 15.8 15.5 14.1 12.3 10.6 9.0 8.2
46 8.8 10.1 11.6 13.3 14.8 15.5 15.2 14.0 12.3 10.7 9.2 8.5
44 9.1 10.3 11.6 13.2 14.6 15.3 15.0 13.8 12.3 10.7 9.4 8.7
42 9.3 10.4 11.7 13.2 14.4 15.0 14.8 13.7 12.3 10.8 9.6 9.0
40 9.5 10.5 11.7 13.1 14.2 14.8 14.6 13.6 12.2 10.9 9.7 9.2
38 9.6 10.6 11.7 13.0 14.1 14.6 14.4 13.5 12.2 11.0 9.9 9.4
36 9.8 10.7 11.7 12.9 13.9 14.4 14.2 13.4 12.2 11.1 10.1 9.6
34 10.0 10.8 11.8 12.9 13.8 14.3 14.1 13.3 12.2 11.1 10.2 9.7
32 10.1 10.9 11.8 12.8 13.6 14.1 13.9 13.2 12.2 11.2 10.3 9.9
30 10.3 11.0 11.8 12.7 13.5 13.9 13.8 13.1 12.2 11.3 10.5 10.1
28 10.4 11.0 11.8 12.7 13.4 13.8 13.6 13.0 12.2 11.3 10.6 10.2
26 10.5 11.1 11.8 12.6 13.3 13.6 13.5 12.9 12.1 11.4 10.7 10.4
24 10.7 11.2 11.8 12.6 13.2 13.5 13.3 12.8 12.1 11.4 10.8 10.5
22 10.8 11.3 11.9 12.5 13.1 13.3 13.2 12.8 12.1 11.5 10.9 10.7
20 10.9 11.3 11.9 12.5 12.9 13.2 13.1 12.7 12.1 11.5 11.0 10.8
18 11.0 11.4 11.9 12.4 12.8 13.1 13.0 12.6 12.1 11.6 11.1 10.9
16 11.1 11.5 11.9 12.4 12.7 12.9 12.9 12.5 12.1 11.6 11.2 11.1
14 11.3 11.6 11.9 12.3 12.6 12.8 12.8 12.5 12.1 11.7 11.3 11.2
12 11.4 11.6 11.9 12.3 12.6 12.7 12.6 12.4 12.1 11.7 11.4 11.3
10 11.5 11.7 11.9 12.2 12.5 12.6 12.5 12.3 12.1 11.8 11.5 11.4
8 11.6 11.7 11.9 12.2 12.4 12.5 12.4 12.3 12.0 11.8 11.6 11.5
6 11.7 11.8 12.0 12.1 12.3 12.3 12.3 12.2 12.0 11.9 11.7 11.7
4 11.8 11.9 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.2 12.2 12.1 12.0 11.9 11.8 11.8
2 11.9 11.9 12.0 12.0 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.0 12.0 11.9 11.9
0 12.0 12.0 12.0 12.0 12.0 12.0 12.0 12.0 12.0 12.0 12.0 12.0
a Values for N on the 15th day of the month provide a good estimate (error < 1%) of N averaged over all days within the month. Only for high latitudes,
greater than 55° (N or S), during winter months may deviations be more than 1%.

16 – Module 4
 Module 4: Crop water requirements and irrigation scheduling

Table 11
Mean daylight hours (N) for different latitudes in theSouthern Hemisphere for the 15th day of the month a
(Source: FAO, 1998a)

Latitude Southern Hemisphere

Degree Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
70 24.0 17.4 13.0 8.4 2.7 0.0 0.0 6.4 11.2 15.7 21.7 24.0
68 21.9 16.7 12.9 8.7 4.3 0.0 1.7 7.0 11.3 15.3 19.9 24.0
66 20.1 16.2 12.8 9.1 5.3 2.0 3.7 7.6 11.3 15.0 18.8 22.1
64 19.0 15.8 12.8 9.3 6.1 3.7 4.8 8.0 11.4 14.7 18.0 20.3
62 18.3 15.5 12.7 9.6 6.7 4.8 5.6 8.3 11.4 14.5 17.4 19.2
60 17.6 15.2 12.6 9.8 7.2 5.6 6.3 8.7 11.5 14.3 16.9 18.4
58 17.1 14.9 12.6 9.9 7.6 6.2 6.8 8.9 11.5 14.1 16.5 17.8
56 16.7 14.7 12.5 10.1 8.0 6.7 7.2 9.2 11.6 13.9 16.1 17.3
54 16.3 14.5 12.5 10.2 8.3 7.2 7.6 9.4 11.6 13.8 15.8 16.9
52 16.0 14.3 12.5 10.4 8.6 7.5 8.0 9.6 11.6 13.7 15.5 16.5
50 15.7 14.2 12.4 10.5 8.8 7.9 8.3 9.7 11.7 13.6 15.3 16.1
48 15.4 14.0 12.4 10.6 9.0 8.2 8.5 9.9 11.7 13.4 15.0 15.8
46 15.2 13.9 12.4 10.7 9.2 8.5 8.8 10.0 11.7 13.3 14.8 15.5
44 14.9 13.7 12.4 10.8 9.4 8.7 9.0 10.2 11.7 13.3 14.6 15.3
42 14.7 13.6 12.3 10.8 9.6 9.0 9.2 10.3 11.7 13.2 14.4 15.0
40 14.5 13.5 12.3 10.9 9.8 9.2 9.4 10.4 11.8 13.1 14.3 14.8
38 14.4 13.4 12.3 11.0 9.9 9.4 9.6 10.5 11.8 13.0 14.1 14.6
36 14.2 13.3 12.3 11.1 10.1 9.6 9.8 10.6 11.8 12.9 13.9 14.4
34 14.0 13.2 12.2 11.1 10.2 9.7 9.9 10.7 11.8 12.9 13.8 14.3
32 13.9 13.1 12.2 11.2 10.4 9.9 10.1 10.8 11.8 12.8 13.7 14.1
30 13.7 13.0 12.2 11.3 10.5 10.1 10.2 10.9 11.8 12.7 13.5 13.9
28 13.6 13.0 12.2 11.3 10.6 10.2 10.4 11.0 11.8 12.7 13.4 13.8
26 13.5 12.9 12.2 11.4 10.7 10.4 10.5 11.1 11.9 12.6 13.3 13.6
24 13.3 12.8 12.2 11.4 10.8 10.5 10.7 11.2 11.9 12.6 13.2 13.5
22 13.2 12.7 12.1 11.5 10.9 10.7 10.8 11.2 11.9 12.5 13.1 13.3
20 13.1 12.7 12.1 11.5 11.1 10.8 10.9 11.3 11.9 12.5 13.0 13.2
18 13.0 12.6 12.1 11.6 11.2 10.9 11.0 11.4 11.9 12.4 12.9 13.1
16 12.9 12.5 12.1 11.6 11.3 11.1 11.1 11.5 11.9 12.4 12.8 12.9
14 12.7 12.4 12.1 11.7 11.4 11.2 11.2 11.5 11.9 12.3 12.7 12.8
12 12.6 12.4 12.1 11.7 11.4 11.3 11.4 11.6 11.9 12.3 12.6 12.7
10 12.5 12.3 12.1 11.8 11.5 11.4 11.5 11.7 11.9 12.2 12.5 12.6
8 12.4 12.3 12.1 11.8 11.6 11.5 11.6 11.7 12.0 12.2 12.4 12.5
6 12.3 12.2 12.0 11.9 11.7 11.7 11.7 11.8 12.0 12.1 12.3 12.3
4 12.2 12.1 12.0 11.9 11.8 11.8 11.8 11.9 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.2
2 12.1 12.1 12.0 12.0 11.9 11.9 11.9 11.9 12.0 12.0 12.1 12.1
0 12.0 12.0 12.0 12.0 12.0 12.0 12.0 12.0 12.0 12.0 12.0 12.0
a Values for N on the 15th day of the month provide a good estimate (error < 1%) of N averaged over all days within the month. Only for high latitudes,
greater than 55° (N or S), during winter months may deviations be more than 1%.

Table 12
Conversion factors for cloudiness into equivalent values of n/N [source: FAO, 1984)

Cloudiness (oktas) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
n/N ratio 0.95 0.85 0.75 0.65 0.55 0.45 0.30 0.15 0

Net solar or shortwave radiation (Rns)

The net solar or shortwave radiation, resulting from the Where:
balance between incoming and reflected solar radiation, is Rns = Net solar or shortwave radiation (MJ/m2
given by: per day)
Rs = Incoming solar or shortwave radiation
Equation 13 (MJ/m2 per day)

Rns = (1 - 0.23) Rs

Module 4 – 17
Irrigation manual

Clear sky radiation (Rso) Equation 15

The calculation of clear sky radiation (Rso), when n = N, σ(Tmax, K)4+σ(Tmin, K)4 Rs
Rnl = x (0.34 - 0.14√ea) x 1 35 - 0.35
is required to compute net longwave radiation. Rso is given 2 Rso
by the following simplified expression:
Where:
Equation 14 Rnl = Net outgoing longwave radiation MJ/m2
per day)
2z σ = Stefan-Boltmann constant (4.903 x
Rso = 0.75 + x Ra
100 000 10-9 MJ/K4 per m2 per day)
Tmax, K = Maximum absolute temperature during
Where:
the 24-hour period (K)
Rso = Clear sky solar radiation (MJ/m2 per day)
Tmin, K = Minimum absolute temperature during
z = Station elevation above sea level (m) the 24-hour period (K)
K = °C + 273.16
Net longwave radiation (Rnl) ea = Actual vapour pressure (kPa)
Rs/Rso = Relative shortwave radiation (limited ≤ 1)
The rate of longwave radiation emission is proportional to
Rs = Measured or calculated (Equation 12)
the absolute temperature (Kelvin) of the surface raised to solar radiation (MJ/m2 per day)
the fourth power. Rnl is calculated using the following Rso = Calculated (Equation 14) clear sky
expression: radiation (MJ/m2 per day)
Table 13
σ(TK)4 values at different temperatures (Source: FAO, 1998a)

With σ = 4.903 x 10-9 MJ/K4/m2/day and TK = TC + 273.16

TC σ(TK)4 TC σ(TK)4 TC σ(TK)4
(°C) MJ/m2 per day (°C) MJ/m2 per day (°C) MJ/m2 per day
1.0 27.70 17.0 34.75 33.0 43.08
1.5 27.90 17.5 34.99 33.5 43.36
2.0 28.11 18.0 35.24 34.0 43.64
2.5 28.31 18.5 35.48 34.5 43.93
3.0 28.52 19.0 35.72 35.0 44.21
3.5 28.72 19.5 35.97 35.5 44.50
4.0 28.93 20.0 36.21 36.0 44.79
4.5 29.14 20.5 36.46 36.5 45.08
5.0 29.35 21.0 36.71 37.0 45.37
5.5 29.56 21.5 36.96 37.5 45.67
6.0 29.78 22.0 37.21 38.0 45.96
6.5 29.99 22.5 37.47 38.5 46.26
7.0 30.21 23.0 37.72 39.0 46.56
7.5 30.42 23.5 37.98 39.5 46.85
8.0 30.64 24.0 38.23 40.0 47.15
8.5 30.86 24.5 38.49 40.5 47.46
9.0 31.08 25.0 38.75 41.0 47.76
9.5 31.30 25.5 39.01 41.5 48.06
10.0 31.52 26.0 39.27 42.0 48.37
10.5 31.74 26.5 39.53 42.5 48.68
11.0 31.97 27.0 39.80 43.0 48.99
11.5 32.19 27.5 40.06 43.5 49.30
12.0 32.42 28.0 40.33 44.0 49.61
12.5 32.65 28.5 40.60 44.5 49.92
13.0 32.88 29.0 40.87 45.0 50.24
13.5 33.11 29.5 41.14 45.5 50.56
14.0 33.34 30.0 41.41 46.0 50.87
14.5 33.57 30.5 41.69 46.5 51.19
15.0 33.81 31.0 41.96 47.0 51.51
15.5 34.04 31.5 42.24 47.5 51.84
16.0 34.28 32.0 42.52 48.0 52.16
16.5 34.52 32.5 42.80 48.5 52.49

18 – Module 4
 Table 14
Monthly net radiation for Kutsaga Research Station

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Tmax (°C) (from Table 2) 26.1 25.9 26.1 25.4 23.5 21.3 21.4 23.8 26.9 28.7 27.0 26.1

Tmin (°C) (from Table 2) 15.7 15.6 14.3 12.5 9.1 6.7 6.1 7.8 10.6 13.8 15.1 15.7

n (hrs) (from Table 2) 6.6 6.6 7.7 8.2 8.7 8.4 8.8 9.5 9.7 9.4 7.1 6.1

N (hrs) (from Table 11, latitude is 17°56' South) 13.0 12.6 12.1 11.5 11.2 10.9 11.0 11.4 11.9 12.4 12.9 13.1

n/N ratio 0.51 0.52 0.64 0.71 0.78 0.77 0.8 0.83 0.82 0.76 0.55 0.47

Ra (MJ/m2 per day) (from Table 9, latitude is 17°56' South) 41.5 40.0 37.0 32.1 27.6 25.1 26.0 29.8 34.7 38.7 40.9 41.7

n
Rs = 0.25 + 0.5 Ra (MJ/m2 per day) (Equation 12) 20.958 20.400 21.090 19.421 17.600 15.939 16.900 19.817 22.902 24.381 21.472 20.224
N

Rns = (1 - 0.23) Rs (MJ/m2 per day) (Equation 13) 16.138 15.708 16.239 14.954 13.552 12.273 13.013 15.259 17.635 18.773 16.533 15.572

2z
Rso = 0.75 + Ra (MJ/m2 per day) (Equation 14) 32.352 31.183 28.844 25.025 21.516 19.567 20.269 23.231 27.051 30.170 31.885 32.508
100 000

ea (kPa) ( from Table 7) 1.962 1.968 1.804 1.572 1.256 1.055 0.960 1.002 1.085 1.324 1.664 1.885

σ(Tmax, K)4 (MJ/m2 per day) (from Table 13) 39.32 39.22 39.32 38.96 37.98 36.86 36.91 38.13 39.75 40.71 39.80 39.32

σ(Tmin, K)4 (MJ/m2 per day) (from Table 13) 34.14 34.09 33.48 32.65 31.12 30.08 29.82 30.55 31.79 33.25 33.86 31.14

σ(Tmax, K)4 + σ(Tmin, K)4 Rs

Rnl = (0.34 - 0.14 √ea) 1.35 - 0.35 2.772 2.806 3.525 4.109 4.772 4.923 5.248 5.503 5.508 4.902 3.282 2.551
2 Rso
``` (MJ/m2 per day) (Equation 15)

Rn = Rns - Rnl (MJ/m2 per day) (Equation 11) 13.366 12.902 12.714 10.845 8.780 7.350 7.765 9.576 12.127 13.871 13.251 13.021

Module 4 –
Module 4: Crop water requirements and irrigation scheduling

19
Irrigation manual

An average of the maximum air temperature to the fourth ten-day periods is relatively small and it may be ignored for
power and minimum air temperature to the fourth power all practical purposes. Hence, in ETo calculations using the
is commonly used in Equation 15 for daily time steps. The FAO Penman-Monteith Equation G is considered to be
term (0.34 - 0.14√ea) expresses the correction for air zero.
humidity and will be smaller if the humidity increases. The
effect of cloudiness is expressed by (1.35Rs/Rso - 0.35). Wind speed (u2)
The term becomes smaller if the cloudiness increases and
hence Rs decreases. The smaller the correction factors, the For input into the FAO Penman-Monteith Equation, the
smaller the net outgoing flux of longwave radiation. wind speed measured at 2 m height above the surface is
required. To adjust wind speed data obtained from
Values of σTK4 for different temperatures can be instruments placed at elevations other than the standard
alternatively be read from Table 13 and used as input in height of 2 m the following equation is used:
Equation 15. After determining Rns and Rnl as explained
Equation 16
above, Rn can be easily calculated from Equation 11.
Going back to Kutsaga Research Station and using 4.87
u2 = uz x
Equations 11, 12, 13, 14 and 15 and Tables 2, 7, 9, 11 and In (67.8 z - 5.42)
13, the values of Rn on a month by month basis are Where:
calculated and the results presented in Table 14. u2 = Wind speed at 2 m above ground surface
(m/sec)
Soil heat flux (G) uz = Measured wind speed at z m above ground
surface (m/sec)
The soil heat flux (G) is another input required in the FAO z = Height of measurement above ground
Penman-Monteith Equation. G is the energy that is utilized surface (m)
in heating the soil and it is a component of the energy
balance equation and should be considered when making The corresponding multipliers or conversion factors
estimates of evapotranspiration. The size of the soil heat [= 4.87/ln(67.8z - 5.42)], which can be used to adjust
flux beneath the grass reference surface for one-day and wind speed, are given in Table 15.
Table 15
Conversion factors (multipliers) to convert wind speed measured at given height (over grass) to wind speed
measured at standard height of 2 m above ground surface (Source: FAO, 1998a)

Height z Conversion Height z Conversion Height z Conversion Height z Conversion

(m) factor (m) factor (m) factor (m) factor
– – 2.2 0.980 4.2 0.865 6.0 0.812
– – 2.2 0.980 4.2 0.865 6.0 0.812
– – 2.4 0.963 4.4 0.857 6.5 0.802
– – 2.6 0.947 4.6 0.851 7.0 0.792
– – 2.8 0.933 4.8 0.844 7.5 0.783
1.0 1.178 3.0 0.921 5.0 0.838 8.0 0.775
1.2 1.125 3.2 0.910 5.2 0.833 8.5 0.767
1.4 1.084 3.4 0.899 5.4 0.827 9.0 0.760
1.6 1.051 3.6 0.889 5.6 0.822 9.5 0.754
1.8 1.023 3.8 0.881 5.8 0.817 10.0 0.748
2.0 1.000 4.0 0.872 6.0 0.812 10.5 0.742

Table 16
Monthly wind speed at Kutsaga Research Station, adjusted to 2 m height above ground level

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
u14 (knots)a 6.1 6.0 6.4 6.3 6.1 6.4 6.9 7.7 8.7 9.1 7.5 6.7
u14 (m/sec)a 3.135 3.084 3.290 3.240 3.135 3.292 3.547 3.958 4.472 4.677 3.855 3.444
u2 (m/sec)b 2.229 2.193 2.339 2.304 2.229 2.339 2.522 2.814 3.179 3.325 2.741 2.448
u2 (km/day)b 193 189 202 199 193 202 218 243 275 287 239 212
a = measured speed at 14 m height above ground level.
b = converted to speed at 2 m height above ground level.

20 – Module 4
 Module 4: Crop water requirements and irrigation scheduling

At Kutsaga Research Station the wind speed is measured at The results from CROPWAT 7.0 are included in the last
14 m above ground level and is expressed in knots. row of Table 17. It appears that the results from the
Adjusting the wind speed to 2 m elevation above ground CROPWAT 7.0 and the manual calculation are very close.
level, through the use of Equation 16, and converting the The values of ETo calculated with CROPWAT are slightly
speed to m/sec (1 knot = 1.852 km/hr = 0.514 m/sec) higher, but the maximum difference in values between the
will give the results as shown in Table 16. two methods is shown to be 0.4 mm/day.
To simplify the calculations of ETo, FAO (1998a) provides
Calculation of ETo
a calculation sheet, as shown in Table 18, which can be used
After all the parameters of the FAO Penman-Monteith with the relevant equations and meteorological tables, when
Equation have been determined, it is now possible to developing a spreadsheet or computer programme to
calculate ETo. For Kutsaga Research Station these calculate ETo. The equations and tables have already been
calculated values are presented in Table 17. From this table introduced earlier on in this chapter.
it can be seen that the peak ETo of Kutsaga Research
Station is 6.2 mm/day, if calculated manually using the FAO 2.3.4. Estimating ETo with missing climatic data
Penman-Monteith Equation. The peak occurs in the month
of October. If some of the required weather data for input into the FAO
Penman-Monteith Equation are missing or cannot be
The manual calculation of ETo is a long and tedious calculated, it is strongly recommended that the reader
procedure, and the risk of making arithmetical errors is fairly estimates the missing climatic data with the procedures
high. Computer software has been developed to speed up the outlined in FAO (1998a) and uses the FAO Penman-
calculations and make them less tedious to perform. One Monteith Equation for the calculation of ETo. These
such software is the FAO CROPWAT computer programme procedures will not be covered in this Module, instead the
for estimating ETo and crop water requirements. The details reader is referred to the above-mentioned reference. The
on the use of CROPWAT will be covered in Chapter 6. At use of other calculation procedures requiring only limited
this stage it is only important to compare the monthly ETo meteorological parameters is not recommended.
values obtained through manual calculations with those
obtained through the use of CROPWAT. Although the Penman-Monteith method for calculating the
ETo is the sole recommended method, the Pan Evaporation
Using the climatic data from Table 2 for Kutsaga Research method can be used under certain circumstances, as
Station, ETo was estimated with CROPWAT Version 7.0. explained in Section 2.2.

Module 4 – 21
 Table 17

22 –
Mean monthly reference crop evapotranspiration (ETo) values (in mm/day) for Kutsaga Research Station

Data for Kutsaga Research Station Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
T = Monthly mean temperature (°C) (from Table 6) 20.9 20.8 20.2 19.0 16.3 14.0 13.8 15.8 18.8 21.3 21.1 20.9

Module 4
Irrigation manual

∆ = Slope vapour pressure curve (kPa/°C) (from Table 5) 0.152 0.151 0.146 0.137 0.118 0.104 0.102 0.115 0.136 0.155 0.154 0.152
γ = Psychrometric constant (from Table 3) 0.056 0.056 0.056 0.056 0.056 0.056 0.056 0.056 0.056 0.056 0.056 0.056
u2 = Wind speed at 2 m height (m/sec) (from Table 16) 2.229 2.193 2.339 2.304 2.229 2.339 2.522 2.814 3.179 3.325 2.741 2.448
es-ea = Vapour pressure deficit (kPa) (from Table 7) 0.620 0.588 0.702 0.774 0.770 0.703 0.786 1.002 1.327 1.434 0.977 0.697
G = Soil heat flux (MJ/m2 per day) (assumed to be zero) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Rn = Net Radiation (MJ/m2 per day) (from Table 14) 13.366 12.902 12.714 10.845 8.780 7.350 7.765 9.756 12.127 13.871 13.251 13.021

Reference crop evapotranspiration (ETO)

∆
0.609 0.605 0.592 0.578 0.545 0.508 0.495 0.512 0.539 0.565 0.587 0.597
[∆ + γ(1 + 0.34 u2)]

γ
0.224 0.225 0.227 0.236 0.259 0.274 0.272 0.249 0.222 0.204 0.214 0.220
[∆ + γ(1 + 0.34 u2)]

900
x u2 6.716 6.828 7.180 7.101 6.934 7.335 7.914 8.769 9.805 10.168 8.338 7.496
(Tmean + 273)

(es - ea) 0.620 0.588 0.702 0.774 0.770 0.703 0.786 1.002 1.327 1.434 0.977 0.697

[0.408(Rn - G)] 5.453 5.264 5.187 4.425 3.582 2.999 3.168 3.980 4.948 5.659 5.406 5.313

∆
x [0.408 ∆ {Rn - G)] 3.319 3.187 3.072 2.559 1.953 1.525 1.569 2.038 2.665 3.198 3.176 3.172
[∆ + γ(1 + 0.34 u2)]

γ 900
x x u2 x (es - ea) 0.934 0.901 1.145 1.299 1.381 1.412 1.691 2.191 2.885 2.977 1.750 1.149
[∆ + γ(1 + 0.34 u2)] (Tmean + 273)

900
0.408 ∆ {Rn - G) + γ u2 (es - ea)
T + 273 4.3 4.1 4.2 3.9 3.3 2.9 3.2 4.2 5.5 6.2 4.9 4.3
ETo = (mm/day)
∆ + γ(1 + 0.34 u2}

ETo calculated with CROPWAT 7.0 (mm/day) 4.4 4.3 4.4 4.1 3.6 3.2 3.5 4.6 5.9 6.5 5.2 4.6
 Module 4: Crop water requirements and irrigation scheduling

Table 18
Calculation sheet for ETo (FAO Penman-Monteith method) using Tables 3, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13 (Source: FAO, 1998a)

Parameters
Tmax °C
Tmin °C Tmean = (Tmax + Tmin)/2 °C
Tmean °C ∆ (Table 5) kPa/°C
Altitude m γ (Table 3) kPa/°C
u2 m/sec (1+ 0.34u2)
∆ / [∆ + γ (1 + 0.34u2)]
γ / [∆ + γ (1 + 0.34u2)]
[900 / (Tmean + 273)] u2
Vapour pressure deficit
Tmax °C e° (Tmax) (Table 4) kPa
Tmin °C e° ( Tmin) (Table 4) kPa
Saturation vapour pressure es = [e° (Tmax) + e° ( Tmin)] / 2 kPa
ea from dew point temperature:
Tdew °C ea = e° (Tdew) (Table 4) kPa
or ea derived from maximum and minimum relative humidity:
RHmax % e° ( Tmin) x RHmax/100 kPa
RHmin % e° ( Tmax) x RHmin/100 kPa
ea (average) kPa
or ea derived from maximum relative humidity (recommended if there are errors in RHmin):
RHmax % ea = e° ( Tmin) x RHmax/100 kPa
or ea derived from mean relative humidity (less recommended due to non-linearities):
RHmean % ea = es x RHmean/100 kPa
Vapour pressure deficit (es - ea) kPa

Radiation
Latitude °
Day Ra (Table 8 or 9) MJ/m2 per day
Month N (Table 10 or 11) hours
n hours n/N
If no Rs data available: Rs = (0.25 + 0.5 n/N) x Ra MJ/m2 per day
Rso = [0.75 + 2 (Altitude)]/100 000 MJ/m2 per day
Rs/Rso
Rns = 0.77 Rs MJ/m2 per day
Tmax °C σ( Tmax, K)4 (Table 13) MJ/m2 per day
Tmin °C σ( Tmin, K)4 (Table 13) MJ/m2 per day
[σ( Tmax, K)4 + σ( Tmin, K)4]/2 MJ/m2 per day
ea kPa (0.34 - 0.14√ea)
Rs/Rso 1.35Rs/Rso - 0.35)
Rnl = [σ(Tmax, K)4 + σ( Tmin, K)4]/2 x (0.34 - 0.14√ea) x 1.35 Rs/Rso - 0.35) MJ/m2 per day
Rn = Rns - Rnl MJ/m2 per day
Tmonth °C Gday (assume) 0 MJ/m2 per day
Tmonth-1 °C Gmonth = 0.14 (Tmonth - Tmonth-1) MJ/m2 per day
Rn - G
0.408 (Rn - G) mm/day

Reference crop evapotranspiration (ETo)

∆
x [0.408 (Rn - G)] mm/day
∆ + γ (1 + 0.34u2)
γ 900
x x u2 (es - ea) mm/day
∆ + γ (1 + 0.34u2) T + 273
900
0.408 ∆(Rn - G) + γ u2 (es - ea)
T + 273 mm/day
ETo =
∆ + γ (1 + 0.34u2)

Module 4 – 23
 Chapter 3
Reference crop evapotranspiration (iso-ETo) maps

As shown in Chapter 2, the manual calculation of the meteorological stations have been prepared (Figures 6, 8,
reference crop evapotranspiration ETo using the FAO 10 and 12). Ideally, the stations and the iso-lines should be
Penman-Monteith Equation is long and complicated. This combined in one map.
problem has been partly solved by the introduction of
computer programmes like CROPWAT for the calculation of 3.2. Use and application of iso-ETo maps
ETo and crop water requirements. However, the availability
of computer hardware and software is still limited in some The usual approach in estimating ETo in a proposed
remote parts of East and Southern Africa. In addition, irrigation service area, regardless of what method is
computer literacy still may be a constraint. In most of such adopted, is to identify a meteorological station nearest the
situations, field staff and extension workers normally require project site and utilize its data. In those cases where the
quick methods which can be used to estimate ETo and crop project site is located between two or more stations, the
water requirements with reasonable accuracy. problem of choosing which station to use often confronts
the planner. A greater problem, however, exists if the
Mean monthly reference crop evapotranspiration or iso- nearest meteorological station is located at quite a distance
ETo maps for a given region or country can find such use. from the project site. In such a situation the common, but
Using the CROPWAT software with the FAO Penman- very rough, solution is to utilize the data of the ‘nearest’
Monteith Equation (see Chapter 6), it is possible to station.
calculate ETo values for all the meteorological stations in a
country or region with sufficient data. Most of these The developed iso-ETo maps simplify the estimation of
stations are well distributed throughout a given country ETo of a given project area. These maps eliminate the
making it possible to prepare reference crop problem of which station to choose and in addition, since
evapotranspiration maps for a country. they are based on the FAO Penman-Monteith method, they
are fairly accurate when compared to earlier methods,
which are no longer recommended.
3.1. Development of iso-ETo maps
In order to illustrate the use of iso-ETo maps, such maps In using the iso-ETo maps, it is necessary to locate the
were developed for four selected countries in East and project area on the map. This is done by determining the
Southern Africa: Ethiopia, Kenya, South Africa and coordinates (longitude and latitude) of the area. The next
Zimbabwe. For each of the mentioned countries, step is to read or interpolate between two lines the mean
CROPWAT and CLIMWAT were used to calculate ETo monthly ETo. The obtained mean monthly ETo can be used
values for those meteorological stations contained in to estimate crop water requirements. In the estimation of
CLIMWAT. The monthly ETo values, together with the ETc, crop coefficients (Kc) for each crop to be grown in the
coordinates of each station and using interpolation, were project area will have to be estimated. The methodologies
used to plot the iso-ETo maps for each country. For of estimating Kc values will be covered in Chapter 4. It must
illustrative purposes only one map per country for the be noted that it is preferable to use local data on Kc, if they
month of peak ETo has been drawn, as shown in Figures 5, are available. In the absence of local data, Kc values in Table
7, 9 and 11. Other iso-ETo maps for the rest of the months 21 can be used for preliminary planning. The ETo value will
for each country can be developed in the same manner. For have to be multiplied by the Kc for the crop and growth
readability, in this Module separate maps showing the stage under consideration (Equation 1).

Module 4 – 25
Irrigation manual

Figure 5
Reference evapotranspiration map for Ethiopia for the month of April

26 – Module 4
 Module 4: Crop water requirements and irrigation scheduling

Figure 6
Location of meteorological stations in Ethiopia

Module 4 – 27
Irrigation manual

Figure 7
Reference evapotranspiration map for Kenya for the month of February

28 – Module 4
 Module 4: Crop water requirements and irrigation scheduling

Figure 8
Location of meteorological stations in Kenya

Module 4 – 29
Irrigation manual

Figure 9
Reference evapotranspiration map for South Africa for the month of January

30 – Module 4
 Module 4: Crop water requirements and irrigation scheduling

Figure 10
Location of meteorological stations in South Africa

Module 4 – 31
Irrigation manual

Figure 11
Reference evapotranspiration map for Zimbabwe for the month of October

32 – Module 4
 Module 4: Crop water requirements and irrigation scheduling

Figure 12
Location of meteorological stations in Zimbabwe

Module 4 – 33
 Chapter 4
Estimating crop evapotranspiration or crop water
requirements under standard conditions
As explained in Chapter 1, crop evapotranspiration can be transpiration between both surfaces. This gives rise to the
calculated under standard conditions (ETc) or under non- single and dual crop coefficient approaches for calculating
standard conditions (ETc adj). Standard conditions refer to crop evapotranspiration.
crops grown in large fields under non-limiting agronomic
and soil water conditions. Non-standard conditions refer to 4.1.1. Single crop coefficient approach
management and environmental conditions that deviate
from the standard conditions. Such non-standard The effects of crop transpiration and soil evaporation are
conditions can be low soil fertility, salt toxicity, combined into a single Kc coefficient. This coefficient
waterlogging, pests, diseases and the presence of a hard or combines differences in soil evaporation and crop
impenetrable soil horizon in the root zone. These transpiration rate between the crop and the grass reference
environmental conditions are described by introducing surface.
stress coefficients when calculating crop evapotranspiration As the single Kc averages soil evaporation and crop
under non-standard conditions. transpiration, the approach is used to calculate ETc for
This Chapter will be limited to the calculation of ETc. The weekly or longer time periods. The time-averaged single Kc
calculation of ETc adj is not covered in this Module, but is used for planning purposes and irrigation system design
details for this calculation can be found in FAO (1998a). where averaged effects of soil wetting are acceptable and
relevant. The single coefficient approach will be used in this
Module.
4.1. Crop coefficient approach for
calculating ETc
4.1.2. Dual crop coefficient approach
In this calculation procedure ETc is calculated by
In the dual crop coefficient approach, the effects of crop
multiplying ETo by a crop coefficient Kc, as was given in
transpiration and soil evaporation are determined separately.
Equation 1:
Two coefficients are used: the basal crop coefficient (Kcb) to
ETc = ETo x Kc describe plant transpiration and the soil water evaporation
Where coefficient (Ke) to describe evaporation from the soil
ETc = Crop evapotranspiration (mm/day) surface. The single Kc coefficient is replaced by:
ETo = Reference crop evapotranspiration
Equation 17
(mm/day)
Kc = Crop coefficient Kc = Kcb + Ke

The effects of weather conditions are captured in the ETo Where:

estimate. Therefore, as ETo represents a factor of climatic Kcb = Basal crop coefficient
demand, Kc varies mainly with the specific crop Ke = Soil water coefficient
characteristics. This allows the transfer of standard values
for Kc between locations and climates. This has been the Substituting Equation 17 into Equation 1 the dual
main reason for the worldwide acceptance of the crop coefficient approach for calculating ETc can be given as:
coefficient approach and usefulness of Kc factors developed
in past studies. Equation 18

From Equation 1 it can be seen that Kc is basically the ratio ETc = (Kcb + Ke) x ETo
of ETc to ETo and it expresses the difference in
evapotranspiration between the cropped area and the The dual crop coefficient approach is more complicated
reference grass surface. The difference can be combined and requires more numerical calculations than the single
into one single coefficient or can be split into two factors crop coefficient approach. It is best for real-time irrigation
describing separately the differences in evaporation and scheduling, soil water balance computations and for

Module 4 – 35
Irrigation manual

research studies where effects of day to day variations in soil approach under standard conditions. The dual crop
water fluxes are important. This is the case with high coefficient approach will not be covered in detail in this
frequency irrigation systems like micro-irrigation and module but can be found in FAO (1998a).
lateral move systems such as center pivots.
4.2. Factors determining the crop
4.1.3. Selection of the approach to be used coefficient
The selection of which approach to use, the single Many factors affect Kc, namely crop type, changing crop
coefficient or the dual coefficient approach, depends on the characteristics over the growing season (stages of growth)
purpose of the calculation, the accuracy required, the and, to a limited extent, the prevailing weather conditions.
climatic data available and the time step to which the As evaporation is part of crop evapotranspiration,
calculations are being carried. Table 19 below gives the conditions affecting soil evaporation will also affect Kc.
general selection criteria. Figure 13 presents the general
calculation procedures for the single crop coefficient
4.2.1. Crop type

Figure 13 The large variation in Kc values between major groups of

General procedures for calculating ETc under crops is due to the resistance to transpiration of different
standard conditions (Source: FAO, 1998a) crops, such as closed stomata during the day (pineapple)
and waxy leaves (citrus). Also, differences in crop height,
Calculate Reference ETo crop roughness, reflection and groundcover produce
(Use FAO Penman-Monteith method)
different Kc values. Typical Kc values for different types of
Select stage lengths (Table 20)
full grown crops are illustrated in Figure 14.
Verify and supplement locally
4.2.2. Climate
Kc
Single crop coefficient General climatic conditions, especially wind and humidity,
affect crop coefficients. Variations in wind change the
Select values for Kc ini, Kc mid aerodynamic resistance of the crops and their crop
& Kc end from Table 21
coefficients, especially for those crops that are substantially
Adjust Kc ini to reflect wetting
taller than the grass reference crop. Crop aerodynamic
frequency of soil surface properties also change with climate, in particular relative
humidity. Kc for many crops increases as wind speed
Adjust Kc mid & Kc end to increases and as relative humidity decreases. More arid
local climatic conditions
climates and conditions of greater wind speed will have
Construct Kc curve
higher values for Kc. More humid climates and conditions
of lower wind speed will have lower values for Kc. The
ETc = ETo x Kc relative impact of climate on Kc for full grown crops is
shown in Figure 15.
Table 19
General selection criteria for the single and dual crop coefficient approaches (Source: FAO, 1998a)

Single crop coefficient Dual crop coefficient

(Kc) (Kcb+ Ke)
Purpose of calculation • Irrigation planning and design • Research
• Irrigation management • Real time irrigation scheduling
• Basic irrigation scheduling • Irrigation scheduling for high frequency
• Real-time irrigation scheduling for non- water application (micro irrigation and
frequent water applications (surface and automated sprinkler irrigation)
sprinkler irrigation) • Supplementary irrigation
• Detailed soil and hydrologic water balance
studies
Time step • Daily, ten-day, monthly (data and calculation) • Daily (data and calculation)
Solution method • Graphical • Computer
• Pocket calculator
• Computer

36 – Module 4
 Module 4: Crop water requirements and irrigation scheduling

Figure 14
Typical Kc values for different types of full grown crops (Source: FAO, 1998a)

Figure 15
Extreme ranges expected in Kc for full grown crops as climate and weather change (Source: FAO, 1998a)

4.2.3. Soil evaporation 4.2.4. Crop growth stages

Crop evapotranspiration is a combination of transpiration The Kc for a given crop changes over the growing period as
by the crop and evaporation from the soil surface. the groundcover, crop height and leaf area changes. Four
Differences in soil evaporation and crop transpiration growth stages are recognized for the selection of Kc: initial
between field crops and the reference surface are integrated stage, crop development stage, mid-season stage and the
within the crop coefficient. The Kc for full cover crops late season stage.
reflects differences in transpiration, as the contribution of
soil evaporation is relatively small. After rainfall or Figure 16 illustrates the different sequence and proportion
irrigation, the contribution of soil evaporation is significant, of the growth stages for different types of crops, while
especially if the crop is small and has small groundcover. For Figure 17 shows the variation in Kc for different crops as
such low cover conditions Kc is largely determined by how influenced by weather factors and crop development.
frequent the soil is wetted.

Module 4 – 37
Irrigation manual

Figure 16
Crop growth stages for different types of crops (Source: FAO, 1998a)

Figure 17
Typical ranges expected in Kc for the four growth stages (Source: FAO, 1998a)

Kc

Main factors affecting Kc in the 4 growth stages

38 – Module 4
 Module 4: Crop water requirements and irrigation scheduling

Initial stage Late season stage

The initial stage refers to the germination and early growth The late season stage runs from the start of maturity to
stage when the soil surface is not or is hardly covered by the harvest or full senescence. The calculation of Kc and ETo is
crop (groundcover < 10%). The Kc during this initial stage presumed to end when the crop is harvested, dries out
(Kc ini) is large when the soil is wet from irrigation and naturally, reaches full senescence, or experiences leaf drop.
rainfall and is low when the soil surface is dry.
The Kc value at the end of the late season stage (Kc end)
reflects crop and water management practices (Figure 18).
Crop development stage
The Kc end value is high if the crop is frequently irrigated
The crop development stage is the stage from the end of the until harvested fresh. If the crop is allowed to senescence
initial stage to attainment of effective full groundcover and to dry out in the field before harvest, the Kc end value
(groundcover 70-80%). As the crop develops and shades will be small.
more and more of the ground, soil evaporation becomes
more restricted and transpiration becomes the dominant 4.3. Crop coefficient curves
process. During the crop development stage, the Kc values
correspond to amounts of groundcover and plant Based on the determination of the length of crop growth
development and thus varies. If the soil is dry, Kc dev = 0.5 stages and the corresponding crop coefficients, a crop
corresponds to about 20-40% groundcover. A Kc dev = 0.7 coefficient curve can be constructed. The curve represents
often corresponds to about 40-60% groundcover. the changes in crop coefficient over the length of the
growing season. The shape of the curve represents the
changes in the vegetation and groundcover during plant
Mid-season stage
development and maturation that affect the ratio of ETc to
The mid-season stage is the stage from attainment of ETo. From the curve, the Kc factor and hence ETc can be
effective full groundcover to the start of maturity, as derived for any period within the growing season. The
indicated for example by discolouring of leaves (as in beans) generalized crop coefficient curve for the single crop
or falling of leaves (as in cotton). The mid-season stage is coefficient approach is shown in Figure 18.
the longest stage for perennial crops and for many annual
crops, but it may be relatively short for vegetables that are
harvested fresh for their green vegetation. At this stage, Kc
reaches its maximum value. The value of Kc mid is relatively
constant for most growing and cultural conditions.

Figure 18
Generalized crop coefficient curve for the single crop coefficient approach (Source: FAO, 1998a)

Kc mid
Kc

Kc ini
Kc end

Module 4 – 39
Irrigation manual

The calculation of ETc consists of the following general 4.4. Length of growth stages
steps: FAO (1998a) gives general lengths for the four distinct
Y Identification of the crop growth stages, determination growth stages and total growing period for various types of
of their lengths and selection of the corresponding Kc climates and locations. This information has been
values supplemented from other sources and is given in Table 20.
Y Adjustment of the selected Kc values for frequency of It is important to note that this information is only
wetting or climatic conditions during each stage indicative and will need to be verified and supplemented
with local information. Local information can be obtained
Y Construction of the crop coefficient curve (allowing from field observations, by interviewing farmers, local
one to determine Kc values for any period during the extension officers and local researchers.
growing period)
Y Calculation of ETc as the product of ETo and Kc
Table 20
Length of crop development stages1 for various planting periods and climatic regions (days) (Source: FAO,
1998a)

Crop Initial Develop Mid Late Total Planting Region

(Lini) (Ldev) (Lmid) (Llate) days Date
a. Small vegetables
Broccoli 35 45 40 15 135 Sept California Desert, USA
Cabbages 40 60 50 15 165 Sept California Desert, USA
Carrots 20 30 50/30 20 100/120 Oct/Jan Arid climate
30 40 60 20 150 Feb/Mar Mediterranean
30 50 90 30 200 Oct California Desert, USA
Cauliflowers 35 50 40 15 140 Sept California Desert, USA
Celery 25 40 95 20 180 Oct (Semi) Arid
25 40 45 15 125 April Mediterranean
30 55 105 20 210 Jan (Semi) Arid
Crucifers2 20 30 20 10 80 April Mediterranean
25 35 25 10 95 February Mediterranean
30 35 90 40 195 Oct/Nov Mediterranean
Lettuce 20 30 15 10 75 April Mediterranean
30 40 25 10 105 Nov/Jan Mediterranean
25 35 30 10 100 Oct/Nov Arid region
35 50 45 10 140 Feb Mediterranean
Onions (dry) 15 25 70 40 150 April Mediterranean
20 35 110 45 210 Oct; Jan Arid region; California
Onions (green) 25 30 10 5 70 April/May Mediterranean
20 45 20 10 95 Oct Arid region
30 55 55 40 180 March California, USA
Onions (seed) 20 45 165 45 275 Sept California Desert, USA
Spinach 20 20 15/25 5 60/70 Apr; Sep/Oct Mediterranean
20 30 40 10 100 Nov Arid region
Radish 5 10 15 5 35 Mar/Apr Mediterranean; Europe
10 10 15 5 40 Winter Arid region
b. Vegetables – Solanum Family (Solanaceae)
Eggplants 30 40 40 20 130 October Arid region
30 45 40 25 140 May/June Mediterranean
Sweet peppers (bell) 25/30 35 40 20 120/125 April/June Europe; Mediterranean
30 40 110 30 210 October Arid region
Tomatoes 30 40 40 25 135 January Arid region
35 40 50 30 155 April/May California, USA
25 40 60 30 155 Jan California Desert, USA
35 45 70 30 180 Oct/Nov Arid region
30 40 45 30 145 April/May Mediterranean

40 – Module 4
 Module 4: Crop water requirements and irrigation scheduling

c. Vegetables – Cucumber Family (Cucurbitaceae)

Cantaloupes 30 45 35 10 120 Jan California, USA
10 60 25 25 120 Aug California, USA
Cucumbers 20 30 40 15 105 June/Aug Arid region
25 35 50 20 130 Nov; Feb Arid region
Pumpkin, Winter squash 20 30 30 20 100 Mar; Aug Mediterranean
25 35 35 25 120 June/Aug Europe
Squash, Zucchini 25 35 25 15 100 April; Dec Mediterranean & Arid
20 30 25 15 90 May/June Mediterranean; Europe
Sweet melons 25 35 40 20 120 May Mediterranean
30 30 50 30 140 March California, USA
15 40 65 15 135 Aug California Desert, USA
30 45 65 20 160 Dec/Jan Arid region
Water melons 20 30 30 30 110 April Italy
10 20 20 30 80 Mar/Aug Near East (desert)
d. Roots and tubers
Beets, table 15 25 20 10.00 70 Apr/May Mediterranean
25 30 25 10 90 Feb/Mar Mediterranean & Arid
Cassava: – year 1 20 40 90 60 210 Rainy season Tropical regions
– year 2 150 40 110 60 360
Potatoes 25 30 30/45 30 115/130 Jan/Nov (Semi) Arid Climate
25 30 45 30 130 May Continental Climate
30 35 50 30 145 April Europe
45 30 70 20 165 Apr/May Idaho, USA
30 35 50 25 140 Dec/Jan California Desert, USA
Sweet Potatoes 20 30 60 40 150 April Mediterranean
15 30 50 30 125 Rainy season Tropical regions
Sugar beet 30 45 90 15 180 March California, USA
25 30 90 10 155 June California, USA
25 65 100 65 255 Sept California Desert, USA
50 40 50 40 180 April Idaho, USA
25 35 50 50 160 May Mediterranean
45 75 80 30 230 Nov Mediterranean
35 60 70 40 205 Nov Arid region
e. Legumes (Leguminosae)
Beans (green) 20 30 30 10 90 Feb/Mar California; Mediterranean
15 25 25 10 75
Beans (dry) 20 30 40 20 110 May/June Continental Climate
15 25 35 20 95 June Pakistan; California
25 25 30 20 100 June Idaho, USA
Faba beans, Broad 15 25 35 15 90 May Europe
beans 20 30 35 15 100 Mar/Apr Mediterranean
– dry 90 45 40 60 235 Nov Europe
– green 90 45 40 0 175 Nov Europe
Green gram cowpeas 20 30 30 20 110 March Mediterranean
Groundnuts 25 35 45 25 130 Dry West Africa
35 35 35 35 140 season High Latitudes
35 45 35 25 140 May/June Mediterranean
Lentils 20 30 60 40 150 April Europe
25 35 70 40 170 Oct/Nov Arid region
Peas 15 25 35 15 90 May Europe
20 30 35 15 100 Mar/Apr Mediterranean
35 25 30 20 110 April Idaho, USA
Soya beans 15 15 40 15 85 Dec Tropics
20 30/35 60 25 135/140 May Central USA
20 25 75 30 150 June Japan

Module 4 – 41
Irrigation manual

f. Perennial vegetables (with winter dormancy and initially bare or mulched soil)
Artichokes 40 40 250 30 360 Apr (1st year) California
20 25 250 30 325 May (2nd year) (cut in May)
Asparagus 50 30 100 50 230 Feb Warm winter
90 30 200 45 365 Feb Mediterranean
g. Fibre crops
Cotton 30 50 60 55 195 Mar-May Egypt; Pakistan; California
45 90 45 45 225 Mar California Desert, USA
30 50 60 55 195 Sept Yemen
30 50 55 45 180 April Texas
Flax 25 35 50 40 150 April Europe
30 40 100 50 220 Oct Arizona
h. Oil crops
Castor beans 25 40 65 50 180 March (Semi) Arid climate
20 40 50 25 135 Nov. Indonesia
Safflower 20 35 45 25 125 April California, USA
25 35 55 30 145 Mar High latitudes
35 55 60 40 190 Oct/Nov Arid region
Sesame 20 30 40 20 100 June China
Sunflower 25 35 45 25 130 April/May Mediterranean; California
i. Cereals
Barley/oats/wheat 15 25 50 30 120 Nov Central India
20 25 60 30 135 March/Apr 35-45 °L
15 30 65 40 150 July East Africa
40 30 40 20 130 Apr
40 60 60 40 200 Nov
20 50 60 30 160 Dec California Desert, USA
Winter wheat 203 603 70 30 180 Dec California, USA
30 140 40 30 240 Nov Mediterranean
160 75 75 25 335 Oct Idaho, USA
Grains (small) 20 30 60 40 150 Apr Mediterranean
25 35 65 40 165 Oct/Nov Pakistan, Arid region
Maize (grain) 30 50 60 40 180 April East Africa (alt.)
25 40 45 30 140 Dec/Jan Arid climate
20 35 40 30 125 June Nigeria (humid)
20 35 40 30 125 October India (dry, cool)
30 40 50 30 150 April Spain (spr,. sum.); California
30 40 50 50 170 April Idaho, USA
Maize (sweet) 20 20 30 10 80 March Philippines
20 25 25 10 80 May/June Mediterranean
20 30 50/30 10 110/90 Oct/Dec Arid climate
30 30 30 104 110 April Idaho, USA
30 40 70 10 140 Jan California Desert, USA
Millet 15 25 40 25 105 June Pakistan
20 30 55 35 140 April Central USA
Sorghum 20 35 40 30 130 May/June USA; Pakistan; Mediterran
20 35 45 30 140 March/April Arid region
Rice 30 30 60 30 150 Dec; May Tropics; Mediterranean
30 30 80 40 180 May Tropics
j. Forages
Alfalfa, total season5 10 30 varies varies varies last -4°C in spring until
first -4°C in fall
Alfalfa5, 10 20 20 10 60 Jan California, USA
1st cutting cycle 10 30 25 10 75 Apr (last -4°C) Idaho, USA
Alfalfa5, 5 10 10 5 30 March California, USA
other cutting cycles 5 20 10 10 45 Jun Idaho, USA

42 – Module 4
 Module 4: Crop water requirements and irrigation scheduling

Bermuda for seed 10 25 35 35 105 March California Desert, USA

Bermuda for hay 10 15 75 35 135 - California Desert, USA
(several cuttings)
Grass pasture5 10 20 – – – 7 days before last -4°C
in spring until 7 days
after first -4°C in fall
Sudan, 25 25 15 10 75 Apr California Desert, USA
1st cutting cycle
Sudan, 3 15 12 7 37 Jun California Desert, USA
other cutting cycles
k. Sugar cane
Sugarcane, virgin 35 60 190 120 405 Low latitudes
50 70 220 140 480 Tropics
75 105 330 210 720 Hawaii, USA
Sugarcane, ratoon 25 70 135 50 280 Low latitudes
30 50 180 60 320 Tropics
35 105 210 70 420 Hawaii, USA
I. Tropical fruits and trees
Bananas, 1st year 120 90 120 60 390 Mar Mediterranean
Bananas, 2nd year 120 60 180 5 365 Feb Mediterranean
Pineapples 60 120 600 10 790 Hawaii, USA
m. Grapes and berries
Grapes 20 40 120 60 240 April Low latitudes
20 50 75 60 205 March California, USA
20 50 90 20 180 May High latitudes
30 60 40 80 210 April Mid latitudes (wine)
Hops 25 40 80 10 155 April Idaho, USA
n. Fruit trees
Citrus 60 90 120 95 365 Jan Mediterranean
Deciduous orchards 20 70 90 30 210 March High latitudes
20 70 120 60 270 March Low latitudes
30 50 130 30 240 March California, USA
Olives 30 90 60 90 2706 April Mediterranean
Pistachios 20 60 30 40 150 Feb Mediterranean
Walnuts 20 10 130 30 190 April Utah, USA
o. Wetlands – temperate climate
Wetlands (Cattails, 10 30 80 20 140 May Utah, USA; killing frost
Bulrush) 180 60 90 35 365 November Florida, USA
Wetlands (short vegetat.) 180 60 90 35 365 November frost-free climate

1 Lengths of crop development stages provided in this table are indicative of general conditions, but may vary substantially from region to region, with
climate and cropping conditions, and with crop variety. The user is strongly encouraged to obtain appropriate local information.
2 Cruficers include cabbage, cauliflower, broccoli, and Brussel sprouts. The wide range in lengths of seasons is due to varietal and species differences.
3 These periods for winter wheat will lengthen in frozen climates according to days having zero growth potential and wheat dormancy. Under general
conditions and in the absence of local data, fall planting of winter wheat can be presumed to occur in northern temperate climates when the 10-day
running average of mean daily air temperature decreases to 17°C or December 1, whichever comes first. Planting of spring wheat can be presumed to
occur when the 10-day running average of mean daily air temperature increases to 5°C. Spring planting of maize grain can be presumed to occur when
the 10-day running average of mean daily air temperature increases to 13°C.
4 The late season for sweet maize will be about 35 days, if the grain is allowed to mature and dry.
5 In climates having killing frosts, growing seasons can be estimated for alfalfa and grass as: alfalfa: last -4°C in spring until first -4°C in fall; grass: 7 days
before last -4°C in spring and 7 days after -4°C in fall.
6 Olive trees gain new leaves in March. See footnote 24 of Table 21 for additional information, where the Kc continues outside the 'growing period'.

Module 4 – 43
Irrigation manual

4.5. Crop coefficients Table 21 lists typical values for Kc ini, Kc mid and Kc end for
The trends in Kc values during the growing period are various agricultural crops. The coefficients are organized by
represented in the crop coefficient curve. Only three values group type similar to the way it was done for the length of
of Kc are required to describe and construct the crop growth stages in Table 20. There is close similarity in
coefficient curve: those during the initial stage (Kc ini), the coefficients among crops of the same crop group, since the
mid-season stage (Kc mid) and at the end of the late season plant height, leaf area, ground coverage and water
stage (Kc end). management are normally similar.

Table 21
Single (time-averaged) crop coefficients and mean maximum plant heights for non-stressed, well-managed
crops in sub humid climates (RHmin ≈ 45%, u2 ≈ 2 m/sec) for use with the FAO Penman-Monteith ETo (Source:
FAO, 1998a)

Crop Kc ini 1 Kc mid Kc end Maximum crop

height (h)
(m)
a. Small vegetables 0.7 1.05 0.95
Broccoli 1.05 0.95 0.3
Brussels sprouts 1.05 0.95 0.4
Cabbages 1.05 0.95 0.4
Carrots 1.05 0.95 0.3
Cauliflowers 1.05 0.95 0.4
Celery 1.05 1.00 0.6
Garlic 1.00 0.70 0.3
Lettuce 1.00 0.95 0.3
Onions – dry 1.05 0.75 0.4
– green 1.00 1.00 0.3
– seed 1.05 0.80 0.5
Spinach 1.00 0.95 0.3
Radishes 0.90 0.85 0.3
b. Vegetables - Solanum Family (Solanaceae) 0.6 1.15 0.80
Eggplants 1.05 0.90 0.8
Sweet Peppers (bell) 1.052 0.90 0.7
Tomatoes 1.152 0.70-0.90 0.6
c. Vegetables - Cucumber Family (Cucurbitaceae) 0.5 1.00 0.80
Cantaloupes 0.5 0.85 0.60 0.3
Cucumbers – Fresh Market 0.6 1.00 0.75 0.3
– Machine harvest 0.5 1.002 0.90 0.3
Pumpkin, Winter Squash 1.00 0.80 0.4
Squash, Zucchini 0.95 0.75 0.3
Sweet Melons 1.05 0.75 0.4
Watermelon 0.4 1.00 0.75 0.4
d. Roots and tubers 0.5 1.10 0.95
Beets, table 1.05 0.95 0.4
Cassava – year 1 0.3 0.803 0.30 1
– year 2 0.3 1.10 0.50 1.5
Parsnips 0.5 1.05 0.95 0.4
Potatoes 1.15 0.754 0.6
Sweet Potatoes 1.15 0.65 0.4
Turnips (and Rutabaga) 1.10 0.95 0.6
Sugar beet 0.35 1.20 0.705 0.5
e. Legumes (Leguminosae) 0.4 1.15 0.55
Beans, green 0.5 1.052 0.90 0.4
Beans, dry, and Pulses 0.4 1.152 0.35 0.4
Chick peas 1.00 0.35 0.4
Faba beans (broad beans) – fresh 0.5 1.152 1.10 0.8
– dry/seed 0.5 1.152 0.30 0.8
Garbanzo 0.4 1.15 0.35 0.8

44 – Module 4
 Module 4: Crop water requirements and irrigation scheduling

Crop Kc ini 1 Kc mid Kc end Maximum crop

height (h)
(m)
Green gram and cowpeas 1.05 0.60- 0.356 0.4
Groundnuts (peanuts) 1.15 0.60 0.4
Lentil 1.10 0.30 0.5
Peas – fresh 0.5 1.152 1.10 0.5
– dry/seed 1.15 0.30 0.5
Soya beans 1.15 0.50 0.5-1
f. Perennial vegetables (with winter dormancy and initially bare 0.5 1.00 0.80
or mulched soil)
Artichokes 0.5 1.00 0.95 0.07
Asparagus 0.5 0.957 0.30 0.2-0.8
Mint 0.60 1.15 1.10 0.6-0.8
Strawberries 0.40 0.85 0.75 0.2
g. Fibre crops 0.35
Cotton 1.15-01.20 0.70- 0.50 1.2-1.5
Flax 1.10 0.25 1.2
Sisal8 0.4- 0.7 0.4- 0.7 1.5
h. Oil crops 0.35 1.15 0.35
Castor beans (ricinus) 1.15 0.55 0.3
Rapeseed, Canola 1.0-1.159 0.35 0.6
Safflower 1.0-1.159 0.25 0.8
Sesame 1.10 0.35 1
Sunflower 1.0-1.159 0.40 2
i. Cereals 0.3 1.15 0.4
Barley 1.15 0.25 1
Oats 1.15 0.25 1
Spring wheat 1.15 0.25- 0.410 1
Winter wheat – with frozen soils 0.4 1.15 0.25- 0.410 1
– with non-frozen soils 0.7 1.15 0.25- 0.410
Maize – field grain (field corn) 1.20 0.60; 0.3511 2
Maize – sweet (sweet corn) 1.15 1.0512 1.5
Millet 1.00 0.30 1.5
Sorghum – grain 1.00- 1.10 0.55 1-2
– sweet 1.20 1.05 2-4
Rice 1.05 1.20 0.90- 0.60 1
j. Forages
Alfalfa hay – average cutting effects 0.40 0.9513 0.90 0.7
– individual cutting period 0.414 1.2014 1.1514 0.7
– for seed 0.40 0.50 0.50 0.7
Bermuda for hay – average cutting effects 0.55 1.00 0.85 0.35
– spring crop for seed 0.35 0.90 0.65 0.4
Clover hay, Berseem – average cutting effects 0.40 0.9013 0.85 0.6
– individual cutting period 0.4014 1.1514 1.1014 0.6
Rye grass hay – average cutting effects 0.95 1.05 1.00 .3
Sudan grass hay (annual) – average cutting effects 0.50 0.9014 0.85 1.2
– individual cutting period 0.5014 1.1514 1.1014 1.2
Grazing pasture – rotated grazing 0.40 0.85-1.05 0.85 0.15-0.30
– extensive grazing 0.30 0.75 0.75 0.10
Turf grass – cool season15 0.90 0.95 0.95 0.10
– warm season15 0.80 0.85 0.85 0.10
k. Sugar cane 0.40 1.25 0.75 3
I. Tropical fruits and trees
Bananas – 1st year 0.50 1.10 1.00 3
– 2nd year 1.00 1.20 1.10 4
Cacao 1.00 1.05 1.05 3
Coffee – bare ground cover 0.90 0.95 0.95 2-3
– with weeds 1.05 1.10 1.10 2-3

Module 4 – 45
Irrigation manual

Crop Kc ini 1 Kc mid Kc end Maximum crop

height (h)
(m)
Date palms 0.90 0.95 0.95 8
Palm trees 0.95 1.00 1.00 8
Pineapples16 – bare soil 0.50 0.30 0.30 0.6-1.2
– with grass cover 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.6-1.2
Rubber trees 0.95 1.00 1.00 10
Tea – non-shaded 0.95 1.00 1.00 1.5
– shaded17 1.10 1.15 1.15 2
m. Grapes and berries
Berries (bushes) 0.30 1.05 0.50 1.5
Grapes – table or raisin 0.30 0.85 0.45 2
– wine 0.30 0.70 0.45 1.5-2
Hops 0.3 1.05 0.85 5
n. Fruit trees
Almonds, no ground cover 0.40 0.90 0.6518 5
Apples, cherries, pears19
– no ground cover, killing frost 0.45 0.95 0.7018 4
– no ground cover, no frosts 0.60 0.95 0.7518 4
– active ground cover, killing frost 0.50 1.20 0.9518 4
– active ground cover, no frosts 0.80 1.20 0.8518 4
Apricots, peaches, stone fruit19,20
– no ground cover, killing frost 0.45 0.90 0.6518 3
– no ground cover, no frosts 0.55 0.90 0.6518 3
– active ground cover, killing frost 0.50 1.15 0.9018 3
– active ground cover, no frosts 0.80 1.15 0.8518 3
Avocado, no ground cover 0.60 0.85 0.75 3
Citrus, no ground cover21
– 70% canopy 0.70 0.65 0.70 4
– 50% canopy 0.65 0.60 0.65 3
– 20% canopy 0.50 0.45 0.55 2
Citrus, with active ground cover or weeds22
– 70% canopy 0.75 0.70 0.75 4
– 50% canopy 0.80 0.80 0.80 3
– 20% canopy 0.85 0.85 0.85 2
Conifer trees23 1.00 1.00 1.00 10
Kiwi 0.40 1.05 1.05 3
Olives (40 to 60% ground coverage by canopy)24 0.65 0.70 0.70 35
Pistachios, no ground cover 0.40 1.10 0.45 35
Walnut orchard19 0.50 1.10 0.6518 45
o. Wetlands – temperate climate
Cattails, Bulrushes, killing frost 0.30 1.20 0.30 2
Cattails, Bulrushes, no frost 0.60 1.20 0.60 2
– short vegetation, no frost 1.05 1.10 1.10 0.30
– reed swamp, standing water 1.00 1.20 1.00 1-3
– reed swamp, moist soil 0.90 1.20 0.70 1-3
p. Special
Open water, < 2 m depth, or in sub-humid climates 1.05 1.05
or tropics
Open Water, > 5 m depth, clear of turbidity, 0.6525 1.2525
temperate climate

1 These are general values for Kc ini under typical irrigation management and soil wetting. For frequent wettings such as with high frequency sprinkler
irrigation or daily rainfall, these values may increase substantially and may approach 1.0 to 1.2. Kc ini. Is a function of wetting interval and potential
evaporation rate during the initial and development periods and is more accurately estimated using Figures 11 and 12.
2 Beans, peas, legumes, tomatoes, peppers and cucumbers are sometimes grown on stalks reaching 1.5-2 m in height. In such cases increased Kc values
need to be taken. For green beans, peppers and cucumbers 1.15 can be taken and for tomatoes, dry beans and peas 1.20. Under these conditions h
should be increased also.
3 The mid season values for cassava assume non-stressed conditions during or following the rainy season. The Kc end values account for dormancy during
the dry season.

46 – Module 4
 Module 4: Crop water requirements and irrigation scheduling

4 The Kc end value for potatoes is about 0.4 for long season potatoes with vine kill.
5 This Kc end value is for no irrigation during the last month of the growing season. The Kc end value for sugar beets is higher up to 1.0, when irrigation or
significant rain occurs during the last month.
6 The first Kc end is for harvested fresh. The second value is for harvested dry.
7 The Kc for asparagus usually remains at Kc ini during harvest of the spears, due to sparse groundcover. The Kc mid value is for following re-growth of plant
vegetation following termination of harvest of spears.
8 Kc for sisal depends on the planting density and water management (for example intentional moisture stress).
9 The lower values are for rainfed crops having less dense plant populations.
10 The higher value is for hard harvested crops.
11 The first Kc end value for harvest at high grain moisture. The second Kc end value is for harvest after complete field drying of the grain (to about 18%
moisture, wet basis).
12 If harvested fresh for human consumption. Use Kc end for field maize if the sweet maize is allowed to mature and dry in the field.
13 This Kc mid coefficient for hay crops is an overall average Kc mid coefficient that averages Kc for both before and following cuttings. It is applied to the
period following the first development period until the beginning of the last late season period of the growing season.
14 These Kc coefficients for hay crops represent immediately following cutting, at full cover, and immediately before cutting, respectively. The growing season
is described as a series of individual cutting periods.
15 Cool season grass varieties include dense stands of bluegrass, ryegrass and fescue. Warm season varieties include Bermuda grass and St. Augustine
grass. The 0.95 values for cool season grass represent a 0.06-0.08 m mowing height under general turf conditions. Where careful water management is
practiced and rapid growth is not required Kc’s for turf can be reduced by 0.10.
16 The pineapple plant has very low transpiration because it closes its stomata during the day and opens them during the night. Therefore, the majority of ETc
from pineapple is evaporation the soil. The Kc mid < Kc ini since Kc mid occurs during full groundcover so that soil evaporation is less. Values given assume that
50% of the ground surface is covered by black plastic mulch and that irrigation is by sprinkler. For drip irrigation beneath the plastic mulch, Kc's given can be
reduced by 0.10.
17 Includes the water requirements of the shade trees.
18 These Kc late values represent Kc prior to leaf drop. After leaf drop, Kc end ≈ 0.20 for bare dry soil or dead groundcover and Kc end ≈ 0.50 to 0.80 for
actively growing groundcover.
19 Refer to equations in FAO (1998a) and footnotes 21 and 22 for estimating Kc for immature stands.
20 Stone fruit category refers to peaches, apricots, pears, plums and pecans.
21 These Kc values can be calculated using the equations in FAO (1998a) for Kc min = 0.15 and Kc full = 0.75, 0.70 and 0.75 for the initial, mid season and
end of season periods, and fc eff = fc where fc = fraction of groundcover covered by tree canopy (for example, the sun is presumed to be directly overhead).
The values listed correspond with those in FAO (1992) and with more recent measurements. The mid-season value is lower than the initial and ending
values due to the effects to stomatal closure during periods of peak ET. For humid and sub-humid climates where there is less stomatal control by citrus,
values for Kc ini, Kc mid and Kc end can be increased by 0.1 - 0.2.
22 These Kc values can be calculated as Kc = fc Kc ngc + (1 - fc) Kc cover where Kc ngc is the Kc of citrus with no active groundcover (calculated as in footnote
21). Kc cover is the Kc for the active groundcover (0.95), and fC is defined as in footnote 21. The values listed correspond with those in FAO (1992) and
with more recent measurements. Alternatively Kc for citrus can be calculated using the equations and procedures given in FAO (1998a). For humid and
sub humid climates where there is less stomatal control by citrus, values for Kc ini, Kc mid and Kc end can be increased by 0.1-0.2.
For non-active or only moderately active groundcover (active indicates green and growing groundcover with Leaf Area Index (LAI) > 2- 3), Kc should be
weighted between Kc for no groundcover and Kc for active groundcover, with the weighting based on 'greenness' and approximate leaf area of the groundcover.
23 Confers exhibit substantial stomatal control due to reduced aerodynamic resistance. The Kc can easily reduce below the values presented, which present
well-watered conditions for large forests.
24 These coefficients represent 40 to 60% groundcover. Refer to FAO (1998a) and footnotes 21 and 22 for estimating Kc for immature stands. In Spain the
following Kc 's have been found for olive orchards with 60% groundcover: 0.50, 0.50, 0.65, 0.60, 055. 050, 045, 0.45, 0.55, 0.60, 065, 0.50 for months of
January to December. These coefficients can be invoked by using Kc ini = 0.65, Kc mid = 0.45 and Kc end = 0.65 with stage lengths = 30, 90, 60, and 90days
respectively for initial, development, mid-season and late season periods, and using Kc during the winter ('off season') in December to February = 0.50.
25 The Kcs are for deep water in temperate latitudes where large temperature changes in the water body occur during the year, and initial and peak period
evaporation is low as radiation energy is absorbed into the deep-water body. During fall and winter periods (Kc end), heat is released from the water body
that increases the evaporation above that for grass. Therefore Kc mid corresponds to the period when the water body is gaining thermal energy and Kc
end when releasing thermal energy. These Kcs should be used with caution.

4.5.1. Determination of Kc ini Table 21 are only approximations and should only be used
The coefficients in Table 21 combine the effects of both for estimating ETc during preliminary or planning stages.
transpiration and evaporation over time. The effects of the More accurate estimates of Kc ini can be obtained by
integration over time represent an average wetting considering the time interval between wetting events, the
frequency for a standard crop under typical growing evaporation power of the atmosphere (ETo) and the
conditions in an irrigated setting. The values of Kc in the magnitude of the wetting event. Figures 19 and 20 can be
initial and development stages are subject to effects of large used to provide estimates of Kc ini as a function of the
variations in wetting frequencies and therefore refinements average interval between wetting events, the evaporative
to Kc ini should always be made. The Kc ini values given in power and the magnitude of wetting event.

Module 4 – 47
Irrigation manual

Figure 19
Average Kc ini as related to the level of ETo and the interval between irrigations and/or significant rain during the
initial growth stage when wetting events are light to medium (3–10 mm per event) for all soil types (Source: FAO,
1998a)

Figure 20
Average Kc ini as related to the level of ETo and the interval between irrigations greater than or equal to 40 mm
per wetting event, during the initial growth stage for a) coarse textured soils; b) medium and fine textured soils
(Source: FAO, 1998a)

48 – Module 4
 Module 4: Crop water requirements and irrigation scheduling

4.5.2. Determination of Kc mid and Kc end Figure 21 is used to estimate the adjustments to be added
The values of Kc mid and Kc end in Table 21 represent those on the Kc mid values given in Table 21 for various climates,
for sub-humid climates with an average day time minimum mean daily wind speeds and various crop heights.
relative humidity (RHmin) of about 45% and with calm to
moderate wind speeds averaging 2 m/sec. For different
climatic conditions it will be necessary to modify the values.

Figure 21
Adjustment (additive) to the Kc mid values from Table 21 for different crop heights and mean daily wind
speeds (u2) for different humidity conditions (Source: FAO, 1998a)

Module 4 – 49
Irrigation manual

As far as Kc end is concerned, more arid climates and 4.6. Constructing the Kc curve
conditions of greater wind speed will have higher values for This section will limit itself to the construction of Kc curves
Kc end, while more humid climates and conditions of lower for annual crops, since these are the most common crops
wind speed will have lower values for Kc end. In these cases, grown by smallholder farmers under irrigation. After the
where RH and u2 differ from 45% and 2 m/sec respectively, determination of the Kc ini, Kc mid and Kc end values from
the following equation can be used: Table 21 and adjusting the values as necessary, the next
Equation 19 stage is the construction of the Kc curve. Only three point
values for Kc are required to describe and construct the
Kc end = Kc end (Table) + [0.04 (u2 - 2) - curve. A typical Kc curve is shown in Figure 22. Such a
h 0.3 curve can be constructed using the following steps:
0.004(RHmin - 45)] x
3 Y Divide the growing period into four general growth
Where: stages that describe the crop development (initial, crop
Kc end (Table) = Value for Kc end taken from Table 21 development, mid-season, and late season stage).
u2 = Mean value for daily wind speed at Determine the lengths of growth stages with the aid of
2 m height over grass during late Table 20 or preferably use local experience, and
season growth stage (m/sec) for identify the three Kc values that correspond to Kc ini,
1 m/sec ≤ u2 ≤ 6 m/sec
Kc mid and Kc end from Table 21.
RHmin = Mean value for daily minimum
relative humidity during the late Y Adjust the Kc values to the frequency of wetting and/or
season stage (%) for 20% ≤ RHmin climatic conditions of the growth as outlined in the
≤ 80%
previous section.
h = Mean plant height during the late
season stage (m) for 0.1 m ≤ h Y Construct a curve by connecting straight line segments
≤ 10 m through each of the four growth stages. Horizontal
lines are drawn trough Kc ini in the initial stage and
Equation 19 only needs to be applied when the tabulated through Kc mid in the mid-season stage. Diagonal lines
values for Kc end exceed 0.45. No adjustment is made when are drawn from Kc ini to Kc mid within the course of the
Kc end (Table) is less than 0.45. In that case Kc end = Kc end crop development stage and from Kc mid to Kc end
(Table). within the course of the late season stage.

Figure 22
A typical crop coefficient (Kc) curve (Source: FAO, 1998a)

50 – Module 4
 Module 4: Crop water requirements and irrigation scheduling

4.7. Calculating ETc Weekly, ten-day or monthly values for Kc are necessary
After construction of the Kc curve, the next step is the when ETc calculations are made on a weekly, ten-day or
calculation of crop evapotranspiration. From the crop monthly time basis respectively. A general procedure is to
coefficient curve, the Kc value for any period during the construct the Kc curve, overlay the curve with the length of
growing period can be determined. Once the Kc values the weeks, decades or months and to derive graphically
have been derived, the crop evapotranspiration (ETc) can from the curve the Kc value for the period under
be calculated by multiplying the Kc values by the consideration. Assuming that all decades have a duration of
corresponding ETo values. 10 days facilitates the derivation of Kc and introduces little
error into the calculation of ETc.

Example 2

A project site is located close to Kutsaga Research Station, the meteorological data of which served as a basis for
the calculation of the reference crop evapotranspiration (ETo) in the previous Chapter. The values of ETo, using the
Penman-Monteith Equation and using CROPWAT, were given in Table 17. Below, the results using the Penman-
Monteith Equation, which will be used in this example, are given in mm/day.
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
ETo 4.3 4.1 4.2 3.9 3.3 2.9 3.2 4.2 5.5 6.2 4.9 4.3
Estimate the crop evapotranspiration for a maize crop planted on 15 October on the project site. The soils are heavy
textured.
The first step is to establish the length of the growth stages:
Based on local experience, the duration of the initial stage is expected to be 20 days for a maize crop planted on 15
October, because of the favourable weather conditions. The development stage, also from local experience, will be 45
days and the mid-season stage will be 50 days. The late season stage is expected to last 39 days. Therefore the crop will
finish around the 15th of March. Since local information is available there is no need to use information given in Table 20.
The second step is to estimate the values of Kc:
Again, local experience is used in order to decide the irrigation frequency during the initial stage. Assuming that
during the initial stage irrigation is exercised on a 7 day frequency, for the ETo of October (6.2 mm/day) a Kc ini value
of 0.59 is obtained from Figure 20 for a fine and medium textured soil.
The initial estimates for the Kc mid and Kc end values are read from Table 21: Kc mid = 1.20 and Kc end = 0.35. From the
meteorological data for the station, during the mid-season (January) conditions will be sub-humid with RHmean = 76%
(Table 2) and u2 = 2.2 m/sec (Table 16). Using the middle graph of Figure 21, it can be seen that the adjustment factor
to be added to the Kc mid value is zero. Hence no adjustment is needed. As Kc end = 0.35, which is less than 0.45, no
adjustment is required on the value of Kc end.
The Kc curve for maize can now be drawn, for initial planning purposes, as shown in Figure 23 where Kc ini , Kc mid,
and Kc end are 0.59, 1.2 and 0.35 respectively, and the four lengths of growth stages are 20, 45, 50 and 39 days.
Using the ETo figures and the Kc values derived from Figure 23, the crop evapotranspiration ETc for maize can be
calculated. For a decade within one month, the daily ETo within the month is multiplied with the corresponding Kc to
derive the ETc. For example, for the first full decade in October ETc = 6.2 x 0.59 = 3.7 mm/day. For a decade that
falls in two months, the weighted average of daily ETo from each month is multiplied by the corresponding Kc. For
example, the ETc of decade 2 (end of October and early November) is calculated as follows:
ETo in October = 6.2 mm/day and ETo in November = 4.9 mm/day. The planting date being 15 October means that
decade 2 has 5 days in October and 5 days in November. The weighted ETo would be: (5/10) x 6.2+ (5/10) x 4.9 =
5.6 mm/day. This proportional ETo would then be multiplied by the corresponding Kc. Table 22 shows the results for
the evapotranspiration of the maize crop, which, as we will see in the next Chapter, is equal to the crop water
requirements.

Module 4 – 51
Irrigation manual

Figure 23
Crop coefficient curve drawn for maize grown close to Kutsaga Research Station

Table 22
Evapotranspiration of a maize crop on a decade by decade basis

Decade Month ETo -Penman- Crop coefficient ETc - maize

Monteith (mm/day) Kc (mm/day)
1 Oct 6.2 0.59 3.7
2 Oct/Nov 5.6 0.59 3.3
3 Nov 4.9 0.66 3.2
4 Nov 4.9 0.79 3.9
5 Nov/Dec 4.6 0.92 4.2
6 Dec 4.3 1.06 4.6
7 Dec 4.3 1.20 5.2
8 Dec/Jan 4.3 1.20 5.2
9 Jan 4.3 1.20 5.2
10 Jan 4.3 1.20 5.2
11 Jan/Feb 4.2 1.20 5.0
12 Feb 4.1 1.20 4.9
13 Feb 4.1 0.98 4.0
14 Feb/Mar 4.2 0.75 3.2
15 Mar 4.2 0.54 2.3
16 Mar 4.2 0.35 1.5

52 – Module 4
 Module 4: Crop water requirements and irrigation scheduling

Example 3

With the aid of the reference crop evapotranspiration map for Zimbabwe for the peak ETo month of October, shown
in Figure 11, estimate the peak crop water requirements for a maize crop grown at Goto irrigation scheme, which is
located at 18°47’ South latitude and 31°50’ East longitude.
The project area can be located on the map, since the coordinates of the irrigation scheme are given. Plotting it on
the maps in Figure 11 and 12, it is found to fall near Wedza town (Figure 12), between the 5.4 mm/day and 5.6
mm/day iso-ETo lines. Using interpolation between the two lines, the mean monthly ETo is read to be 5.5 mm/day.
This ETo is the peak ETo, which falls in the month of October, and can now be utilized in the estimation of crop water
requirements. (ETc), using Equation 1:
ETc = ETo x Kc

In the absence of local data, Table 21 is used for estimating Kc. Assuming that the peak crop water requirements for
maize occur during the mid-season growth stage, then Kc = 1.2.
Hence, the peak crop water requirement for maize is:
ETc = 5.5 x 1.2 = 6.6 mm/day

4.8. Factors affecting ETc sufficient climatic data are available (≥ 10 years), ETc
The main factors affecting ETc are climatic and soil water could be calculated for each year and a probability analysis
related factors, irrigation methods and cultural practices. could be done. The value of ETc then selected for design is
commonly based on a probability of 75-80%, which could
be similar to the probability in water availability.
4.8.1. Climatic factors
In calculating the ETo, average climatic data were used. In most cases, sufficient data are not available to allow a
Since the weather varies from year to year, ETc will vary probability analysis to be carried out. Figure 24 (FAO,
from year to year and also from period to period. Monthly 1984) can be used to make a first estimate of meeting peak
ETc values can vary from one year to the next by 50% or demand in 3 out of 4 years when mean climatic data are
more. For the planning and designing of irrigation projects, used. This calculation is normally done for months of peak
the variations with time become very important. When demand.

Figure 24
Ratio between peak and mean ETc for different climates during month of peak water use (Source: FAO, 1984)

1: Arid and semi-arid climates and

those with predominantly clear
weather conditions during month of
peak ETc.
2: Mid-continental climates and sub-
humid to humid climates with highly
variable cloudiness in month of peak
ETc.
3 and 4: Mid-continental climates with
variable cloudiness and mean ETc
of 5 and 10 mm/day respectively.

Module 4 – 53
Irrigation manual

Example 4

For the maize crop in Example 2, calculate the ETc during the month of peak demand so that the peak demand of
the crop is met 3 out of 4 years. Assume a heavy textured clay soil with 160 mm/m available moisture, a root zone
depth of 0.75 m for maize and a 50% allowable depletion level.
Figure 24 provides for four weather conditions during the period of peak demand. In our case, with the semi-arid
climate conditions at Kutsaga Research Station during peak demand, option 1 will apply.
Available moisture = 160 x 0.5 x 0.75 = 60 mm
With this depth of readily available moisture, according to Figure 24 the correction factor is 1.1
The peak ETc for maize of 5.2 mm/day occurs in the month of December (Table 22) and the corrected peak ETc =
5.2 x 1.1 = 5.7 mm/day.

Usually, there is some distance between the project area Water and crop yield: Different crops have different critical
and the meteorological station used in estimating ETc, and periods for soil water stress. Therefore the timing and
this can have some influence on the project crop water duration of shortage is important with respect to the yield.
requirements. Therefore, it is important to choose the
most representative station, in terms of distance, elevation 4.8.3. Irrigation method
and micro-relief.
A properly designed, constructed and operated irrigation
Changes in microclimatic environment because of the system will not have any effect on ETc, with the exception
project should also be considered. Climatic data are of localized irrigation. Hence, the differences in the amount
collected before irrigation development has taken place and of water used for irrigation under the one or the other
normally the meteorological stations, from which data are method should not be attributed to the effect of the
taken, are located where there is no irrigation development method on ETc, but to the corresponding efficiency being
(for example airports). Irrigation fields will produce a achieved under the one or the other method
different microclimate and ETc may not be equal to the
predicted values, based on meteorological data. This is Localized irrigation (drip, spray jet, etc.) only wets part of
more pronounced for large projects in arid windy climates. the soil and since evapotranspiration includes plant
transpiration and the evaporation from the soil, the overall
ETc should be expected to be less under localized irrigation
4.8.2. Soil water factors
systems. However, ETc is not affected by the method when
According to FAO (1992), if plants are sufficiently anchored the crop is near or at full groundcover. For the period
and there are proper growing conditions (available water before 70% groundcover reduced ETc should be expected,
and nutrients, soil aeration, etc.), the ETc is not affected, since evaporation is limited to the wet areas of the soil only.
even when rooting depth is severely restricted. However, the
following conditions must be considered: 4.8.4. Cultural practices.
Available soil water: The effect of soil water content on The use of fertilizers has only a slight effect on ETc, as long
evapotranspiration varies with crop and is conditioned as the nutrient requirements for optimum growth and yield
primarily by the type of soils and water-holding are provided.
characteristics, crop rooting characteristics and the
meteorological factors determining the level of The plant population will affect ETc in the same way as
transpiration. When evaporative conditions are lower, the percentage groundcover. For low plant populations, when
crop may transpire at the predicted evapotranspiration rate the soil in the area in-between the rows is kept dry, the
even though available soil water depletion is greater. ETc evaporation will be less and thus ETc will be less in relation
will be reduced if the rate of water supply to the roots is to a higher plant population.
unable to cope with transpiration losses. This is more Tillage produces little, if any, effect on ETc. Rough tillage
pronounced in heavy textured than in light textured soils. will accelerate evaporation from the plough layer, deep
Groundwater: As crop growth is affected by shallow tillage may increase water losses when the land is fallow or
groundwater tables, the ETc is affected also. when the crop cover is sparse.

Salinity: ETc is affected by soil salinity, since the soil water As far as mulching is concerned, while polyethylene and
uptake by the crop is reduced due to the higher osmotic asphalt mulches are effective in reducing ETc, crop residues
potential of saline soil water. are often considered of little net benefit in reducing ETc.

54 – Module 4
 Module 4: Crop water requirements and irrigation scheduling

Crop residues as a barrier to soil evaporation are ineffective windy, warm and dry climate because of their effect on
in irrigated agriculture. According to FAO (1984), the windy velocity.
lower temperature of the covered soil and the higher
reflective capacity of the organic matter are easily Anti-transpirants have been used in research for the
outweighed by evaporation of the often re-wetted residue reduction of ETc. Their use has so far been limited to
layer. research and pilot projects.

Windbreaks, depending on the distance covered and the

height of the windbreak, can reduce ETc by 5-30% in

Module 4 – 55
 Chapter 5
Estimating irrigation requirements

5.1. Crop water requirements versus determining the capacity of irrigation systems. It is a
irrigation requirements parameter of prime importance in formulating the policy
for optimal allocation of water resources as well as in
It is important to make a distinction between crop water
decision-making in the day-to-day operation and
requirement (CWR) and irrigation requirement (IR).
management of irrigation systems.
Whereas crop water requirement refers to the water used
by crops for cell construction and transpiration, the Incorrect estimation of the IR may lead to serious failures
irrigation requirement is the water that must be supplied in the system performance and to the waste of valuable
through the irrigation system to ensure that the crop water resources. It may result in inadequate control of the
receives its full crop water requirement. If irrigation is the soil moisture regime in the root zone, it may cause
sole source of water supply for the plant, then the irrigation waterlogging, salinity or leaching of nutrients from the soil.
requirement will be at least equal to the crop water It may lead to the inappropriate capacities of the irrigation
requirement, and is generally greater to allow for network or of storage reservoirs, to a low water use
inefficiencies in the irrigation system (see Module 1). If the efficiency and to a reduction in the irrigated area. Over-
crop receives some of its water from other sources (rainfall, estimating IR at peak demand may also result in increased
water stored in the soil, underground seepage, etc.), then development costs.
the irrigation requirement can be considerably less than the
crop water requirement. 5.3. Net irrigation requirements
The Net Irrigation Requirement (IRn) does not include The net irrigation requirement is derived from the field
losses that are occurring in the process of applying the balance equation:
water. IRn plus losses constitute the Gross Irrigation
Requirement (IRg). Equation 20

The estimation of crop water requirement, which is equal IRn = ETc - (Pe + Ge + Wb) + LRmm
to crop evapotranspiration ETc, was covered in detail in Where:
Chapter 4. The calculation of IR is the subject of this IRn = Net irrigation requirement (mm)
chapter. It is important to realize that the estimation of crop ETc = Crop evapotranspiration (mm)
water requirements is the first stage in the estimation of Pe = Effective dependable rainfall (mm)
irrigation requirements of a given cropping programme.
Ge = Groundwater contribution from water
Hence the calculation of crop water requirements and table (mm)
irrigation requirements must not be viewed as two Wb = Water stored in the soil at the
unrelated procedures. beginning of each period (mm)
LRmm = Leaching requirement (mm)
5.2. Importance of estimating irrigation
requirements 5.3.1. Crop evapotranspiration
Estimating the crop water and irrigation requirements for a The crop evapotranspiration (ETc) is the crop water
proposed cropping pattern is an essential part of the requirement (CWR) for a given cropping pattern during a
planning and design of an irrigation system. certain time period. Its estimation was covered in Chapter 4.
The irrigation requirement (IR) is one of the principal
parameters for the planning, design and operation of 5.3.2. Effective dependable rainfall
irrigation and water resources systems. Detailed knowledge
of the IR quantity and its temporal and spatial variability is Dependable rainfall
essential for assessing the adequacy of water resources, for Crop water requirements can be partially or fully covered
evaluating the need of storage reservoirs and for the by rainfall. However, while the rainfall contribution may be

Module 4 – 57
Irrigation manual

substantial in some years, in other years it may be limited. range of historical rainfall records. It can be, for example,
Therefore, in planning and designing irrigation projects, the depth of rainfall that can be expected 3 out of 4 years
the use of mean values of rainfall should be avoided if more (75% probability of exceedance) or, better still, 4 out of 5
than 10 years of annual rainfall data are available, as is the years (80% probability of exceedance). A higher level of
case for Kutsaga Research Station (Table 23). In such cases, dependable rainfall (9 out of 10 years) may need to be
by using these data a probability analysis can be carried out selected during the period that crops are more sensitive to
so that a dependable level of rainfall is selected. The water stress and where yields would be severely affected by
dependable rainfall is the rain that can be accounted for water stress. Before one carries out a statistical analysis, it is
with a certain statistical probability, determined from a always important to check with the meteorological station

Table 23
Mean monthly rainfall for Kutsaga Research Station

Year Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
1951 516.2 169.2 59.2 31.8 1.3 1.8 - - 15.2 67.3 66.5 162.3
1952 237.0 195.8 146.8 42.2 - - - - 26.4 7.1 72.9 132.2
1953 142.5 220.2 58.9 - 5.1 1.3 - - 4.3 8.1 98.3 193.8
1954 321.8 192.5 171.5 50.3 4.6 4.1 - - 16.0 - 198.9 330.7
1955 228.1 228.3 414.8 41.4 10.9 1.3 - 1.5 6.9 36.1 81.8 172.5
1956 174.2 171.7 124.7 45.5 75.4 - 4.1 - - 3.0 189.5 242.3
1957 278.9 413.3 246.1 36.1 1.0 15.5 - - 24.6 9.7 12.7 198.4
1958 328.4 342.9 32.0 - 5.3 16.3 0.8 - 8.6 62.2 36.8 194.8
1959 117.1 98.8 25.9 73.4 10.2 14.7 2.0 - - 2.0 108.7 139.8
1960 174.0 99.3 66.5 50.0 3.8 4.3 - - - 14.5 47.8 22.5

Example 5

For each month, estimate the dependable rainfall that you would expect to have in 4 out of every 5 years (80%
probability of exceedance) for Kutsaga Research Station.
Considering data for the month of January (Table 23), the highest figure is 516.2 mm and the lowest is 117.1 mm.
Using 10 mm groupings, we can group the rainfall in the relevant groups as shown in Table 24.
From the grouping in Table 24 it appears that in 8 out of 10 years the rainfall in January has been 171 mm or more.
It is therefore safe to assume that the 80% dependable rainfall is at least 171 mm. Using the same approach, the
80% dependable rainfall has been calculated for all months. The result is shown in Table 25.

Table 24
Rainfall grouping for the month of January for Kutsaga Research Station in order to carry out a probability
analysis

Group Frequency Group Frequency Group Frequency

111-120 mm 1x 251-260 mm 0 391-400 mm 0
121-130 mm 0 261-270 mm 0 401-410 mm 0
131-140 mm 0 271-280 mm 1x 411-420 mm 0
141-150 mm 1x 281-290 mm 0 421-430 mm 0
151-160 mm 0 291-300 mm 0 431-440 mm 0
161-170 mm 0 301-310 mm 0 441-450 mm 0
171-180 mm 2x 311-320 mm 0 451-460 mm 0
181-190 mm 0 321-330 mm 2x 461-470 mm 0
191-200 mm 0 331-340 mm 0 471-480 mm 0
201-210 mm 0 341-350 mm 0 481-490 mm 0
211-220 mm 0 351-360 mm 0 491-500 mm 0
221-230 mm 1x 361-370 mm 0 501-510 mm 0
231-240 mm 1x 371-380 mm 0 511-520 mm 1x
241-250 mm 0 381-390 mm 0 Total number of records =10

58 – Module 4
 Module 4: Crop water requirements and irrigation scheduling

Table 25

80% dependable rainfall for Kutsaga Research Station (mm)

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
80% dependable rainfall 171 161 51 31 0 0 0 0 0 0 41 135

nearest to the irrigation project as to whether or not they crop, depending on its root zone depth and the soil storage
have already carried out the statistical analysis of the rainfall capacity. Different methods exist to estimate the effective
data. rainfall and the reader is referred to FAO (1992) for details.
One of the most commonly used methods is the USDA Soil
A rough indication of rainfall probability can be obtained by Conservation Service Method, presented in Table 26. The
grouping the rainfall data and then dividing the number of relationship between average monthly effective rainfall and
times that monthly rainfall falls within a group by the number mean monthly rainfall is shown for different average
of monthly records. Detailed methods of computing rainfall monthly ETc. At the time of irrigation, the net depth of
probability will not be covered in this module but can be irrigation water that can be stored effectively over the root
found in any standard textbook of hydrology. zone is assumed to be equal to 75 mm. Correction factors
are presented for different depths that can be effectively
Effective rainfall stored. Data in Table 26 do not account for the infiltration
Not all dependable rainfall is effective and some may be lost rate of the soil or rainfall intensity. In the cases where
through surface runoff, deep percolation or evaporation. infiltration is low and rainfall intensities are high,
Only a part of the rainfall can be effectively used by the considerable water may be lost by runoff, which is not
accounted for in this method.
Table 26
Average monthly effective rainfall, as related to average monthly ETc and mean monthly rainfall, USDA method
(Source: FAO, 1984)

Monthly mean rainfall (mm)

12.5 25 37.5 50 63 75 87.5 100 112.5 125 137.5 150 163 175 187.5 200
Average monthly effective rainfall (mm)*
Average 25 8 16 24
monthly 50 8 17 25 32 39 46
ETc (mm) 75 9 18 27 34 41 48 56 62 69
100 9 19 28 35 43 52 59 66 73 80 87 94 100
125 10 20 30 37 46 54 62 70 76 85 92 98 107 116 120
150 10 21 31 39 49 57 66 74 81 89 97 104 112 119 127 133
175 11 22 32 42 52 61 69 78 86 95 103 111 118 126 134 141
200 11 23 33 44 54 64 73 82 91 100 109 117 125 134 142 150
225 12 24 35 47 57 68 78 87 96 106 115 124 132 141 150 159
250 13 25 38 50 61 72 84 92 102 112 121 132 140 150 158 167
* Where net depth of water that can be stored in the soil at time of irrigation is greater or smaller than 75 mm, the correction factor to be used is:

Effective storage (mm) 20 25 37.5 50 62.5 75 100 125 150 175 200
Storage factor 0.73 0.77 0.86 0.93 0.97 1.00 1.02 1.04 1.06 1.07 1.08

Table 27
Effective dependable rainfall for the maize crop grown near Kutsaga Research Station

Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar

Period under consideration (decade) 1.5 3 3 3 3 1.5
ETc for maize (mm) 53.5 109.5 145.0 155.0 130.0 54.0
80% dependable rainfall (mm) 0 41 135 171 161 51*
Effective dependable rainfall for maize (mm) 0 29.5 90.5 115.6 102.1 31.4

* While 51 mm refers to the effective rainfall for the whole month of March, since it is the end of the rainy season it has been assumed that this rainfall falls
within the first 1.5 decades of the month. Local experience should be used to determine what to do for other sites or regions.

Module 4 – 59
Irrigation manual

Example 6

Consider the maize crop in Examples 2 and 4, grown near Kutsaga Research Station. The soils are heavy textured
clays with available moisture of 160 mm/m and irrigation will be done at 50% allowable depletion level. Estimate the
effective dependable rainfall, using the USDA method, for each month of the growing period for maize.
The rooting depth of maize is taken as 0.75 m at peak demand. The available moisture is 60 mm (160 x 0.75 x 0.5)
(Example 4). This is the net depth of water application, which is the amount of water that can be stored in the soil at
time of irrigation (storage capacity).
December is the month of peak demand (Table 22) with 5.2 mm/day. The ETc of maize for the month of December can
be estimated by adding the corresponding ETc values for the 3 decades in the month which is: (4.2 x 5) + (4.6 x 10) +
(5.2 x 10) + (5.2 x 5) = 145.0 mm. The 80% dependable rainfall for December was calculated to be 135 mm (Example 5).
Using interpolation in Table 26, with a mean monthly rainfall of 135 mm and an average monthly ETc of 145.0 mm for
December, the effective rainfall is 94.5 mm for a storage of 75 mm. However, our storage is only 60 mm, which means
that we need to apply a correction factor of 0.958, as obtained through interpolation from Table 26. Therefore, the
effective dependable rainfall for January will be 94.5 x 0.958 = 90.5 mm.
Using the same approach, the effective dependable rainfall during the other parts of the growing season of maize can
be calculated, taking into consideration the fact that the roots during the first two weeks are 0.2 m deep and 0.5 m
deep during the next two weeks. The results are summarized in Table 27.

5.3.3. Groundwater contribution depths of groundwater below the root zone and various soil
The contribution of the groundwater table (Ge) to the ETc types assuming the root zone is relatively moist.
varies with the depth of the water table below the root zone,
the soil type and the water content in the root zone. Very
detailed experiments will be required to determine the Example 7
groundwater contribution under field conditions. As a rule,
under most smallholder conditions high water tables are Given a sandy loam soil with the groundwater depth
below root zone being 80 cm, estimate the
rare and as a result groundwater contribution to crop water contribution of groundwater to ETc.
requirements is normally ignored.
Using Figure 25, the first estimate of groundwater
However, Figure 25 can be used to make rough estimates contribution to ETc is 2.7 mm/day.
of groundwater contribution (in mm/day) for different

Figure 25
Contribution of groundwater to moist root zone in mm/day (Source: FAO, 1984)

1 Sticky clay
2 Loamy sand
3 Clay
4 Peat
5 Clay
6 Humus LS
7 Sandy loam
8 Fine sandy loam
9 Very fine sandy loam

60 – Module 4
 Module 4: Crop water requirements and irrigation scheduling

5.3.4. Water stored in the soil Equation 22

At times, and for certain crops, planting takes place right

For localized irrigation and high frequency (near daily)
after the rainy season. Some water (Wb) could be left in the
sprinkler:
soil from the previous irrigation, which can be used for the
next crop. This amount can be deducted when determining ECw 1
LR(fraction) = x
the seasonal irrigation requirements. 2 Max ECe Le

Where:
However, it is important to note that water stored in the
LR(fraction) = The fraction of the water to be
root zone is not 100% effective due to losses through
applied that passes through the
evaporation and deep percolation. The effectiveness ranges entire root zone depth and
from 40-90%. percolates below
ECw = Electrical conductivity of irrigation
In most situations encountered in the planning of water (dS/m)
smallholder irrigation schemes in East and Southern Africa, ECe = Electrical conductivity of the soil
the project sites are located in dry areas with very low saturation extract for a given crop
rainfall. Hence, for planning purposes, the contribution of appropriate to the tolerable degree
water stored in the soil is considered negligible in such of yield reduction (dS/m) (Table 29)
schemes. Max ECe = Maximum tolerable electrical
conductivity of the soil saturation
extract for a given crop (dS/m)
5.3.5. Leaching requirements (LR) (Table 29)
Le = Leaching efficiency (in decimals)
The salinity in the root zone is directly related to the water
quality, irrigation methods and practices, soil conditions
and rainfall. A high salt content in the root zone is normally The leaching requirement fraction LR(fraction) can also be
controlled by leaching. An excess amount of water is expressed as the depth of water leached below the root
applied during the irrigation, where necessary, for the zone LR(mm) divided by the water requirement, taking into
purposes of leaching. This excess amount of water for consideration the rainfall:
leaching purposes is called the Leaching Requirement (LR). Equation 23

To estimate the LR, both the irrigation water salinity (ECw) LR(mm)
and the crop tolerance to salinity, which is normally LR(fraction) =
IRn + Pe
expressed as electrical conductivity of the soil saturation
extract (ECe), have to be known. The ECw can be obtained If assuming that Wb and Ge are both zero, then Equation
from laboratory analysis, while the ECe should be estimated 20 becomes:
from the crop tolerance data given in Table 28. This table
gives an acceptable ECe value for each crop appropriate to IRn = ETc - Pe + LR(mm)
the tolerable degree of yield loss (normally a reduction in
yield of 10% or less is accepted). Substituting this in Equation 23 gives:
LR(mm)
When estimating the LR, it is important to consider the LR(fraction) =
ETc + LR(mm)
leaching efficiency (Le). Le varies with the soil type, internal
drainage properties of the soil and the field. The value of Le
Rearranging the above gives:
varies from 30-100% and must, therefore, always be
measured for the area under investigation. LR(fraction) x ETc + LR(fraction) x LR(mm) = LR(mm)

For sandy loam to clay loam soils with good drainage and LR(fraction) x ETc = LR(mm) x (1 - LR(fraction))
where rainfall is low, the leaching requirement can be
obtained through the following equations: Thus:
Equation 21 ETc LR(mm)
=
(1 - LR(fraction)) LR(fraction)
For surface and sprinkler irrigation method:
Equation 23 can also be arranged as follows:
ECw 1
LR(fraction) = x LR(mm)
5 ECe - ECw Le
= IRn + Pe
LR(fraction)

Module 4 – 61
Irrigation manual

Combining the two equations gives: Where:

LR(mm) = Leaching requirement for the
ETc period under consideration (mm)
IRn = - Pe
(1 -LR(fraction)) ETc = Crop evapotranspiration or crop
water demand for the period under
And finally, the equation for LR(mm), as follows: consideration (mm)
LR(fraction) = Leaching requirement fraction
Equation 24

ETc
LR(mm) = - ETc
(1 - LR(fraction))

Table 28
Crop tolerance and yield potential of selected crops, as influenced by irrigation water salinity (ECw) or soil
salinity (ECe)1 (Source: FAO, 1985)

Yield potential2 100% 90% 75% 50% 0%

EC values for soil (ECe) and for water (ECw)
Crops “maximum”3
ECe ECw ECe ECw ECe ECw ECe ECw ECe ECw
Field crops
Barley (Hordeum vulgare)4 8.0 5.3 10 6.7 13 8.7 18 12 28 19
Cotton (Gossypium Hirsutum) 7.7 5.1 9.6 6.4 13 8.4 17 12 27 18
Sugarbeet (Beta vulgaris)5 7.0 4.7 8.7 5.8 11 7.5 15 10 24 16
Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) 6.8 4.5 7.4 5.0 8.4 5.6 9.9 6.7 13 8.7
Wheat (Triticum aestivum)4,6 6.8 4.0 7.4 4.9 9.5 6.3 13 8.7 20 13
Wheat, durum (Triticum turgidum) 5.7 3.8 7.6 5.0 10 6.9 15 10 24 16
Soyabeans (Glycine max) 5.0 3.3 5.5 3.7 6.3 4.2 7.5 5 10 6.7
Cowpeas (Vigna unguiculata) 4.9 3.3 5.7 3.8 7.0 4.7 9.1 6 13 8.8
Groundnuts (peanuts) (Arachis hypogea) 3.2 2.1 3.5 2.4 4.1 2.7 4.9 3.3 6.6 4.4
Rice (paddy) (Oriza sativa) 3.0 2.0 3.8 2.6 5.1 3.4 7.2 4.8 11 7.6
Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum) 1.7 1.1 3.4 2.3 5.9 4.0 10 6.8 19 12
Corn (maize) (Zea mays) 1.7 1.1 2.5 1.7 3.8 2.5 5.9 3.9 10 6.7
Flax (Linum usitatissimum) 1.7 1.1 2.5 1.7 3.8 2.5 5.9 3.9 10 6.7
Broadbeans (Vicia faba) 1.5 1.1 2.6 1.8 4.2 2.0 6.8 4.5 12 8
Beans (Phaseolus vulgaris) 1.0 0.7 1.5 1.0 2.3 1.5 3.6 2.4 6.3 4.2
Vegetable crops
Squash, zucchini (courgette) 4.7 3.1 5.8 3.8 7.4 4.9 10 6.7 15 10
(cucurbita pepo melopepo)
Beet, red (Beta vulgaris)5 4.0 2.7 5.1 3.4 6.8 4.5 9.6 6.4 15 10
Squash, scallop (Cucurbita pepo melopepo) 3.2 2.1 3.8 2.6 4.8 3.2 6.3 4.2 9.4 6.3
Broccoli (Brassica oleracea botrytis) 2.8 1.9 3.9 2.6 5.5 3.7 8.2 5.5 14 9.1
Tomatoes (Lycopersicon esculentum) 2.5 1.7 3.5 2.3 5.0 3.4 7.6 5.0 13 8.4
Cucumbers (Cucumis sativus) 2.5 1.7 3.3 2.2 4.4 2.9 6.3 4.2 10 6.8
Spinach (Apium graveolens) 2.0 1.3 3.3 2.2 5.3 3.5 8.6 5.7 15 10
Celery (Apium graveolens) 1.8 1.2 3.4 2.3 5.8 3.9 9.9 6.6 18 12
Cabbages (Brassica oleracea capitata) 1.8 1.2 2.8 1.9 4.4 2.9 7.0 4.6 12 8.1
Potatoes (Solanum tuberosum) 1.7 1.1 2.5 1.7 3.8 2.5 5.9 3.9 10 6.7
Corn, sweet (maize) (Zea mays) 1.7 1.1 2.5 1.7 3.8 2.5 5.9 3.9 10 6.7
Sweet potatoes (Ipomoea batatas) 1.5 1.0 2.4 1.6 3.8 2.5 6.0 4.0 11 7.1
Peppers (Capsicum annuum) 1.5 1.0 2.2 1.5 3.3 2.2 5.1 3.4 8.6 5.8
Lettuce (Lactuca sativa) 1.3 0.9 2.1 1.4 3.2 2.1 5.1 3.4 9.0 6.0
Radishes (Raphanus sativus) 1.2 0.8 2.0 1.3 3.1 2.1 5.0 3.4 8.9 5.9
Onions (Allium cepa) 1.2 0.8 1.8 1.2 2.8 1.8 4.3 2.9 7.4 5.0
Carrots (Daucus carota) 1.0 0.7 1.7 1.1 2.8 1.9 4.6 3.0 8.1 5.4
Beans (Phaseolus vulgaris) 1.0 0.7 1.5 1.0 2.3 1.5 3.6 2.4 6.3 4.2
Turnips (Brassica rapa) 0.9 0.6 2.0 1.3 3.7 2.5 6.5 4.3 12 8.0

62 – Module 4
 Module 4: Crop water requirements and irrigation scheduling

Forage crops
Wheat grass, tall (agropyron elongatum) 7.5 5.0 9.9 6.6 13 9.0 19 13 31 21
Wheargrass, fairway crested 7.5 5.0 9.0 6.0 11 7.4 15 9.8 22 15
(agropyron crostatum)
Bermuda grass (Cynodom dactylon)7 6.9 4.6 8.5 5.6 11 7.2 15 9.8 23 15
Barley (forage) (Hordeum vulgare)4 6.0 4.0 7.4 4.9 9.5 6.4 13 8.7 20 13
Ryegrass, perennial (Lolium perenne) 5.6 3.7 6.9 4.6 8.9 5.9 12 8.1 19 13
Trefoil, narrowleaf birdsfoot8 5.0 3.3 6.0 4.0 7.5 5.0 10 6.7 15 10
(Lotus corniculatus tenuifolium)
Harding grass (Phalaris tuberosa) 4.6 3.1 5.9 3.9 7.9 5.3 11 7.4 18 12
Fescue, tall (Festuca elatior) 3.9 2.6 5.5 3.6 7.8 5.2 12 7.8 20 13
Wheatgrass, standard crested 3.5 2.3 6.0 4.0 9.8 6.5 16 11 28 19
(Agropyron sibiricum)
Vetch, common (Vicia angustifolia) 3.0 2.0 3.9 2.6 5.3 3.5 7.6 5.0 12 8.1
Sudan grass (Sorghum sudanese) 2.8 1.9 5.1 3.4 8.6 5.7 14 9.6 26 17
Wildrye, beardless (Elymus triticoides) 2.7 1.8 4.4 2.9 6.9 4.6 11 7.4 19 13
Cowpea (Forage) (Vigna unguiculata 2.5 1.7 3.4 2.3 4.8 3.2 7.1 4.8 12 7.8
Trefoil, big (Lotus uliginosus) 2.3 1.5 2.8 1.9 3.6 2.4 4.9 3.3 7.6 5.0
Sesbania (Sesbania exaltata) 2.3 1.5 3.7 2.5 5.9 3.9 9.4 6.3 17 11.0
Sphaerophysa (Sphaerophysa salsula) 2.2 1.5 3.6 2.4 5.8 3.8 9.3 6.2 16 11.0
Alfalfa (Medicago sativa) 2.0 1.3 3.4 2.2 5.4 3.6 8.8 5.9 16 10.0
Lovegrass (Eragrostis sp.)9 2.0 1.3 3.2 2.1 5.0 3.3 8.0 5.3 14 9.3
Corn (Forage) (Maize) (Zea mays) 1.8 1.2 3.2 2.1 5.2 3.5 8.6 5.7 15 10
Clover, berseem (Trifolium alexandrinum) 1.5 1.0 3.2 2.2 5.9 3.9 10 6.8 19 13
Orchard grass (Dactylis glomerata) 1.5 1.0 3.1 2.1 5.5 3.7 9.6 6.4 18 12
Foxtail, meadow (alopecurus pratensis) 1.5 1.0 2.5 1.7 4.1 2.7 6.7 4.5 12 7.9
Clover, red (Trifolium pratense) 1.5 1.0 2.3 1.6 3.6 2.4 5.7 3.8 9.8 6.6
Clover, alsike (Trifolium hybridum) 1.5 1.0 2.3 1.6 3.6 2.4 5.7 3.8 9.8 6.6
Clover, ladino (Trifolium repens) 1.5 1.0 2.3 1.6 3.6 2.4 5.7 3.8 9.8 6.6
Clover, strawberry (Trifolium fragiferum) 1.5 1.0 2.3 1.6 3.6 2.4 5.7 3.8 9.8 6.6
Fruit crops10
Date palm (Phoenix dactylifera) 4.0 2.7 6.8 4.5 11 7.3 18 12 32 21
Grapefruit (Citrus paradisi)11 1.8 1.2 2.4 1.6 3.4 2.2 4.9 3.3 8.0 5.4
Orange (Citrus sinensis) 1.7 1.1 2.3 1.6 3.3 2.2 4.8 3.2 8.0 5.3
Peach (Prunus persica) 1.7 1.1 2.2 1.5 2.9 1.9 4.1 2.7 6.5 4.3
Apricot (Prunus armeniaca)11 1.6 1.1 2.0 1.3 2.6 1.8 3.7 2.5 5.8 3.8
Grape (vitus sp.)11 1.5 1.0 2.5 1.7 4.1 2.7 6.7 4.5 12 7.9
Almond (Prunus dulcis)11 1.5 1.0 2.0 1.4 2.8 1.9 4.1 2.8 6.8 4.5
Plum, prune (Prunus domestica)11 1.5 1.0 2.1 1.4 2.9 1.9 4.3 2.9 7.1 4.7
Blackberry (Rubus sp.) 1.5 1.0 2.0 1.3 2.6 1.8 3.8 2.5 6.0 4.0
Boysenberry (Rubus ursinus) 1.5 1.0 2.0 1.3 2.6 1.8 3.8 2.5 6.0 4.0
Strawberry (Fragaria sp.) 1.0 0.7 1.3 0.9 1.8 1.2 2.5 1.7 4 2.7
1 These data should only serve as a guide to relative tolerances among crops. Absolute tolerances vary depending upon climate, soil conditions and cultural
practices. In gypsiferous soils, plants will tolerate about 2 dS/m higher soil salinity (ECe) than indicated but the water salinity (ECw) will remain the same
as shown in this table.
2 ECe means average root zone salinity as measured by electrical conductivity of the saturation extract of the soil, reported in deciSiemens per metre
(dS/m) at 25°C. ECw means electrical conductivity of the irrigation water in deciSiemens per metre (dS/m). The relationship between soil salinity and
water salinity (ECe = 1.5 ECw) assumes a 15-20% leaching fraction and a 40-30-20-10% water use pattern for the upper to lower quarters of the root
zone.
3 The zero yield potential or maximum ECe indicates the theoretical soil salinity (ECe) at which stage crop growth ceases.
4 Barley and wheat are less tolerant during germination and seedling stage; ECe should not exceed 4-5 dS/m in the upper soil during this period.
5 Beets are more sensitive during germination; ECe should not exceed 3 dS/m in the seeding area for garden beets and sugar beets.
6 Semi dwarf, short cultivars may be less tolerant.
7 Tolerance given is an average of several varieties; Suwanne and Coastal Bermuda grass are about 20% more tolerant, while Common and Greenfield
Bermuda grass are about 20% less tolerant.
8 Broadleaf Birdsfoot Trefoil seems less tolerant than Narrowleaf Birdsfoot Trefoil.
9 Tolerance given is an average for Boer, William, Sand and Weeping Lovegrass; Lehman Lovegrass seems about 50% more tolerant.
10 These data are applicable when rootstocks are used that do not accumulate Na+ and Cl– rapidly or when these ions do not predominate in the soil.
11 Tolerance evaluation is based on tree growth and not yield.

Module 4 – 63
Irrigation manual

Example 8

The maize crop planted near Kutsaga Research Station (see previous examples) is irrigated by furrow irrigation,
using borehole water. Water analyses give ECw = 1.2 dS/m. The soil is heavy textured with a measured leaching
efficiency (Le) of 0.7. Estimate on a month by month basis for the growing season of maize the actual amount of water
to be applied to satisfy both the ETc and the leaching requirement.
Assuming a 90% yield potential for maize, Table 28 gives a value of ECe = 2.5. Using Equation 21, and including a
leaching efficiency of 0.7, gives the following leaching requirement:
1.2 1
LR(fraction) = x = 1.15 (90% yield potential or 10% yield reduction)
(5 x 2.5) - 1.2 0.7

Considering the month of January with an ETc = 155.0 mm (Table 27) and using Equation 24, the leaching
requirement is:
155.0
LR(mm) = - 155.0 = 25.0 mm
1 - 0.15

The same calculation can be done for all the months in the growing season for maize and the results are given in
Table 29.

Table 29
Leaching requirements for maize planted at Kutsaga Research Station for the period under consideration

Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar

Period under consideration (decade) 1.5 3 3 3 3 1.5
ETc for maize (mm) 53.5 109.5 145.0 155.0 130.0 54.0
Leaching requirement fraction LR(fraction) 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15
Leaching requirement LR(mm) (mm) 9.4 19.3 25.6 25.0 22.9 9.5

In most irrigation projects dealt with in the smallholder deep percolation normally satisfy the leaching
sub-sector of East and Southern Africa the quality of requirements.
irrigation water is good and most soils are sandy with
good natural drainage. As a result, soil salinity is not an 5.4. Calculating net irrigation requirements
issue except where there are serious drainage problems.
As a rule, the leaching requirement is normally ignored All the parameters for the field balance equation given in
when estimating irrigation requirements. In addition, due Equation 17 have now been estimated. Therefore, it is now
to irrigation system inefficiencies, water losses due to possible to estimate the net irrigation requirements.

Example 9

For the maize crop grown near Kutsaga Research Station, estimate the net irrigation requirements for the growing season.
The crop evapotranspiration (ETc) has been estimated in Example 2 and is summarized in Table 27.
The effective dependable rainfall (Pe) has been estimated in Example 6 and is summarized in Table 27.
The Leaching Requirement (LRmm) has been estimated in Example 8 and is summarized in Table 29.
The groundwater contribution (Ge) and water stored at the beginning of the irrigation (Wb) are assumed to be zero.
Therefore, using Equation 20:
IRn (Oct) = 53.5 - (0 + 0 + 0) + 9.3 = 62.8 mm
IRn (Nov) = 109.5 - (26.7 + 0 + 0) + 19.3 = 102.1 mm
IRn (Dec) = 145.0 - (89.8 + 0 + 0) + 25.5 = 80.7 mm
IRn (Jan) = 155.0 - (112.5 + 0 + 0) + 27.0 = 69.5 mm
IRn (Feb) = 130.0 - (102.2 + 0 + 0) + 22.9 = 50.7 mm
IRn (Mar) = 54.0 - (31.4 + 0 + 0) + 9.4 = 32.0 mm
Total 397.8 mm

64 – Module 4
 Module 4: Crop water requirements and irrigation scheduling

5.5. Calculating gross irrigation

requirements Module 1 gives more detailed information on the different
types of efficiencies (overall project, conveyance, field canal,
The gross irrigation requirements account for losses of
distribution system, farm, field application efficiency).
water incurred during conveyance and application to the
field. This is expressed in terms of efficiencies when Different efficiencies are attributed to different irrigation
calculating project gross irrigation requirements from net systems. The overall project efficiency values shown in Table
irrigation requirements, as shown below: 30 can be used for different irrigation systems (for more
details, see Module 1).
Equation 25

IRn Table 30
IRg = Efficiencies for different irrigation systems
E

Where: Irrigation system Overall efficiency

IRg = Gross irrigation requirements (mm) Surface 45%
IRn = Net irrigation requirements (mm) Sprinkler 75%
E = Overall project efficiency Localized 90%

Example 10

Estimate the gross irrigation requirements for the maize crop grown near Kutsaga Research Station under surface
and sprinkler irrigation technologies respectively.
The net irrigation requirements have been calculated in Example 9. Using Equation 25 and the overall efficiencies given
in Table 30, the gross irrigation requirements for maize have been calculated and the results are shown in Table 31.

Table 31
Gross irrigation requirements for the maize crop grown at Kutsaga Research Station

Month Net irrigation Irrigation efficiency Surface gross Sprinkler gross

requirements irrigation irrigation
Surface Sprinkler
requirements requirements
(mm) (mm) (mm)
Oct 62.8 0.45 0.75 139.6 83.7
Nov 102.1 0.45 0.75 226.9 136.1
Dec 80.7 0.45 0.75 179.3 107.6
Jan 69.5 0.45 0.75 154.4 92.7
Feb 50.7 0.45 0.75 112.7 67.6
Mar 32.0 0.45 0.75 71.1 42.7
Total 397.8 884.0 530.4

Module 4 – 65
 Chapter 6
Estimating crop water and irrigation requirements using
computer programmes
In the preceding chapters the procedures for the manual sole recommended FAO Penman-Monteith method of
calculation of the ETo, using the FAO Penman-Monteith estimating ETo. CROPWAT 5.7 facilitates the linkage to
Equation, and of the crop water and irrigation the CLIMWAT programme, which is a climatic database of
requirements were explained. These procedures are long 3 261 stations of 144 countries worldwide (FAO, 1993).
and complicated. Considering that most irrigation This database can also be downloaded from the above-
engineers and practitioners might need to estimate the crop mentioned Internet site. The latest version, CROPWAT
water requirements for several irrigation projects at any 7.0, contains a completely new version in Pascal and
given time, the whole process becomes very long if carried overcomes many of the shortcomings of the CROPWAT
out manually. It is therefore, imperative to computerize the 5.7. This version is a DOS application, but it runs without
process to speed up calculations and make the work less any problem in all MS-Windows environments. Finally,
tedious. Using computer techniques crop CROPWAT for WINDOWS contains a CROPWAT
evapotranspiration, rainfall, irrigation and drainage can all version in Visual Basic to operate in the Windows
be combined into a water balance model. environment.
CROPWAT, developed by FAO, is a computer programme The programme uses monthly climatic data (temperature,
designed for such purposes. For details on this programme, relative humidity, wind speed, sunshine hours, rainfall) for
the reader is referred to FAO (1992). It can also be the calculation of reference evapotranspiration. It has also
downloaded from the Internet (http://www.fao.org/ four different methods to calculate effective rainfall but to
waicent/faoinfo/agricult/agl/aglw/CROPWAT.stm). In this be able to do this it requires dependable rainfall as input.
Module, references to CROPWAT will be limited to the Through the input of crop data (growth stages, Kc factors,
illustration of how outputs from the programme can be root zone depth and allowable soil moisture depletion
used in the estimation of crop water and irrigation factor), the programme calculates the crop water
requirements for the purposes of initial irrigation planning requirements on a decade (10-day) basis.
and design.
The application of CROPWAT in calculating crop water
and irrigation requirements is best illustrated by using an
6.1. The FAO CROPWAT model example of smallholder irrigation projects in East and
CROPWAT is a computer programme that can calculate Southern Africa, as is shown below.
crop water and irrigation requirements from climatic and
crop data. The programme is interactive in nature. In 6.2. Estimating crop water and irrigation
addition, the programme allows the development of requirements for smallholder farmers
irrigation schedules for different management conditions and In typical smallholder irrigation schemes in East and
the estimation of scheme water supply for varying cropping Southern Africa each farmer is allocated on average a plot
patterns. The use of the programme in the development of of between 0.5 and 1.5 ha (though it can be as little as
irrigation schedules is covered in Chapter 9. 0.1 ha in some countries in the region). In the design of the
The CROPWAT model is based on a water balance model scheme, each farmer is allocated their own infield
where the soil moisture status is determined on a daily basis equipment and is responsible for operating, maintaining
from calculated evapotranspiration and inputs of rainfall and replacing the equipment as an individual. This
and irrigation. Methodologies for crop water requirements individual ownership of infield irrigation equipment allows
and yield response to water (Chapter 8) are used, while the flexibility and more responsibility for maintenance and
actual evapotranspiration is determined from the soil replacement by the farmers.
moisture status. Smallholder farmers normally prefer to grow 2-4 crops per
Several versions of CROPWAT have been released. season so as to have a variety of crops for home
CROPWAT 5.6 is an update of earlier versions, which were consumption, to allow agronomic considerations
based on the Modified Penman method, and is based on the (rotations) and also to spread their risk when it comes to

Module 4 – 67
Irrigation manual

marketing. To allow this, the 0.5 to 1.5 ha plots are In order to reduce the risk of diseases and pests and to
normally subdivided in to 2, 3 or 4 subplots. Irrigation avoid elimination of certain nutrients through plant
systems for smallholders are designed in such a way that uptake, the cropping programme should allow rotation of
they allow the irrigation of these subplots one after another. the crops between the subplots. Vegetables such as
cabbages, carrots, onion, rape, and field crops like wheat,
6.2.1. Cropping programmes and rotations maize, groundnuts, cotton and beans could safely be
planted on the same subplot every two years. Crops such
The preparation of a cropping programme is the first step as tobacco, tomatoes, okra, peppers and potatoes need a
in calculating crop water requirements, based on which the return period of four years, due to their susceptibility to
capacity of the system or the area to be covered by nematodes (see Module 3).
irrigation is determined (Module 3). With the full
participation of farmers, a selection of what crops to grow Cropping programmes are not fixed and they belong to the
in winter and summer respectively is made. Factors to be farmers. This should be taken into consideration when
considered in crop selection include farmers’ wishes and planning the irrigation system. For design purposes, a
aspirations, financial considerations, climate and soils, cropping pattern should be made in such a way that the
water availability, labour requirements, marketing aspects, water requirements for other crops that the farmer intends
availability of inputs, rotational considerations and to grow could be satisfied. This involves a careful
susceptibility to diseases. These factors are normally site consideration of all points mentioned above and detailed
specific. discussions with the farmers.
Once the crops are selected, a cropping programme showing As an example, a 10 ha smallholder irrigation scheme to
the seasonal cropping patterns and indicating the place and benefit 20 farmers (each with a 0.5 ha plot) is proposed on
the occupying area for each crop is made. Of importance are a site close to Mahalapye climatic station in Botswana. After
the sowing or transplanting dates, the length of the growing intensive consultations with the farmers, and taking all
season and the time needed for harvest and land preparation technical aspects into consideration, the crops to be grown
for the next crop. It must be noted that the time needed for are: tomatoes, cabbages and rape in summer, and onions,
harvest and land preparation should not be included when potatoes and green maize in winter. Based on this
calculating the crop water requirements. It is therefore useful information, a possible cropping pattern and rotation for
to indicate on the cropping programme diagram the time the scheme has been worked out and is presented in Tables
needed for harvesting. 32 and 33 respectively.

Table 32
Cropping pattern for Mahalapye proposed irrigation scheme

Crop Area (%) Jan Feb Mar Apr Mai Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Summer:
Tomatoes 33.3 -------------------------- --------------------
Cabbage 33.3 ----------------------------------------- ----------
Rape 33.3 --------------------------------------------
Winter:
Onions 33.3 -----------------------------------------------------
Potatoes 33.3 -------------------------------------------------
Green maize 33.3 ---------------------------------------------------

Table 33
Crop rotation programme for Mahalapye proposed irrigation scheme

Block Summer 1 Winter 1 Summer 2 Winter 2 Summer 3 Winter 3

1 Tomatoes Green maize Rape Potatoes Cabbages Onions
01/11-16/03 01/08-29/12 15/01-15/05 01/06-14/10 01/12-20/04 01/05-28/09
2 Cabbages Onions Tomatoes Green maize Rape Potatoes
01/12-20/04 01/05-28/09 01/11-16/03 01/08-29/12 15/01-15/05 01/06-14/10
3 Rape Potatoes Cabbages Onions Tomatoes Green maize
15/01-15/05 01/06-14/10 01/12-20/04 01/05-28/09 01/11-16/03 01/08-29/12

68 – Module 4
 Module 4: Crop water requirements and irrigation scheduling

The cropping programme in Table 32 has been developed that crops that can take advantage of the fixed nitrogen
by considering the sowing dates, the length of the growing follow them (for example, cereals like maize and wheat can
season and the time needed for harvest and for land follow the legumes). Crops with different rooting patterns
preparation for the next crop. This information should be (for example, deep rooted crops versus shallow rooted
obtained locally in the project area but if not available, crops) should follow each other in the same plot so that
information in Table 20 in Chapter 4 could be used as a different crops can efficiently exploit the nutrients in all the
guide, taking into consideration the sensitivity of some different soil depths.
crops to frost. In the above example it is assumed that no
ground frost occurs during winter. In working out the 6.2.2. Calculating the reference crop
cropping programme, it has been ensured that enough time evapotranspiration (ETo) and the effective rainfall
is left between two crops following each other in a
The next stage is to input climatic data (temperature,
particular plot to allow for land preparation and harvesting.
relative humidity, wind speed, sunshine hours, rainfall) into
The figures in column 2 of Table 32 indicate the percentage
CROPWAT, so as to calculate the reference crop
of the area each crop will occupy in the scheme with two
evapotranspiration (ETo) and the effective rainfall. As
crops per year are grown on the same area, which means
explained before, CROPWAT uses the sole recommended
that the cropping intensity is 200%. This information is
FAO Penman-Monteith method for estimating ETo. The
important when estimating the crop water requirements.
climatic data required for input into CROPWAT are
In Table 33 rotational considerations for the different crops normally contained in climatic handbooks issued by
have been considered. Of special concern are those crops national meteorological institutions in most countries.
that are susceptible to nematodes (Solanaceae family, for Alternatively, different climatic data files on disk saved after
example potatoes and tomatoes) (see also Module 3). It was earlier sessions or from the CLIMWAT database (FAO,
ensured that these crops do not follow each other 1993) can be used for the purpose of calculating ETo and
immediately in the same plot so as to avoid the build up of effective rainfall.
nematodes. For these crops a rotation cycle of minimum
Input of the relevant climatic data and dependable rainfall
four years is required. Another general consideration in
for Mahalapye climatic station result in computer printouts
coming up with good crop rotations is to identify those
such as those shown in Tables 34 and 35. The USDA Soil
crops with special characteristics like leguminous crops (for
Conservation Method is used for the calculation of the
example green beans and soybeans), that fix nitrogen into
effective dependable rainfall.
the soil. In the crop rotation schedule it must be ensured
Table 34
ETo for Mahalapye, computed by CROPWAT 7.0

Monthly Reference Evapotranspiration ETo according Penman-Monteith

Meteostation : Mahalapye Country : Botswana
Altitude : 1 006 m. Coordinates : - 23.05 South 28.48 East
Month Min Temp Max Temp Humidity Wind Sunshine Radiation ETo
°C °C % km/day hours MJ/m2/day PenMon
mm/day
January 19.0 31.6 54 138 8.2 23.7 5.7
February 18.5 30.8 61 130 8.7 23.7 5.4
March 16.7 29.7 65 121 7.8 20.4 4.5
April 13.5 27.0 62 112 8.0 18.1 3.7
May 8.0 24.7 64 95 8.4 16.0 2.9
June 4.5 21.8 67 95 8.1 14.3 2.3
July 4.1 22.0 56 95 8.5 15.4 2.5
August 6.8 25.0 56 121 9.2 18.5 3.4
September 11.7 29.1 48 156 8.7 20.7 4.7
October 15.8 31.2 51 181 8.3 22.3 5.6
November 18.0 31.1 55 164 7.7 22.6 5.6
December 18.5 30.8 60 147 6.7 21.3 5.3
Year 12.9 27.9 58 130 8.2 19.7 4.3
CROPWAT 7.0 Climate file : D:\CROPWAT7.0\CLI\BOT\MAHALAPY.PEN 25/09/02

Module 4 – 69
Irrigation manual

Table 35

Effective rainfall for Mahalapye, computed by CROPWAT 7.0

Monthly Rainfall Data

Climate station : Mahalapye Eff. rain method : USDA S.C. Method
Rainfall Effective Rainfall
(mm/month) (mm/month)
January 92.0 78.5
February 86.0 74.2
March 77.0 67.5
April 25.0 24.0
May 12.0 11.8
June 4.0 4.0
July 2.0 2.0
August 3.0 3.0
September 8.0 7.9
October 29.0 27.7
November 68.0 60.6
December 87.0 74.9
YEAR 493.0 435.9
Eff rain form : Peff = (Pmon x (125 - 0.2 x Pmon)) / 125 for Pmon <= 250 mm
Peff = 125 + 0.1 x Pmon for Pmon > 250 mm
CROPWAT 7.0 Rainfile : D:\CROPWAT7.0\CLI\BOT\MAHALAPY.CLI 25/09/02

6.2.3. Calculating the crop water and irrigation days each. The mistake caused by this assumption is
requirements for each crop negligible.
Based on the cropping programme adopted, the next step The results for the six crops of Mahalapye proposed
is to enter the crop data into CROPWAT to enable the irrigation scheme are shown in Tables 36 to 47, where for
programme to calculate the crop water requirements for each crop the crop data input is shown together with the
the different crops. The crop data required are the crop corresponding crop water and irrigation requirements as
planting dates, the crop coefficient (Kc) values at the calculated by CROPWAT.
different growth stages, the length of growth stages, the
crop rooting depth at the different growth stages, the As explained in Section 4.8.1, due to weather changes
allowable soil moisture depletion levels and the yield from year to year ETc also varies from year to year and
response factors (Ky). Ky is a factor to estimate yield also from period to period. For this, it is important to
reductions due to water stress (see Chapter 8). correct the ETc, by utilizing a correction factor, that is
equal to the ratio of mean peak ETc and mean monthly
This information should be based on local data, obtained ETc. CROPWAT does not have the facility to calculate
through surveys or recommendations of local agricultural this corrected ETc or crop water requirement. If no long
research stations and extension service. The methodologies term data are available (> 10 years), Figure 24 can be
of estimating the above crop data were covered in used to make a first estimate of meeting the peak demand
Chapter 5. CROPWAT also contains data files for 30 in 3 out of 4 years when climatic data are used. In our
different crops, based on global values, which can be case, considering a light soil with available moisture of
retrieved and adjusted for local conditions. 100 mm/m, a rooting depth of 0.50 m and an allowable
After the input of the crop data, CROPWAT proceeds to depletion level of 50%, the available moisture is
calculate the crop water and irrigation requirements of the 100 x 0.50 x 0.50 = 25 mm. Using Figure 24, the
given cropping pattern, using the entered crop data and the correction factor for Mahalapye proposed irrigation
ETo and effective rainfall values calculated earlier. The scheme is determined to be 1.15. The calculation of the
calculation of crop water requirements is done on a decade corrected values is done manually only for the two
(10-day period) basis. For reasons of simplicity, all months months of peak demand for each crop (see Section
are taken to have 30 days, subdivided into 3 decades of 10 6.2.4).

70 – Module 4
 Module 4: Crop water requirements and irrigation scheduling

Table 36
General crop data for tomatoes

CROP DATA
Crop name: TOMATO
Growth stage Initial Devel Mid Late Total
Length stage [days] 25 30 35 45 135
Crop coefficient [coeff.] 0.70 → 1.20 0.65

Rooting depth [metre] 0.20 → 0.50 0.50

Depletion level [fract.] 0.40 → 0.50 0.50
Yield response factor [coeff.] 0.40 1.10 0.80 0.40 1.05
CROPWAT 7.0 Crop file : D:\CROPWAT7.0\CRO\TOMATO.CRO 26/06/02

Table 37
Crop water and irrigation requirements for tomatoes from CROPWAT 7.0

Crop Evapotranspiration and Irrigation Requirements

Rain climate station : MAHALAPYE Crop : TOMATOES
ETo climate station : MAHALAPYE Planting date: 1 November
Month Decade Stage Coefficient ETcrop ETcrop Eff.Rain IrReq. IrReq.
Kc mm/day mm/dec mm/dec mm/day mm/dec
Nov 1 Init 0.70 3.92 39.2 17.1 2.21 22.1
Nov 2 Init 0.70 3.92 39.2 21.1 1.81 18.1
Nov 3 In/De 0.74 4.08 40.8 22.4 1.84 18.4
Dec 1 Deve 0.87 4.68 46.8 23.7 2.31 23.1
Dec 2 Deve 1.03 5.48 54.8 25.4 2.94 29.4
Dec 3 De/Mi 1.16 6.30 69.3 25.7 3.97 43.7
Jan 1 Mid 1.20 6.70 67.0 26.0 4.10 41.0
Jan 2 Mid 1.20 6.87 68.7 26.5 4.22 42.2
Jan 3 Mi/Lt 1.19 6.67 73.4 25.9 4.32 47.5
Feb 1 Late 1.11 6.14 61.3 25.2 3.62 36.2
Feb 2 Late 0.99 5.36 53.6 24.8 2.88 28.8
Feb 3 Late 0.88 4.50 36.0 24.0 1.50 12.0
Mar 1 Late 0.77 3.71 37.1 24.4 1.27 12.7
Mar 2 Late 0.65 2.92 14.6 12.1 0.50 2.5
TOTAL 701.8 324.2 377.6
CROPWAT 7.0 26/06/02

Module 4 – 71
Irrigation manual

Table 38
General crop data for cabbages

CROP DATA
Crop name: CABBAGE
Growth stage Initial Devel Mid Late Total
Length stage [days] 30 40 35 35 140
Crop coefficient [coeff.] 0.70 → 1.05 0.95

Rooting depth [metre] 0.20 → 0.50 0.50

Depletion level [fract.] 0.40 → 0.50 0.50
Yield response factor [coeff.] 0.40 1.10 0.80 0.40 1.05
CROPWAT 7.0 Crop file : D:\CROPWAT7.0\CRO\CABBAGE.CRO 27/06/02

Table 39
Crop water and irrigation requirements for cabbages from CROPWAT 7.0

Crop Evapotranspiration and Irrigation Requirements

Rain climate station : MAHALAPYE Crop : CABBAGES
ETo climate station : MAHALAPYE Planting date: 1 December
Month Decade Stage Coefficient ETcrop ETcrop Eff.Rain IrReq. IrReq.
Kc mm/day mm/dec mm/dec mm/day mm/dec
Dec 1 Init 0.70 3.78 37.8 23.7 1.41 14.1
Dec 2 Init 0.70 3.71 37.1 25.4 1.17 11.7
Dec 3 In/De 0.70 3.83 42.2 25.7 1.50 16.5
Jan 1 Deve 0.75 4.20 42.0 26.0 1.60 16.0
Jan 2 Deve 0.84 4.81 48.1 26.5 2.16 21.6
Jan 3 Deve 0.93 5.23 57.6 25.9 2.88 31.7
Feb 1 De/Mi 1.01 5.59 55.9 25.2 3.07 30.7
Feb 2 Mid 1.05 5.67 56.7 24.8 3.19 31.9
Feb 3 Mid 1.05 5.36 42.8 24.0 2.35 18.8
Mar 1 Mid 1.05 5.04 50.4 24.4 2.60 26.0
Mar 2 Mi/Lt 1.04 4.69 46.9 24.2 2.27 22.7
Mar 3 Late 1.02 4.32 47.5 18.8 2.61 28.7
Apr 1 Late 0.99 3.93 39.3 11.9 2.74 27.4
Apr 2 Late 0.96 3.56 32.0 5.9 2.90 26.1
TOTAL 636.3 312.3 324.0
CROPWAT 7.0 27/06/02

72 – Module 4
 Module 4: Crop water requirements and irrigation scheduling

Table 40
General crop data for rape

CROP DATA
Crop name: RAPE
Growth stage Initial Devel Mid Late Total
Length stage [days] 20 20 30 50 120
Crop coefficient [coeff.] 0.70 → 1.00 0.95

Rooting depth [metre] 0.20 → 0.40 0.40

Depletion level [fract.] 0.40 → 0.50 0.50
Yield response factor [coeff.] 0.40 1.10 0.80 0.40 1.05
CROPWAT 7.0 Crop file : D:\CROPWAT7.0\CRO\RAPE.CRO 24/09/02

Table 41
Crop water and irrigation requirements for rape from CROPWAT 7.0

Crop Evapotranspiration and Irrigation Requirements

Rain climate station : MAHALAPYE Crop : RAPE
ETo climate station : MAHALAPYE Planting date: 15 January
Month Decade Stage Coefficient ETcrop ETcrop Eff.Rain IrReq. IrReq.
Kc mm/day mm/dec mm/dec mm/day mm/dec
Jan 2 Init 0.70 3.99 23.9 15.9 1.34 8.0
Jan 3 Init 0.70 3.92 43.1 25.9 1.56 17.2
Feb 1 In/De 0.75 4.14 41.4 25.2 1.62 16.2
Feb 2 Deve 0.88 4.75 47.5 24.8 2.27 22.7
Feb 3 De/Mi 0.98 4.99 39.9 24.0 1.98 15.9
Mar 1 Mid 1.00 4.80 48.0 24.4 2.36 23.6
Mar 2 Mid 1.00 4.50 45.0 24.2 2.08 20.8
Mar 3 Mi/Lt 1.00 4.22 46.4 18.8 2.51 27.6
Apr 1 Late 0.99 3.92 39.2 11.9 2.74 27.4
Apr 2 Late 0.98 3.62 36.2 6.5 2.97 29.7
Apr 3 Late 0.97 3.33 33.3 5.7 2.76 27.6
May 1 Late 0.96 3.04 30.4 5.2 2.52 25.2
May 2 Late 0.95 2.75 11.0 1.5 2.37 9.5
TOTAL 485.4 214.0 271.4
CROPWAT 7.0 24/09/02

Module 4 – 73
Irrigation manual

Table 42
General crop data for onions

CROP DATA
Crop name: ONION
Growth stage Initial Devel Mid Late Total
Length stage [days] 20 35 45 50 150
Crop coefficient [coeff.] 0.70 → 1.20 0.65

Rooting depth [metre] 0.20 → 0.40 0.40

Depletion level [fract.] 0.40 → 0.50 0.50
Yield response factor [coeff.] 0.40 1.10 0.80 0.40 1.05
CROPWAT 7.0 Crop file : D:\CROPWAT7.0\CRO\ONION.CRO 24/09/02

Table 43
Crop water and irrigation requirements for onion from CROPWAT 7.0

Crop Evapotranspiration and Irrigation Requirements

Rain climate station : MAHALAPYE Crop : ONIONS
ETo climate station : MAHALAPYE Planting date: 1 May
Month Decade Stage Coefficient ETcrop ETcrop Eff.Rain IrReq. IrReq.
Kc mm/day mm/dec mm/dec mm/day mm/dec
May 1 Init 0.70 2.22 22.2 5.2 1.70 17.0
May 2 Init 0.70 2.03 20.3 3.8 1.65 16.5
May 3 Deve 0.78 2.10 23.1 3.0 1.83 20.2
Jun 1 Deve 0.93 2.32 23.2 2.0 2.12 21.2
Jun 2 Deve 1.07 2.46 24.6 1.1 2.36 23.6
Jun 3 De/Mi 1.17 2.77 27.7 0.9 2.68 26.8
Jul 1 Mid 1.20 2.92 29.2 0.8 2.84 28.4
Jul 2 Mid 1.20 3.00 30.0 0.6 2.94 29.4
Jul 3 Mid 1.20 3.36 37.0 0.7 3.30 36.3
Aug 1 Mi/Lt 1.19 3.69 36.9 0.8 3.61 36.1
Aug 2 Late 1.12 3.82 38.2 0.8 3.73 37.3
Aug 3 Late 1.01 3.86 42.5 1.4 3.73 41.0
Sep 1 Late 0.89 3.81 38.1 1.7 3.64 36.4
Sep 2 Late 0.78 3.68 36.8 2.0 3.48 34.8
Sep 3 Late 0.67 3.36 23.5 3.1 2.92 20.4
TOTAL 453.2 27.8 425.4
CROPWAT 7.0 24/09/02

74 – Module 4
 Module 4: Crop water requirements and irrigation scheduling

Table 44
General crop data for potatoes

CROP DATA
Crop name: POTATO
Growth stage Initial Devel Mid Late Total
Length stage [days] 30 35 30 40 135
Crop coefficient [coeff.] 0.50 → 1.15 0.75

Rooting depth [metre] 0.30 → 0.30 0.30

Depletion level [fract.] 0.40 → 0.50 0.50
Yield response factor [coeff.] 0.40 1.10 0.80 0.40 1.05
CROPWAT 7.0 Crop file : D:\CROPWAT7.0\CRO\POTATO.CRO 24/09/02

Table 45
Crop water and irrigation requirements for potato from CROPWAT 7.0

Crop Evapotranspiration and Irrigation Requirements

Rain climate station : MAHALAPYE Crop : POTATOES
ETo climate station : MAHALAPYE Planting date: 1 June
Month Decade Stage Coefficient ETcrop ETcrop Eff.Rain IrReq. IrReq.
Kc mm/day mm/dec mm/dec mm/day mm/dec
Jun 1 Init 0.50 1.25 12.5 2.0 1.05 10.5
Jun 2 Init 0.50 1.15 11.5 1.1 1.04 10.4
Jun 3 Init 0.50 1.18 11.8 0.9 1.09 10.9
Jul 1 Deve 0.59 1.44 14.4 0.8 1.36 13.6
Jul 2 Deve 0.78 1.95 19.5 0.6 1.89 18.9
Jul 3 Deve 0.97 2.73 30.0 0.7 2.66 29.3
Aug 1 De/Mi 1.11 3.45 34.5 0.8 3.37 33.7
Aug 2 Mid 1.15 3.91 39.1 0.8 3.83 38.3
Aug 3 Mid 1.15 4.41 48.5 1.4 4.28 47.1
Sep 1 Mi/Lt 1.11 4.76 47.6 1.7 4.59 45.9
Sep 2 Late 1.03 4.84 48.4 2.0 4.64 46.4
Sep 3 Late 0.93 4.65 46.5 4.4 4.21 42.1
Oct 1 Late 0.83 4.40 44.0 6.6 3.74 37.4
Oct 2 Late 0.73 4.09 12.3 2.6 3.23 9.7
TOTAL 420.5 26.4 394.1
CROPWAT 7.0 24/09/02

Module 4 – 75
Irrigation manual

Table 46
General crop data for green maize

CROP DATA
Crop name: GREEN MAIZE
Growth stage Initial Devel Mid Late Total
Length stage [days] 25 50 40 35 150
Crop coefficient [coeff.] 0.70 → 1.20 0.65

Rooting depth [metre] 0.20 → 0.70 0.70

Depletion level [fract.] 0.40 → 0.50 0.50
Yield response factor [coeff.] 0.40 1.10 0.80 0.40 1.05
CROPWAT 7.0 Crop file : D:\CROPWAT7.0\CRO\GRMAIZE.CRO 24/09/02

Table 47
Crop water and irrigation requirements for green maize from CROPWAT 7.0

Crop Evapotranspiration and Irrigation Requirements

Rain climate station : MAHALAPYE Crop : GREEN MAIZE
ETo climate station : MAHALAPYE Planting date: 1 August
Month Decade Stage Coefficient ETcrop ETcrop Eff.Rain IrReq. IrReq.
Kc mm/day mm/dec mm/dec mm/day mm/dec
Aug 1 Init 0.70 2.17 21.7 0.8 2.09 20.9
Aug 2 Init 0.70 2.38 23.8 0.8 2.30 23.0
Aug 3 In/De 0.73 2.80 30.8 1.4 2.67 29.3
Sep 1 Deve 0.81 3.46 34.6 1.7 3.29 32.9
Sep 2 Deve 0.91 4.28 42.8 2.0 4.08 40.8
Sep 3 Deve 1.01 5.05 50.5 4.4 4.61 46.1
Oct 1 Deve 1.11 5.88 58.8 6.6 5.22 52.2
Oct 2 De/Mi 1.18 6.61 66.1 8.6 5.75 57.5
Oct 3 Mid 1.20 6.72 73.9 12.5 5.59 61.4
Nov 1 Mid 1.20 6.72 67.2 17.1 5.01 50.1
Nov 2 Mid 1.20 6.72 67.2 21.1 4.61 46.1
Nov 3 Mi/Lt 1.15 6.30 63.0 22.4 4.06 40.6
Dec 1 Late 1.01 5.46 54.6 23.7 3.09 30.9
Dec 2 Late 0.85 4.53 45.3 25.4 1.99 19.9
Dec 3 Late 0.69 3.75 26.2 16.3 1.42 9.9
TOTAL 726.5 164.8 561.7
CROPWAT 7.0 24/09/02

6.2.4. Calculating the net and gross irrigation requirements in a comprehensive way and allow the
requirements for the total scheme correction for peak demand, a summary table should be
The CROPWAT computer outputs, showing the composed showing on a monthly basis the ETo, the
irrigation requirements for the different crops in the effective rainfall, the corrected ETc, the irrigation
cropping programme, have to be combined to get the requirements (expressed in mm), as well as the total
irrigation requirements of all crops together, and which project requirements (expressed in m3). The summary
are irrigated at the same time. In addition, the corrected table should always be prepared whether the calculations
crop water requirements for the months of peak demand are done by hand or computer. For the Mahalapye
have to be calculated, as explained in Section 6.2.3. In proposed irrigation project Table 48 is the summary table
order to present the crop and irrigation water and all information is extracted from the CROPWAT

76 – Module 4
 Module 4: Crop water requirements and irrigation scheduling

outputs. The same table shows that the project gross October and is 6.72 mm/day and for green maize (Table
irrigation requirements for the 10 ha is 112 720 m3 per 47). This is what is used for design purposes, since it is the
year. The peak net crop water requirement occurs in worst case to have been be met by the irrigation system.

Table 48
Crop water and irrigation requirements for Mahalapye proposed irrigation scheme

Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Total6
Mean Ref. Crop
Evapotransp. ETo
(mm/day) 5.7 5.4 4.5 3.7 2.9 2.3 2.5 3.4 4.7 5.6 5.6 5.3 1548.0
Effective
Rainfall
(mm/month) 78.5 74.2 67.5 24.0 11.8 4.0 2.0 3.0 7.9 27.7 60.6 74.9 436.1
ETc
(mm/month)1
Tomatoes 209.1 151.0 51.7 119.2 170.9 701.9
Cabbages 147.7 155.4 144.8 71.3 117.1 636.3
Rape 67.0 128.8 139.4 108.7 41.4 485.3
Onions 65.6 75.5 96.2 117.6 98.4 453.3
Potatoes 35.8 63.9 122.1 142.5 56.3 420.6
Green maize 76.3 127.9 198.8 197.4 126.2 726.6
Corrected ETc 2
(mm/month)
Tomatoes 240.5 151.0 51.7 119.2 196.5 758.9
Cabbages 169.9 178.7 144.8 71.3 117.1 681.8
Rape 67.0 148.1 160.3 108.7 41.4 525.5
Onions 65.6 75.5 96.2 135.2 113.2 485.7
Potatoes 35.8 63.9 140.4 163.9 56.3 460.3
Green maize 76.3 127.9 228.6 227.0 126.2 786.0
Net Irrigation Req.
(mm/month)3 and 4
Tomatoes 162.0 76.8 0.0 58.6 121.6 419.0
Cabbages 91.4 104.5 77.3 47.3 42.2 362.7
Rape 0.0 73.9 92.8 84.7 29.6 281.0
Onions 53.85 71.5 94.2 132.2 105.3 457.0
Potatoes 31.8 61.9 137.4 156.0 28.6 415.7
Green maize 73.3 120.0 200.9 166.4 51.3 611.9
Total Net Irrigation
Requirement5
(mm/month per ha) 84.4 85.0 56.6 44.0 27.8 34.4 52.0 114.2 127.0 76.4 74.9 71.6 848.3
Gross Irrig. Req.
(mm/month per ha)
Sprinkler (75% eff.) 112.5 113.3 75.5 58.6 37.0 45.9 69.3 152.3 169.3 101.9 99.9 95.5 1 131.0
Project Gross Irrigation
Requirement for
10 ha(m3) 11 250 11 330 7 550 5 860 3 700 4 590 6 930 15 230 16 930 10 190 9 990 95 500 113 100

1 Extracted from Tables 36-47. For example ETc for tomatoes in January (Table 37): 67.0 + 68.7 + 73.4 = 209.1.
2 Correction factor 1.15 is used for the two months of peak demand, which are the months giving the highest ETc under 1 (see Section 6.2.3.).
3 Each crop occupies 33.3% of the area.
4 The net irrigation requirement for each crop is equal to the corrected ETc minus the effective rainfall.
5 Is equal to 33.3% of values under 4. For example, total IRn for January is (0.333 x 161.5) + (0.333 x 91.0) + (0.333 x 0.0) = 84.4.
6 Totals shown may differ from totals in Tables 37, 39, 41, 43, 45 and 47, due to rounding up.

Module 4 – 77
Irrigation manual

The net irrigation requirements of the scheme can also be The irrigation requirements throughout the year should be
calculated using the CROPWAT computer programme, compared with the availability of water from the source to
and the results are shown in Table 49 and 50. However, this ensure that that there is adequate water to support the
method is less accurate due to the fact that CROPWAT cropping proposals. If not, it will be necessary to adjust the
does not have the facility to calculate the corrected ETc, as cropping pattern so as to match water availability or to
explained in Section 6.2.3. The difference in the total net reduce the area proposed to be under irrigation.
irrigation requirements, when comparing Table 48 (total
848 mm) and Table 50 (total 804 mm), is 44 mm. In conclusion, it should be realized that the calculation of
crop water and irrigation requirements is a theoretical
From the example of Mahalapye irrigation scheme, it is clear exercise, based on statistical analysis of climatic parameters.
that making an estimate of the crop water and irrigation However, the climate is very variable. Consequently, the
requirements for a proposed cropping pattern is an essential calculation of irrigation water requirements at planning
step in the design of the irrigation system (pipe and canal level can only be an approximation and it is not appropriate
dimensions, sprinkler selection, irrigation frequency, etc.). or recommended to attempt detailed accuracy.
Table 49
Cropping pattern for Mahalapye proposed irrigation scheme from CROPWAT 7.0

CROPPING PATTERN
Name : MAHALAPYE
Nr. Crop file Crop name Plating datedd/mm Harvesting datedd/mm Area%
1 TOM-MA TOMATO 01/11 16/03 34
2 CAB-MA CABBAGE 01/12 20/04 33
3 RAP-MA RAPE 15/01 15/05 33
4 ONI-MA ONION 01/05 28/09 34
5 POT-MA POTATO 01/06 14/10 33
6 GMA-MA GREEN MAIZE 01/08 29/12 33
CROPWAT 7.0 Crop pattern file : D:\CROPWAT7.0\CRO\MAHALPYE.PAT 20/09/02

Table 50
Scheme irrigation requirements for Mahalapye proposed irrigation scheme from CROPWAT 7.0

SCHEME IRRIGATION REQUIREMENTS

Rain station : MAHALAPYE Cropping pattern : MAHALAPYE
ETo station : MAHALAPYE
Crop Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Nr
1 4.2 2.7 0.6 – – – – – – – 2.0 3.1
2 2.2 2.9 2.5 1.9 – – – – – – – 1.4
3 1.0 2.0 2.3 2.8 1.6 – – – – – – –
4 – – – – 1.7 2.4 3.0 3.7 3.3 – – –
5 – – – – – 1.1 2.0 3.8 4.5 2.3 – –
6 – – – – – – – 2.4 4.0 5.5 4.6 2.2
SQ1 2.5 2.5 1.8 1.6 1.1 1.2 1.7 3.3 3.9 2.6 2.2 2.2
SQ2 77 70 55 47 35 35 52 102 118 80 65 68
SQ3 0.29 0.29 0.21 0.18 0.13 0.13 0.19 0.38 0.46 0.30 0.25 0.26

AR 89.0 100.0 88.7 55.0 56.0 67.0 67.0 100.0 100.0 55.0 67.0 100.0
AQ 0.32 0.29 0.23 0.33 0.23 0.20 0.29 0.38 0.46 0.54 0.37 0.26

SQ1, SQ2, SQ3 = Net scheme irrigation requirements in mm/day, mm/month and ls/h
AR = Irrigated area as percentage of total scheme area
AQ = Irrigation requirements in l/s for actually irrigated area
CROPWAT 7.0 20/09/02

78 – Module 4
 Chapter 7
Soil-water-plant relationship

As mentioned in Chapter 1, soil is one of the three Y Sand: Is loose and single grained. The individual grains
parameters that need to be considered when preparing an can be readily seen and felt. Squeezed in the hand when
irrigation schedule. Without having gone into detail, in the dry, sand falls apart when pressure is released.
previous chapters examples of calculating crop water and Squeezed when moist, it forms a cast, but crumbles
irrigation requirements and effective rainfall using soil data when touched. The soil remains loose and can only be
have been given. This chapter will look more in detail into heaped into a pyramid.
the soil data necessary for irrigation scheduling and how to Y Loamy sand: Contains a high percentage of sand, but has
obtain them as well as into the soil-water-plant relationship. enough silt and clay to make it somewhat coherent.
Soil consists of mineral and organic materials that cover The individual sand grains can be readily seen and felt.
much of the earth’s surface. It contains living matter, air It can be shaped into a ball that easily falls apart.
and water and can support vegetation. The soil functions as Y Silt loam: As for loamy sand, but the soil can be shaped
a storehouse for plant nutrients, as habitat for soil by rolling into a short, thick cylinder.
organisms and plant roots and as a reservoir for water to
meet the evapotranspiration demands of plants. It contains Y Loam: Has a relatively even mix of different grades of
and supplies water, oxygen, nutrients and mechanical sand, silt and clay. It is friable with a somewhat gritty
support for plant growth. feel, but is fairly smooth and slightly plastic. It can be
rolled into a cylinder of about 15 cm long that breaks
The soil determines how irrigation water should be when bent.
managed. The amount of water the soil can hold for plant Y Clay loam: As for loam, although the soil can be bent
use is determined by its physical and chemical properties. into a U, but no further, without being broken.
This amount determines the length of time that a plant can
be sustained adequately between irrigation and/or rainfall Y Light clay: Fine-textured soil that usually forms very
events, the frequency of irrigation and the amount and rate hard lumps or clods when dry and is very sticky and
to be applied. Along with plant evapotranspiration, it also plastic when wet. The soil can be bent into a circle that
determines the irrigation system capacity needed for shows cracks.
desired crop yield. Y Heavy clay: The soil can be bent into a circle without
Land grading, deep ploughing, sub-soiling or other tillage showing cracks.
practices can modify soil properties within a profile. Y Organic soils: Vary in organic matter content from 20-
Shallow tillage practices can affect water infiltration and soil 95%. They are classified on the degree of
permeability rates. Irrigation planners have to obtain decomposition of the organic deposits. The terms
accurate on-site soil information in order to be able to muck and peat are commonly used. Muck is well-
make recommendations. decomposed organic material and peat is raw, un-
decomposed, very fibrous organic material.
7.1. Soil texture Fine-textured soils generally hold more water than coarse-
Soil texture refers to the particle size or the relative textured soils. Medium-textured soils actually have more
amounts of sand, silt and clay. The mechanical analysis in water available for plant use than some clay soils, since
the laboratory to determine the soil texture, using the water in clays can be held at a greater tension that reduces
USDA soil texture triangle, is described in Module 2. The its availability to plants. Table 51 gives guidelines for
following general definitions of soil texture classes can estimating soil moisture conditions, using the ‘feel and
help in giving a first rough description of the soil when appearance’ method.
actually feeling and examining it by hand in the field:

Module 4 – 79
Irrigation manual

Table 51
Guide for estimating soil moisture conditions, using the ‘feel and appearance’ method (Source: USDA, 1991)

Texture
Available Soil
soil moisture Course: Moderate coarse: Medium: Fine:
moisture condition Fine sand Sandy loam Sandy clay loam Clay loam
Loamy fine sand Fine sandy loam Loam, silt loam Silty clay loam
0-25 Dry Loose. Will hold Forms a very weak Soil aggregations Soil aggregations
together if not ball. Aggregated soil break away easily. No easily separate. Clods
disturbed. Loose grains break away moisture-staining on are hard to crumble
sand grains on easily from ball fingers. Clods crumble with applied pressure
fingers with applied pressure
25-50 Slightly Forms a very weak Forms a weak ball with Forms a weak ball Forms a weak ball.
moist ball* with well-defined defined finger marks. with rough surfaces. Very few soil
marks. Light coating of Darkened colour. No No water-staining on aggregations break
loose and aggregated water-staining on fingers. Few away. No water stains.
sand grains remains fingers aggregated soil grains Clods flatten with
on fingers break away applied pressure
50-75 Moist Forms a weak ball with Forms a ball with Forms a ball. Very Forms a smooth ball
loose and aggregated defined finger marks. light water-staining. with defined finger
sand grains remaining Very light soil water Darkened colour. marks. Light soil
on fingers. Darkened -staining on fingers. Pliable. Forms a weak water-staining on
colour. Heavy water Darkened colour. Will ribbon between thumb fingers. Ribbons
-staining on fingers. not slick and forefinger form with thumb and
Will not form into a forefinger
ribbon**
75-100 Wet Forms a weak ball. Forms a ball with wet Forms a ball with well- Forms a ball. Uneven
Loose and aggregated outline left on hand. defined finger marks. medium to heavy soil
sand grains remain on Light to medium water Light to heavy soil water coating on
fingers. Darkened -staining on fingers. water coating on fingers. Ribbon
colour. Heavy water Makes a weak ribbon fingers. Ribbons form forms easily between
-staining on fingers. between thumb and thumb and forefinger
Will not ribbon forefinger
Field Wet Forms a weak ball. Forms a soft ball. Free Forms a soft ball. Free Forms a soft ball.
Capacity Light to heavy soil- water appears briefly water appears briefly Free water appears
(100) water coating on on surface after on soil surface after on soil surface after
fingers. Wet outline of squeezing or shaking. squeezing or shaking. squeezing or shaking.
soft ball remains on Medium to heavy soil- Medium to heavy soil- Thick soil-water
hand water coating on fingers water coating on . coating on fingers.
fingers Slick and sticky

* A ball is formed by squeezing a soil sample firmly in one’s hand.

** A ribbon is formed by squeezing soil between one’s thumb and forefinger.

7.2. Soil structure granular and prismatic structures. Plate-like structure in

fine and medium soils impedes the downward movement
Soil structure is the arrangement and organization of soil
of water. Structure can be improved with cultural practices,
particles into natural units of aggregation. These units are
such as conservation tillage, improving internal drainage,
separated from one another by weakness planes that persist
liming or adding sulphur to soil, using grasses in crop
through cycles of wetting and drying and cycles of freezing
rotation, incorporating crop residue and adding organic
and thawing. Structure influences air and water movement,
material or soil amendments. Structure can be destroyed by
root development, and nutrient supply.
heavy tillage equipment or excess operations.
7.2.1. Soil structure types Texture, root activity, percent clay, percent organic matter
and the warm and cold cycles all play a part in aggregate
Structure type refers to the particular kind of grouping that
formation and stability. Some aggregates are quite stable
predominates in a soil horizon (Figure 26). Single grained
upon wetting and others disperse readily. Soil aggregation
and massive soils are structureless. In single-grained soils,
helps maintain stability when wet, resist dispersion caused
such as loose sand, water percolates rapidly. Water moves
by the impact from sprinkler and/or rain droplets, maintain
very slowly through most clay soils. A more favourable
soil intake rate and resist surface water and wind erosion.
water relationship occurs in the soils that have blocky,

80 – Module 4
 Module 4: Crop water requirements and irrigation scheduling

Figure 26
Soil structure types and their effect on downward movement of water (Source: USDA, 1997)

Single grain Blocky Plate-like

Rapid Moderate Slow

Granular Prismatic Massive

Rapid Moderate Slow

Irrigation water containing sodium can cause dispersing of 7.3. Soil water potential
soil aggregates. Clay mineralogy has a major influence on
There are two basic methods of characterizing or measuring
soil aggregation and shrink-swell characteristics.
the water in the soil. The first is to measure the amount of
water in the soil. This approach is the basis for the soil
7.2.2. Soil pore space condition water content and is explained in Module 2. An
Pore space allows the movement of water, air and roots. alternative to measuring the amount of water in the soil is
Sandy soils have larger pores but less total pore space than to measure the energy state of the water. This approach
silt and clay soils. Gravitational water flows through sandy leads to the soil condition water potential (New Mexico
soils much faster because the pores are much larger. Clayey State University, 1999).
soils hold more water than sandy soils because clay soils
Water potential measures the ability of soil water to move.
have a larger volume of small, flat-shaped pore spaces that
Water potential is important to any process where soil water
hold more capillary water. Permeability and drainability of
moves, such as infiltration and redistribution within the soil
soils are directly related to the volume and size and shape of
or the removal of water from the soil by evaporation and
pore space.

Table 52
Components of soil water potential (Source: New Mexico State University, 1999)

Componentname Factors affecting Reference state Sign

potential energy
Matric potential Adsorption of water to soil Free water negative "-"
Osmotic or solute potential Dissolved solutes Pure water negative "-"
Gravitational potential Elevation in gravitational Reference elevation positive "+" (above reference elevation)
field negative "-" (below reference elevation)
Pressure potential Applied pressure Atmospheric pressure positive "+" (applied pressure)
negative "-" (applied suction)

Module 4 – 81
Irrigation manual

Figure 27
Gravitational, matric and pressure potentials (Source: USDA, 1997)

plant uptake. Water potential is the amount of work required the matric potential at a given point in the soil is the vertical
per unit quantity of water to transport water in the soil. The distance between that point in the soil and the water
four components of soil water potential are presented in surface of a tensiometer filled with water and connected to
Table 52. Figure 27 illustrates the gravitational, matric and the soil through a ceramic cup (see Section 9.1.2). Matric
pressure potentials. The soil water potential is usually potential is always negative or zero (in saturated soil), since
expressed in kPa or pF. Plants therefore need to exert their the adsorption of water onto soil surfaces can only lower
energy in order to overcome the soil water potential. the potential energy relative to reference water. This
potential was formerly called capillary potential or capillary
7.4.1. Matric potential water. Capillarity results from the surface tension of water
and its contact angle with the solid soil particles.
Water molecules can form hydrogen bonds with the surface
of soil minerals (adsorption) as well as with other water
7.4.2. Solute potential
molecules (cohesion). In soil, adsorptive forces develop
between the soil mineral surfaces and the soil water. These The presence of dissolved solutes can decrease the potential
forces exert a ‘pull’ on the soil water. This pull between the energy of water relative to the reference state (pure water).
soil and the water molecules close to the particle surface is Solutes that reduce the potential energy of water are called
distributed throughout the soil water by the cohesive forces osmotically active solutes. Inorganic salts are all osmotically
between water molecules. As external forces attempt to active and many large organic molecules are osmotically
remove water from the soil, water is restrained or held in active. The reduction in potential energy from dissolved
the soil by these adhesive and cohesive forces. This places solutes arises partly from the hydration of the solute or the
the soil water under tension. This tension or pull on the soil forming of chemical bonds between the solute and water
water causes the potential energy of the water to decrease molecule. However, solutes also should lower the potential
relative to free water (water not held under tension). energy of water in an ‘ideal’ thermodynamic solution where
Therefore, water in soil can be held under tension because chemical interactions do not occur. Soil water is not pure
of the adsorption of water to the soil particles. Water held water but rather a solution and the presence of osmotically
under tension has less potential energy per unit quantity of active solutes reduces the soil water potential. The
water than reference water (free water); therefore has a reduction in soil water potential caused by the presence of
lower water potential. The decrease in water potential dissolved solutes is called osmotic or solute potential
caused by the adsorption of water to the soil surfaces is component of the soil water potential. Osmotic potential is
called the matric potential component of the soil water always negative or zero, because dissolved solutes can only
potential. If the unit of water is expressed as a weight, then lower the potential energy of water.

82 – Module 4
 Module 4: Crop water requirements and irrigation scheduling

7.4.3. Gravitational potential 7.5. Water movement in the soil

Soil water located higher in the soil profile has higher Soil intake/water infiltration is the process of water entering
potential energy than water deeper in the soil profile. The the soil at the soil/air interface. Water enters the soil
same is true for plant water. The increase or decrease in through pores, cracks, worm and decayed root holes, and
soil water potential caused by changes in elevation is called through cavities introduced by tillage. Infiltrated water may
the gravitational water potential component of the soil evaporate again from the soil surface, may be transpired by
water potential. The reference state for soil water relevant the plants or may percolate downward beyond the plant
to gravitational forces is an ‘arbitrary but specified’ roots and contribute to groundwater.
elevation. An elevation is chosen arbitrarily where the
gravitational potential is defined to be zero. This elevation Water applied to the soil (by rain or irrigation) infiltrates
is usually the soil surface or the water table but it can be the soil. If the rate of application exceeds the infiltration
any elevation at all. The sign of the gravitational potential rate, water will be ponding on the surface or moving over
can be negative or positive. Soil (or plant) water located at the surface through runoff. The infiltration rate determines
an elevation above the specified reference elevation will the amount of water entering the soil and amount that will
have a positive gravitational potential. Water located subsequently be stored in the root zone.
below the specified reference elevation will have a
negative gravitational potential. Although the choice of 7.5.1. Infiltration
reference elevation is arbitrary, it must be kept constant The following factors affect the infiltration (see also Table
during any set of calculations. The difference in 53):
gravitational potential from place to place in the soil-plant
system is what is important rather than the absolute value Soil water content: In dry soils, large differences in matric
of gravitational potential. If the reference elevation is kept potential drive water into the soil profile and soil is able to
constant, then differences in gravitational potential will store more water than if the soil were initially wet. The
remain constant, regardless of the specific reference surface soil will gradually become saturated as irrigation or
elevation chosen. rainfall continues and the intake rate decreases to the steady
infiltration rate, whether the soil was initially dry or wet
7.4.4. Pressure potential (see Module 7 for more information on infiltration rates).

The change in water potential caused by the external Soil sealing: Formation of a thin compact layer on the soil
application of pressure or suction to the soil water is surface rapidly reduces the rate of water entry through the
called the pressure potential component of the soil water surface. This layer results from a breakdown in soil structure
potential. The constraint that the pressure must be that is caused by the beating action of raindrops or drops
applied externally distinguishes pressure potential from from sprinkler systems and by the action of water flowing
the tension applied in the development of the matric over the soil surface. Light cultivation before irrigation can
potential. The pressures exerted on the soil water can help to break the seal and increase infiltration. Sealing can be
come from several sources, but the primary source prevented by protecting the soil surface with a mulch.
considered is ponded water or hydrostatic pressure. Grasses or canopies that fully cover the ground, intercept
Water is often ponded on the soil surface during irrigation droplets, dissipate their energy and reduce sealing.
or heavy rains. This standing water exerts a positive
Compaction: Tillage operations may cause compaction and
pressure on the water in the soil. In laboratory
formation of plough pans below cultivation depths if they
experiments a negative pressure or suction may be applied
are done when soils are too wet. Hardpans impede water
to the soil, but this rarely happens in the field. When
movement and reduce the infiltration rate. Deep ploughing
there is no standing water on a soil, the external pressure
or sub-soiling helps to improve the water movement.
applied to the soil is limited to the pressure of the
Tillage will only temporarily increase the infiltration rate.
atmosphere. Therefore, the applied pressure is
atmospheric pressure. This is the pressure condition Organic matter: Soil organic matter is the organic fraction of
specified in the reference state for soil water potential, so the soil. It includes plant and animal residues at various stages
without water ponding the pressure potential is zero. of decomposition and cells and tissues of soil organisms.
When water is ponded on a soil the applied pressure is Organic matter directly influences soil structure, soil
increased by the weight of the ponded water. This condition, soil bulk density, water infiltration, plant growth
increase in applied pressure increases the potential energy and root development, permeability, available water capacity,
of the water in the soil so the pressure potential biological activity, oxygen availability, nutrient availability,
component of water potential is positive. workability, as well as many other factors that make soil a

Module 4 – 83
Irrigation manual

healthy natural resource for plant growth. Organic matter has Slope: Slope, or field gradient, is the inclination of the soil
a high cation exchange capacity and during its decomposition surface from the horizontal, expressed as a percentage. For
nitrogen, phosphorous and sulphur are released. Site-specific example, 2% slope means a 2 m rise or fall in 100 m
values should always be used for planning and managing horizontal distance. In planning irrigation systems, slope is
irrigation systems, because site management has a direct important in determining the type of irrigation system best
influence on organic matter content. Porosity remains high suited for the site. It is important in determining optimum
for long periods when organic material is made available by and maximum water application rates (or stream flows).
the incorporation of crop residues. The organic matter will Erosion potential from excessive surface irrigation flows
also help stabilize the soil aggregates. increases as the slope and slope length increase. Potential
runoff from sprinkler systems also increases as the slope
Salinity: When salts accumulate in the soil, they will affect and increases, thus raising the opportunity for erosion to occur.
deteriorate some soil properties. Leaching the salts out of the To avoid runoff from sprinklers, correction factors to
soil profile will help to maintain the soil structure and infiltration rate for different slopes are introduced during the
infiltration rate. design process (Module 8).
Soil cracking: Infiltration rates change during the time water is Soil erodability: The erodability of a soil should be considered
applied, typically becoming slower with elapsed time. If infield in the planning stage of any irrigation system. The rate and
farming operations are done at higher soil water content method at which water is applied should be controlled so
levels, infiltration will tend to decrease as the season that it will not cause excessive runoff and erosion. Factors
progresses. Preferential flow paths, such as cracks and worm- influencing soil erosion, such as stream size for surface
holes, influence infiltration and permeability. Water quality, systems, surface storage because of residue, micro-basins
for example suspended sediment, sodicity and SAR, will affect and vegetative cover, are not related to soil properties. The
infiltration because they affect the water surface tension. erodability hazard for surface irrigation mainly takes into
Soil depth: Soil depth is the distance from soil surface to: a account the following soil factors: soil structure,
bedrock, a hardpan, a water table, a specific soil depth, or to permeability, percent organic matter, percent silt and very
a root growth restrictive layer. The deeper the soil and the fine sand, and field slope.
plant roots, the more soil water storage is available for plant
use. Crop rooting depth and the resulting total amount of 7.5.2. Deep percolation and surface runoff
water available to the plant control the length of time plants Deep percolation is the amount of water that penetrates
can go between irrigation or effective rainfall events before beyond the depth of the root zone, where it is no longer
suffering from moisture stress. Providing artificial drainage of available to a growing crop. Percolation rate is determined
poorly drained soils increases soil depth for potential root by the permeability of the soil or its hydraulic conductivity.
development. Adequate soil drainage must be present for Both these terms describe the ease with which soil
sustained growth of most plants. An abrupt change in soil transmits water.
texture with depth can restrict downward water movement.
For example, coarse sand underlying a medium or fine Water percolates mainly through large pores in a soil,
textured soil requires saturation at the interface before therefore percolation depends on the relative number and
substantial water will move into the coarser soil below. When continuity of these pores. Soils with high porosity and
a coarse-textured soil abruptly changes to a medium or fine coarse open texture have high hydraulic conductivity. For
textured soil with depth, a temporary perched water table two soils with the same total porosity, the soil with small
develops above the soil with lower permeability. Stratified soils pores has lower conductivity than the soil with large pores,
or shallow soils over hard pans or bedrock can also hold excess because resistance to flow is greater in small pores. Soils
gravitational water at the interface. The excess water can move with pores of many sizes conduct water faster if large pores
upwards because of the increased soil particle surface tension form continuous paths through the profile.
(suction) as plants use the soil water in the upper profiles. Surface runoff occurs when the water that has not
Water table: Water tables can be a barrier to root development penetrated the soil runs off and thus is also no longer
because of restricted oxygen supply. Through planned water available to the growing crop.
table management, shallow groundwater can supply all or
part of the seasonal crop water needs. The water must be of 7.5.3. Depletion
high quality, salt free and held at or near constant elevation. Soil water can be depleted through evapotranspiration. The
The water table should be controlled to provide water evapotranspiration will depend upon the availability of the
according to crop needs. soil water (see Section 4.8.2). Although water is theoretically

84 – Module 4
 Module 4: Crop water requirements and irrigation scheduling

Table 53
Factors affecting the infiltration rate (Source: USDA, 1997)

Modifying factors Increase in infiltration rate Decrease in infiltration rate

Initial water content Low initial water content High initial content
Surface crusting Surface sealing
Compaction Compaction results in higher density with less
pore to space hold water
Organic content High organic content improves soil structure Low organic content provides for a more
and promotes good soil condition massive soil structure
Vegetative cover Root penetration promotes improved soil structure Bare soil tends to puddle under sprinkler
and lower soil density. Worm activity increases, systems using large droplet sizes increasing
providing macropores for water to follow soil density at the soil surface
Salinity and sodicity Calcium salts can flocculate the surface Sodium salts can disperse and puddle the soil
Cracking Cracking increases initial intake. Intake rate can On highly expansive soils, intake rate can be
be high until cracks close because of added very slow after cracks close because the soil
moisture causing soil particles to swell. particles swell
Hardpan A very dense layer
Gravel or coarse The soil layer above an abrupt boundary of
sand layer, near coarse material must be saturated before water
surface will move into the coarse material below
Ripping, sub-soiling Ripping when soil is dry can break up hardpans,
shatter dense soils, and in general improve the soil
condition below the plough depth. The effect is
temporary unless the cause of increased density
is eliminated
Soil erosion Erosion exposes subsurface layers that are
lower in organic content, have poor structure,
can have increased salinity or sodicity and
generally have higher densities
Sediments in Colloidal clays and fine sediment can irrigation
water accumulate on the soil surface

available until wilting point, crop water uptake is reduced According to Hansen and Israelsen (1967), maximum
well before wilting point is reached. When the soil is production can be obtained on most crops if not more than
sufficiently wet, the soil supplies water fast enough to meet 50% of the available soil moisture (= FC-PWP) is removed
the atmospheric demand of the crop, and water uptake from the soil during the vegetative, flowering and wet fruit
equals ETc. As the soil water content decreases, water stage. This rule of irrigation at 50% depletion is generally
becomes more strongly bound to the soil matrix and is more used in the region.
difficult to extract. When the soil water content drops below
a threshold value, soil water can no longer be transported However, according to FAO (1984), with a ETc that does
quickly enough towards the roots to respond to transpiration not exceed 5 mm/day evapotranspiration of most field
demand and the root begins to experience stress (FAO, crops will not be affected or likely to be little affected at soil
1998a). The fraction of the total available moisture (SMta) tension of up to 1 atmosphere. This would correspond to
that a crop can extract from the root zone without suffering 30% of available soil moisture (by volume) for clay, 40% for
water stress is the readily available moisture (SMra): loam, 50% for sandy loam and 60% for loamy sand. In
other words, in order to maintain the ETc for optimum
Equation 26 growth and yield, the depletion should not exceed the
above values when ETc < 5 mm/day.
SMra = P x SMta
On the subject of depletion, irrigation practices should also
Where:
be brought into the picture. Under surface irrigation, in
SMra = Readily available soil moisture
particular borderstrip and basin irrigation, a situation of
P = Allowable depletion or average fraction
of the total available soil moisture that
saturated flow in the whole area takes place, and for a while
can be depleted before moisture stress (until FC is approaching) root aeration is in short supply. To
(reduction in ETc) occurs compensate for this, higher depletions are usually allowed.
SMta = Total available soil moisture For furrow irrigation, however, since the saturated flow is
= FC - PWP only in part of the soil, lower depletions can be used as

Module 4 – 85
Irrigation manual

exchange of gases is easier. Under sprinkler irrigation, 7.6. Effective root zone depth
because of the intermittent water supply to the soil, a non-
In addition to crop water and irrigation requirements
saturated flow of oxygenated water prevails. Therefore,
(described in Chapters 4-6) and soil, the root zone depth is
there is a tendency to use lower depletions. The system,
the third parameter to be considered when preparing
however, that provides the ideal conditions for very low
irrigation schedules. While examples using root zone depth
depletions is localized irrigation. It combines the limited
have already been given in the previous chapters, this
area of wetting with the unsaturated flow (see Module 9).
chapter looks into the issue more in detail.
A lot of research work has demonstrated that when this
system is combined with very low depletions (0.15-0.20 Like allowable soil moisture depletion, the root zone depth
atmosphere soil tension) high yields are obtainable. is another area of interesting controversies. Published data
on the depth from where the crops extract most of their
Another element that makes depletion more intricate is the
water differ greatly. As a rule, for most field crops 40% of
type of crop. While for some crops low depletions are
the water uptake takes place from the first quarter of the
necessary, other crops can take higher depletions (Table
total rooting depth, 30% from the second quarter, 20%
54). Because of inconclusive results as indicated above, it is
from the third quarter and 10% from the fourth quarter
recommended to use the fractions of available soil water
(Figure 28). According to FAO (1984), ETc is not affected
shown in Table 54. It should be noted, however, that for the
even when rooting depth is severely restricted, as long as
lower fractions (meaning a lower allowable portion of
plants are sufficiently anchored and proper growing
available moisture permitted for depletion by the crop
conditions, including available water, nutrients, soil
before the next irrigation) especially careful water
aeration, soil temperature and soil structure, prevail. Table
management is needed.
54 provides data on root zone depth and allowable soil
moisture depletion levels for different crops.

Figure 28
Average water extraction patterns in a soil without restrictive layers (Source: USDA, 1997)

86 – Module 4
 Module 4: Crop water requirements and irrigation scheduling

Table 54
Ranges of maximum effective root zone depth (RZD) and allowable soil water depletion fraction (P) for no
stress, for common crops (Source: FAO, 1998a)

Crop Root zone depth Allowable soil

(RZD)1 moisture depletion
(m) (P)2
a. Small vegetables
Broccoli 0.4-0.6 0.45
Brussels sprouts 0.4-0.6 0.45
Cabbages 0.5-0.8 0.45
Carrots 0.5-1.0 0.35
Cauliflowers 0.4-0.7 0.45
Celery 0.3-0.5 0.20
Garlic 0.3-0.5 0.30
Lettuce 0.3-0.5 0.30
Onions – dry 0.3-0.6 0.30
– green 0.3-0.6 0.35
– seed 0.3-0.6 0.35
Spinach 0.3-0.5 0.20
Radishes 0.3-0.5 0.30
b. Vegetables – Solanum Family (Solanacea)
Eggplant 0.7-1.2 0.45
Sweet peppers (bell) 0.5-1.0 0.30
Tomatoes 0.7-1.5 0.40
c. Vegetables – Cucumber Family (Cucurbitaceae)
Cantaloupes 0.9-1.5 0.45
Cucumbers – fresh market 0.7-1.2 0.50
– machine harvest 0.7-1.2 0.50
Pumpkin, winter squash 1.0-1.5 0.35
Squash, zucchini 0.6-1.0 0.50
Sweet melon 0.8-1.5 0.40
Watermelon 0.8-1.5 0.40
d. Roots and tubers
Beet, table 0.6-1.0 0.50
Cassava – year 1 0.5-0.8 0.35
– year 2 0.7-1.0 0.40
Parsnips 0.5-1.0 0.40
Potatoes 0.4-0.6 0.35
Sweet potatoes 1.0-1.5 0.65
Turnips (and Rutabaga) 0.5-1.0 0.50
Sugar beet 0.7-1.2 0.553
e. Legumes (Leguminosae)
Beans, green 0.5-0.7 0.45
Beans, dry and pulses 0.6-0.9 0.45
Beans, lima, large vines 0.8-1.2 0.45
Chick peas 0.6-1.0 0.50
Fababeans (broad bean) – fresh 0.5-0.7 0.45
– dry/seed 0.5-0.7 0.45
Garbanzo 0.6-1.0 0.45
Green gram and cowpeas 0.6-1.0 0.45
Groundnuts (peanuts) 0.5-1.0 0.50
Lentil 0.6-0.8 0.50
Peas – fresh 0.6-1.0 0.35
– dry/seed 0.6-1.0 0.40
Soybeans 0.6-1.3 0.50

Module 4 – 87
Irrigation manual

Crop Root zone depth Allowable soil

(RZD)1 moisture depletion
(m) (P)2
f. Perennial vegetables (with winter dormancy and initially bare or mulched soil)
Artichokes 0.6-0.9 0.45
Asparagus 1.2-1.8 0.45
Mint 0.4-0.8 0.40
Strawberries 0.2-0.3 0.20
g. Fibre crops
Cotton 1.0-1.7 0.65
Flax 1.0-1.5 0.50
Sisal 0.5-1.0 0.80
h. Oil crops
Castorbeans (Ricinus) 1.0-2.0 0.50
Rapeseed, Canola 1.0-1.5 0.60
Safflower 1.0-2.0 0.60
Sesame 1.0-1.5 0.60
Sunflower 0.8-1.5 0.45
i. Cereals
Barley 1.0-1.5 0.55
Oats 1.0-1.5 0.55
Spring wheat 1.0-1.5 0.55
Winter wheat 1.5-1.8 0.55
Maize, field (grain) (field corn) 1.0-1.7 0.55
Maize, sweet (sweet corn) 0.8-1.2 0.50
Millet 1.0-2.0 0.55
Sorghum – grain 1.0-2.0 0.55
– sweet 1.0-2.0 0.50
Rice 0.5-1.0 0.204
j. Forage
Alfalfa – for hay 1.0-2.0 0.55
– for seed 1.0-3.0 0.60
Bermuda – for hay 1.0-1.5 0.55
– spring crop for seed 1.0-1.5 0.60
Clover hay, berseem 0.6-0.9 0.50
Rye grass hay 0.6-1.0 0.60
Sudan grass hay (annual) 1.0-1.5 0.55
Grazing pasture – rotated grazing 0.5-1.5 0.60
– extensive grazing 0.5-1.5 0.60
Turf grass – cool season5 0.5-1.0 0.40
– warm season5 0.5-1.0 0.50
k. Sugarcane 1.2-2.0 0.65
l. Tropical fruits and trees
Bananas – 1st year 0.5-0.9 0.35
– 2nd year 0.5-0.9 0.35
Cacao 0.7-1.0 0.30
Coffee 0.9-1.5 0.40
Date palm 1.5-2.5 0.50
Palm tree 0.7-1.1 0.65
Pineapples 0.3-0.6 0.50
Rubber tree 1.0-1.5 0.40
Tea – non-shaded 0.9-1.5 0.40
– shaded 0.9-1.5 0.45
m. Grapes and berries
Berries (bush) 0.6-1.2 0.50
Grapes – table or raisin 1.0-2.0 0.35
– wine 1.0-2.0 0.45

88 – Module 4
 Module 4: Crop water requirements and irrigation scheduling

Crop Root zone depth Allowable soil

(RZD)1 moisture depletion
(m) (P)2
Hops 1.0-1.2 0.50
n. Fruit trees
Almond 1.0-2.0 0.40
Apple, cherry, pear 1.0-2.0 0.50
Apricot, peach, other stone fruit 1.0-2.0 0.50
Avocado 0.5-1.0 0.70
Citrus – 70% canopy 1.2-1.5 0.50
– 50% canopy 1.1-1.5 0.50
– 20% canopy 0.8-1.1 0.50
Conifer tree 1.0-1.5 0.70
Kiwi 0.7-1.3 0.35
Olive (40-60% ground coverage by canopy) 1.2-1.7 0.65
Pistachio 1.0-1.5 0.40
Walnut orchard 1.7-2.4 0.50

1 The larger values for RZD are for soils having no significant layering or other characteristics that can restrict rooting depth. The smaller values for RZD
may be used for irrigation scheduling and the larger values for modelling soil water stress or for rainfed conditions.
2 The values for P apply for ETc ≈ 5 mm/day. The value for P can be adjusted for different ETc according to P = Ptable 54 + 0.04 x (5 - ETc).
3 Sugar beet often experience late afternoon wilting in arid climates, even at P < 0.55, with usually only minor impact on sugar yield.
4 The value for P for rice is 0.20 of saturation.
5 Cool season grass varieties include Bluegrass, Ryegrass and Fescue. Warm season varieties include Bermuda grass, Buffalo grass and St. Augustine
grass. Grasses are variable in rooting depth. Some root below 1.2 m while others have shallow rooting depths. The deeper rooting depths for grasses
represent conditions where careful water management is practiced with higher depletion between irrigations to encourage the deeper root exploration.

While for surface irrigation systems there is a tendency to Knowing the crop water requirements, the type of soil and
accept deeper root zone depths in selecting root zone the root zone depth, the readily-available moisture for the
depths for pressurized systems, the decision is based on the crop can be calculated, which is the amount of water that
majority of feeder roots. Through this approach, water- can be extracted by the crop in the root zone without
soluble nutrients such as nitrogen are directed to the suffering water stress.
majority of feeder roots instead of being leached to depths
of smaller concentration of roots. Rainbird International
provides the guide for plant feeder root depths (effective
root zone depth) as indicated in Table 55.
Table 55
Plant feeder root depths (effective root zone depth) (RZD) (Source: Rainbird International)

Crop RZD (mm) Crop RZD (mm) Crop RZD (mm)

Alfalfa 90-180 Grains 60-75 Strawberries 30-45
Bananas 50 Sorghum 75 Sugarcane 150
Beans 60 Nuts 90-180 Sweet potatoes 90
Beet 60-90 Onions 45 Tobacco 75
Cabbages 45-60 Groundnuts 45 Tomatoes 30-60
Carrots 45-60 Peas 75 Pasture (grass) 45
Cassava 50 Potatoes 60 Pasture (clover) 60
Maize 75 Safflower 150 Citrus, peaches, 90-150
Cotton 125 Soybeans 60 pears, etc.

Module 4 – 89
 Chapter 8
Yield response to water

When water supply does not meet the crop water to water deficit during emergence, flowering and early yield
requirements, the ETc will decrease. Under this condition, formation than they are during early (vegetative, after
water stress will develop in the plant, which will adversely establishment) and late growth stages (ripening). Local
affect crop growth and, ultimately, crop yield. The effect of knowledge is valuable in determining critical growth
water stress and crop growth and yield depends on the crop periods for crops. Table 56 shows the critical periods
species and variety on one hand and the magnitude and the related to moisture stress for several crops grown in
time of occurrence of water deficit on the other. The effect Zimbabwe.
of the magnitude and the timing of water deficit on crop
growth and yield is of major importance in scheduling 8.2. Estimating yield reduction due to
available but limited water supply over growing periods of water stress
the crops, and in determining the priority of water supply
amongst crops during the growing season (FAO, 1986). A simple, linear crop-water production function was
introduced in FAO (1986) to predict the reduction in crop
The most common effect of water stress is a decreased rate yield when crop stress was caused by a shortage of soil
of growth and development of foliage. This has a cumulative water:
effect through the season as plant stress early in crop
development results in a reduced leaf area. This means that Equation 27
light interception is reduced, carbon assimilation is reduced
Ya ETc adj
and therefore the rate of leaf growth is reduced. 1- = Ky x 1 -
Ym ETc

Ya
Where Ky relates relative yield decrease 1 -
Ym
ETc adj
to relative evapotranspiration deficit 1 -
ETc

Ky = Yield response factor

Ya = Actual crop yield
Water stress also affects the quality of the produce. Ym = Maximum crop yield when there is no
Freedom from water stress encourages production of fresh, water stress and ETc adj = ETc
crisp foliage. In some crops this is desirable (for example ETc = Crop evapotranspiration for standard
lettuce). Crops suffering from intermittent stress tend to be conditions (see Section 1.3.2)
irregular in shape, carrots have forked roots, tomatoes have ETc adj = Adjusted (actual) crop
split skins, and may therefore fetch a lower price at the evapotranspiration (see Section 1.3.3)
market. Certain crops, however, need to be stressed at
certain times to encourage flowering for example. While Ky values are crop specific and may vary over the growing
water stress may negatively affect the crop, there are also season. In general, the decrease in yield due to water
negative effects of over-watering. Over-watered root crops deficit during the vegetative and ripening period is
tend to be bland in flavour. relatively small, while during the flowering and yield
formation periods it will be large. Table 57 gives values of
the yield response factor Ky for different crops and
8.1. Critical growth periods different growth stages. Ky values can also be obtained
When water deficit occurs during a particular part of the from field experimental data. In the final evaluation of Ky
total growing period of a crop, the yield response to water values, use is also made of known yield responses to soil
deficit can vary greatly depending on how sensitive the crop salinity, the depth of the groundwater table and agronomic
is at that growth stage. In general, crops are more sensitive and irrigation practices.

Module 4 – 91
Irrigation manual

Table 56
Critical periods for plant moisture stress (Source: USDA, 1997)

Crop Critical period Comments

Beans, dry Flowering through pod formation Is also sensitive to over-irrigation
Beans, green Blossom through harvest
Broccoli During head formation and enlargement
Cabbages During head formation and enlargement
Cauliflowers During entire growing season
Citrus During entire growing season Blossom and next season fruit set occurs during
harvest of the previous crop
Maize (grain) From tasseling through silk stage and until Needs adequate moisture from germination to dent
kernels become firm stage for maximum production. During ripening,
depletion of 80% or more can be allowed
Cotton First blossom through boll maturing stage Any moisture stress, even temporary, ceases
blossom formation and boll set for at least 15 days
after moisture again becomes available
Fruit trees During the initiation and early development Stone fruits are especially sensitive to moisture
period of flower buds, the flowering and fruit stress during last 2 weeks before harvest
setting period (maybe the previous year), the
fruit growing and enlarging period, and the
pre-harvest period
Wheat and barley During boot, bloom, milk stage, early head Critical period for barley is at soft dough stage to
development and early ripening stages maintain a quality kernel
Groundnuts Throughout season
Lettuce Head enlargement to harvest Water shortage results in sour and strong lettuce. Crop
quality at harvest is controlled by water availability to
the plant. Recommended allowable depletion P is < 30%
Watermelons Blossom through harvest
Onions, dry During bulb formation Maintain P at 30-35%. Let soil dry near harvest
Onions, green Blossom through harvest Strong and hot onions can result from moisture stress
Peas, dry At start of flowering until pods are swelling
Peas, green Blossom through harvest
Potatoes Flowering and tuber formation to harvest Sensitive to irrigation scheduling. Restrict P to 30-35%.
Low quality tubers result if allowed to go into moisture
moisture stress during tuber development and growth
Soybeans Flowering and fruiting stage
Sugarcane During period of maximum vegetative growth
Tobacco Knee high to blossom
Tomatoes When flowers are forming, fruit is setting and
fruits are rapidly enlarging
Vine crops Blossom through harvest

92 – Module 4
 Module 4: Crop water requirements and irrigation scheduling

Table 57
Yield response factor Ky (Source: FAO, 1986)

Vegetative period Flowering Yield Ripening Total growing

Crop period formation period
Early Late Total
Alfalfa 0.7-1.1 0.7-1.1
Bananas 1.2-1.35
Beans 0.2 1.1 0.75 0.2 1.15
Cabbages 0.2 0.45 0.6 0.95
Citrus 0.8-1.1
Cotton 0.2 0.5 0.25 0.85
Grapes 0.85
Groundnuts 0.2 0.8 0.6 0.2 0.7
Maize 0.4 1.5 0.5 0.2 1.25
Onions 0.45 0.8 0.3 1.1
Peas 0.2 0.9 0.7 0.2 1.15
Peppers 1.1
Potatoes 0.45 0.8 0.7 0.2 1.1
Safflower 0.3 0.55 0.6 0.8
Sorghum 0.2 0.55 0.45 0.2 0.9
Soybeans 0.2 0.8 1.0 0.85
Sugarbeet – beet 0.6-1.0
– sugar 0.7-1.1
Sugarcane 0.75 0.5 0.1 1.2
Sunflower 0.25 0.5 1.0 0.8 0.95
Tobacco 0.2 1.0 0.9
Tomatoes 0.4 1.1 0.8 0.4 1.05
Watermelons 0.45 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.3 1.1
Wheat – winter 0.2 0.6 0.5 1.0
– spring 0.2 0.65 0.55 1.15

In general, for the total growth period (last column in Table quantification is possible when the likely yield losses arise
57), the decrease in yield is proportionally less with the from differences in the Ky of individual growth periods.
increase in water deficit (Ky < 1) for crops such as alfalfa,
groundnuts, safflower and sugarbeet, while it is Under conditions of limited water distributed equally over
proportionally greater (Ky > 1) for crops such as bananas, the growing season and involving crops with different Ky
maize and sugarcane. values, the crop with the higher Ky value will suffer a greater
yield loss than the crop with a lower Ky value. For example,
Application of the yield response factor for planning, design the yield decrease for maize (Ky = 1.25) will be greater
and operation purposes allows the quantification of water than for sorghum (Ky = 0.9). Similarly, the yield response
supply and water use in terms of crop, yield and total to water deficit in different individual growth periods is of
production for the scheme. Both the likely losses in yield major importance in the scheduling of available but limited
and the adjustments required in water supply to minimize supply in order to obtain highest yields.
such losses can be quantified (FAO, 1986). Similarly, such
.

Module 4 – 93
Irrigation manual

Example 11

Consider the green maize grown close to Mahalapye climatic station in Botswana (Chapter 6) with general crop data
as given in Table 46 and a water requirement of 820 mm. What is the yield reduction, if:
1. The water supply is 10% less than the total water requirements with the deficit equally spread over the total
growing period (150 days)?
2. The water supply during the crop development stage in the month of September is 30% less than the water
requirements of that month?
Month Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Total
Growth period (days) 31 30 31 30 28 150
Water requirement (mm) 100 160 270 220 70 820
Ky 0.4 1.1 1.1-0.8 0.8 0.4 1.05

1. If the water supply is 10% less than the total water requirement of 820, this means a deficit of 82 mm.
ETc adj 820 - 82
1- = 1- = 0.01
ETc 820

Ya ETc adj
1- = Ky x 1 - = 1.05 x 0.1 = 0.105 ⇒ the yield reduction is 10.5%
Ym ETc

This means that the actual yield Ya is 100-10.5 = 89.5% of maximum crop yield Ym.

2. If the water supply is 30% less than the total water requirement of 160 mm for the month of September, this means
a deficit of 48 mm in that month.
ETc adj 150 - 48
1- = 1- = 0.3
ETc 150

Ya ETc adj
1- = Ky x 1 - = 1.1 x 0.3 = 0.33 ⇒ The yield reduction is 33%
Ym ETc

This means that the actual yield Ya is 100 – 33 = 67% of the maximum yield Ym.

94 – Module 4
 Chapter 9
Irrigation scheduling

Once the three parameters (daily water requirements, 9.1. Irrigation scheduling based on
available soil moisture and effective root zone depth) are measurement of daily crop water use
known, an irrigation schedule can be established. While
estimated values of ETc, based on climatic data, are sufficient 9.1.1. The use of the Class A pan for irrigation
for planning and designing purposes, for more accurate scheduling
scheduling more accurate field data are necessary. These can The principles of the Class A pan were explained in
be obtained by the use of Class A pans and/or tensiometers. Section 2.2. In order to be able to use the data, the ratios
This, however, requires proper recording and some of ETc/Epan for different crops at different growing stages
management skills, since timing of the different irrigations and in different areas have to be established through
will depend on the day to day variability of climatic factors. research. Then, by measuring the daily evaporation
Farmers should be advised as to when irrigation will take (Epan), the ETc can be calculated so that the farmer will
place. If no class A pan or tensiometers are available, the crop know within how many days the allowable soil moisture
water and irrigation requirement calculations as described in depletion will be reached. As an example, in Zimbabwe
Chapters 4-6 can be used as a guideline for irrigation researchers have established the ETc/Epan correction
scheduling. Section 9.1 describes the irrigation scheduling factors for major crops, such as cotton, groundnuts,
based on measurements of daily crop water use using the maize, soybeans, wheat and tobacco, and they are
Class A pan and tensiometers. Section 9.2 describes the presented in Tables 58.
manual and computerized irrigation scheduling based on
crop water requirements. Section 9.3 presents some possible
variations in irrigation scheduling.

Table 58
ETc/Epan ratios for different crops and varying season lengths in different agro-ecological regions in Zimbabwe
(Source: Metelerkamp, 1968)

Weeks Season length (weeks)

after 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
plantinga ETc/Epan ratio for cotton and Lowveld wheat (mean ETc/Epan ratio of 0.7)
1 0.24 0.24 0.23 0.23 0.23 0.23 0.23
2 0.27 0.27 0.26 0.26 0.25 0.25 0.24
3 0.30 0.29 0.29 0.28 0.27 0.27 0.26
4 0.37 0.35 0.33 0.30 0.29 0.29 0.27
5 0.45 0.44 0.40 0.34 0.33 0.31 0.29
6 0.58 0.57 0.48 0.44 0.40 0.36 0.32
7 0.70 0.68 0.58 0.55 0.47 0.42 0.35
8 0.82 0.77 0.66 0.65 0.55 0.48 0.42
9 0.90 0.84 0.75 0.72 0.64 0.57 0.49
10 0.94 0.90 0.82 0.79 0.70 0.65 0.58
11 0.97 0.94 0.88 0.85 0.77 0.73 0.67
12 0.97 0.97 0.93 0.89 0.83 0.79 0.75
13 0.96 0.97 0.96 0.93 0.87 0.84 0.81
14 0.94 0.96 0.97 0.95 0.92 0.88 0.86
15 0.91 0.94 0.97 0.97 0.94 0.91 0.90
16 0.87 0.91 0.95 0.97 0.96 0.94 0.93
17 0.87 0.93 0.96 0.96 0.95 0.94
18 0.81 0.90 0.94 0.97 0.96 0.95
19 0.87 0.92 0.97 0.97 0.96
20 0.82 0.89 0.96 0.96 0.97

Module 4 – 95
Irrigation manual

Weeks Season length (weeks)

after 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
plantinga ETc/Epan ratio for cotton and Lowveld wheat (mean ETc/Epan ratio of 0.7)
21 0.85 0.94 0.95 0.97
22 0.80 0.92 0.94 0.96
23 0.88 0.92 0.95
24 0.81 0.90 0.94
25 0.86 0.92
26 0.82 0.90
27 0.87
28 0.82

Weeks Season length (weeks)

after 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
plantinga ETc/Epan ratio for groundnuts (mean ETc/Epan ratio of 0.8)
1 0.23 0.23 0.23 0.23 0.23 0.23 0.23
2 0.27 0.26 0.25 0.25 0.24 0.24 0.23
3 0.30 0.28 0.27 0.26 0.25 0.25 0.24
4 0.43 0.38 0.35 0.31 0.30 0.29 0.26
5 0.63 0.57 0.49 0.41 0.40 0.35 0.30
6 0.80 0.75 0.64 0.55 0.53 0.42 0.37
7 0.90 0.88 0.78 0.71 0.64 0.53 0.46
8 0.98 0.95 0.88 0.84 0.74 0.68 0.59
9 1.02 1.00 0.94 0.92 0.83 0.79 0.72
10 1.03 1.02 0.98 0.96 0.88 0.87 0.83
11 1.04 1.03 1.02 0.99 0.93 0.93 0.91
12 1.04 1.04 1.03 1.02 0.97 0.97 0.96
13 1.04 1.04 1.04 1.03 1.00 1.00 0.99
14 1.03 1.04 1.04 1.04 1.02 1.02 1.02
15 1.00 1.03 1.04 1.04 1.03 1.03 1.03
16 0.97 1.01 1.03 1.04 1.04 1.04 1.03
17 0.98 1.02 1.04 1.04 1.04 1.04
18 0.94 1.00 1.03 1.04 1.04 1.04
19 0.98 1.02 1.04 1.04 1.04
20 0.94 1.00 1.04 1.04 1.04
21 0.97 1.03 1.04 1.04
22 0.93 1.02 1.03 1.04
23 1.00 1.02 1.03
24 0.97 1.01 1.02
25 0.98 1.01
26 0.95 0.99
27 0.97
28 0.94

Weeks Season length (weeks)

after 16 18 20 22 24
plantinga ETc/Epan ratio for maize, soybeans and Highveld and Middleveld wheat (mean ETc/Epan ratio of 0.8)
1 0.25 0.24 0.24 0.24 0.24
2 0.30 0.27 0.27 0.27 0.27
3 0.38 0.34 0.33 0.32 0.31
4 0.49 0.46 0.43 0.42 0.37
5 0.64 0.62 0.56 0.52 0.44
6 0.81 0.78 0.72 0.63 0.54
7 0.91 0.89 0.84 0.75 0.65
8 0.97 0.96 0.92 0.84 0.76
9 1.01 1.00 0.98 0.92 0.85
10 1.03 1.02 1.01 0.98 0.92
11 1.04 1.03 1.03 1.02 0.97
12 1.04 1.04 1.04 1.03 1.00

96 – Module 4
 Module 4: Crop water requirements and irrigation scheduling

13 1.03 1.04 1.04 1.04 1.02

14 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.03
15 0.98 0.99 1.02 1.04 1.04
16 0.92 0.96 1.00 1.03 1.04
17 0.90 0.97 1.02 1.03
18 0.83 0.93 0.99 1.03
19 0.87 0.95 1.02
20 0.78 0.91 1.00
21 0.86 0.98
22 0.79 0.95
23 0.91
24 0.85

Weeks Season length (weeks)

after 16 18
plantinga ETc/Epan ratio for Virginia tobacco
1 0.10 0.10
2 0.11 0.11
3 0.13 0.12
4 0.17 0.15
5 0.40 0.22
6 0.65 0.48
7 0.90 0.79
8 1.00 0.94
9 1.00 1.00
10 1.00 1.00
11 1.00 1.00
12 0.94 1.00
13 0.80 0.96
14 0.54 0.82
15 0.37 0.60
16 0.46
17 0.35
18 0.28

a One week after planting or (for tobacco) transplanting represents the first week of the season, two weeks after planting or transplanting represents the
second week of the season, etc.

Recording of a Class A pan combined with a rain Every morning, at 08.00 hours, the rulers are read after
gauge which the water level in the pan is brought to zero, either
Two rulers are attached for the measurements. The zero by adding water or by removing water after rain. For a day
point of the rulers is set at 50 mm from the top of the pan. without rain, the water level in the pan will drop because of
One of the rulers is set for measurements from zero point evaporation and ruler 1 will indicate the drop. During a
to the bottom of the pan (ruler 1), the other from the zero rainy day with substantial rainfall, the level of the water will
point to the top of the pan (ruler 2). rise above zero point and this level can be read on ruler 2.
Table 59 gives an example.

Table 59
Example of a Class A pan record keeping, which takes place at 08.00 hours just before bringing the water level
to the zero point (readings in mm)

Date Ruler 1 Ruler 2 Rain gauge Evaporation

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)=(2)+(4) or (5)=(4)-(3)
01-03-2002 6 – 0 6
02-03-2002 4 – 2 6
03-03-2002 – 6 10 4
04-03-2002 – 20 24 4

Module 4 – 97
Irrigation manual

Example 12

A short season variety of groundnut (16 weeks) is grown in Zimbabwe. The soil is a sandy loam with a water-holding
capacity or total available moisture (SMta) of 100 mm/m. The allowable depletion P is 50%. The planting date is 5
October and a pre-irrigation wetted the first 30 cm of the soil. When should the first irrigation take place?
Assuming that the root zone depth during the first week will not exceed 10 cm or 0.10 m, the readily-available
moisture SMra is:
SMra = 100 x 0.10 x 0.50 = 5 mm

The ETc/Epan ratio during the first week after planting is 0.23 for a groundnut crop with a season length of 16 weeks
(Table 58).
Based on the readings of the Class A pan and the rain gauge, the daily and accumulated crop water requirements
(in mm) are calculated as follows:
Ruler 1 Ruler 2 Rain gauge Epan ETc/Epan Daily CWR Accumulated CWR
6 October 7 – 0 7 0.23 1.61 1.61
7 October 7 – 0 7 0.23 1.61 3.22
8 October 8 – 0 8 0.23 1.84 5.06

From the above calculation it can be seen that on the third day after planting, the accumulated water requirement is
5.06 mm, depleting the 5 mm readily available soil moisture, thus irrigation should take place.

Irrigation scheduling using the Class A pan water out of the tensiometer through the porous wall of the
Using the evaporation and rain gauge data as well as the ceramic tip, creating a partial vacuum inside the
ETc/Epan ratio from Table 58, the daily crop water tensiometer that can be read on a vacuum gauge attached
requirements can be calculated. Then, if the amount of water below the cap. This value is the matric potential of the soil,
available in the root zone depth and the allowable depletion which is negative. This power of the soil (soil suction) to
are known, the time that irrigation is due can be calculated. withdraw water from the tensiometer increases as the soil
dries and the gauge reading rises. Water inside the
tensiometer will flow to the soil until the matric potential
9.1.2. The use of tensiometers for irrigation
scheduling
of the soil surrounding the ceramic cup is in equilibrium
with the tension inside the tensiometer. When the soil is
As explained in Section 7.3, water in the soil can be irrigated, soil suction is reduced and water is drawn back
measured by measuring the soil water potential. A into the tensiometer by the vacuum. This reduces the
relationship exists between soil water content and matric vacuum and the gauge reading is lowered. The tensiometer
potential, which is sometimes called the soil moisture gives on-the-spot, continuous readings, indicating to the
retention curve and/or desorption curve. It describes the user the soil moisture status of the soil when needed.
relationship between the volumetric water content (SMv) and
matric potential (ym). For this, measuring the matric The gauge of the tensiometer is calibrated in hundredths of
potential will give information on soil water content (see a bar (or centibar) and is graduated from 0 to 100. This is
Section 7.3.1). This potential can be measured with a equal to 0-100 kPa.
tensiometer. Tensiometers operate by allowing the soil An advantage of the use of tensiometers is that they are not
solution to come into equilibrium with a reference pressure affected by the osmotic potential of the soil solution (the
indicator through a permeable ceramic cup placed in contact amount of salts dissolved in the soil water), as the salts can
with the soil. Their use is widespread in irrigation areas. move into and out of the ceramic cup unhindered. This is
not to say, however, that the plant does not feel the effect of
Description of a tensiometer the osmotic potential. Also, tensiometers measure the soil
A tensiometer is a closed tube, filled with water. A ceramic matric potential with good accuracy in the wet range and
cup is sealed to the bottom and a cap closes the other end are suited to applications where water stress and irrigation
(Figure 29). needs have to be monitored. They are less subject to
localized spatial variability than volumetric water content
The tube is installed with the ceramic tip placed where a measurements (and are therefore less sensitive to soil
soil water measurement is desired. As the soil dries, it sucks disturbance during installation).

98 – Module 4
 Module 4: Crop water requirements and irrigation scheduling

Figure 29
Details of the ceramic cup of a tensiometer

There are, however, also some limitations and moist soils, one to two minutes are enough to get a reading,
disadvantages. The most important is its narrow measuring but, depending on the soil type, five to ten minutes will
range between 0 (saturation) and a matric potential of generally give a more reliable figure. This tensiometer is
about -0.8 bar or atmosphere, because cavitation causes the mostly used for measurements to a depth of up to 45 cm. It
column of water to break by allowing air into the closed is handy for carring out sample checks at different places in
system. Thus, they cannot be used for measurements in the the irrigated area. It is also a useful tool for extension people
dry end of the spectrum. Also, skilled maintenance is wanting to verify the irrigation performance of the different
needed to keep the tensiometers operational. Air leaks irrigation schemes in their area.
often occur, they are sensitive to temperature variations and
the ceramic cup is sensitive and can easily clog when not
stored properly. Tensiometers also give a point Figure 30
measurement and there is no model yet capable of Standard tensiometers (Source: ELE, 2002)
integrating a larger soil volume such as is possible with
some sensors. If the ceramic cup loses contact with the soil
(in an air pocket created by manuring, for example), then
this could cause an apparent ‘lack of response’ in the
instrument. If the tip were in an area of limited root activity,
the readings could also ‘stall’. Tensiometers also have a slow
reaction time.

Different types of tensiometers

Different types of tensiometers are available on the market.
A distinction can be made between standard tensiometers
and quick-draw tensiometers, the main difference being the
response time and their use. The standard type is an
instrument that will not be moved too often and that will
give reliable readings 24 hours after installation (Figure 30).
The depth to which this tensiometer can be used ranges
from less than 30 cm to up to 120 cm. It can be installed for
irrigation control purposes. The quick-draw type is portable
and used when a fast response is wanted (Figure 31). In

Module 4 – 99
Irrigation manual

Figure 31
Quick-draw portable tensiometer (Source: ELE, 2002)

Filling a tensiometer Placing the tensiometer

Incorrect filling of the tensiometer is one of the major Install the tensiometer so that the tip is in the active root
reasons for failure of operation. When filling the probe with zone, in good contact with soil, and in a position where
water, air bubbles cling to the wall or dissolve into the irrigation water is sure to wet the soil (Figure 32). Observe
water. Using the tensiometer without removing the air will the active root zone concentration (normally at one third of
create air leaks when a vacuum is created and the pointer of the final rooting depth) and depth by digging near an
the gauge drops to zero. adjacent plant, but not right where the tensiometer is to be
installed. In new orchards, place the tip in the root ball
For proper filling, take the following steps into since soil texture in the ball may differ from that in the field
consideration: and water transfer could be impeded. After several weeks
1 Saturate the porous tip with water by putting the lower the tensiometer can be reinstalled near the drip line of the
part of the tensiometer in water for one day growing tree. Subsequent moves may occur annually during
the rapid growth period, less frequently thereafter.
2 Fill the probe with water. Pour slowly so that air
bubbles are not trapped. If bubbles cling to the wall, With furrow irrigation, place the instruments near enough
nudge it free with a plastified metal wire to the furrow so that the water will be certain to reach
3 Close the instrument and let the porous tip air-dry till them. With most row crops, tensiometers are placed in the
the gauge reads 45. By creating this under-pressure, air plant row. With sprinkler irrigation, place the tensiometer
bubbles could have formed inside the probe. Unscrew where you can ‘see’ the sprinkler, that is where water from
the cap and remove possible bubbles. The pointer of the sprinkler is not blocked by a post, tree trunk, branch,
the gauge reads again zero leaves, vines, etc. With drip irrigation, place them 30-45
cm away from an emitter.
4 Repeat step 3 several times until the response time is
decreased and no air bubbles can be noticed anymore. For some crops, the instruments may be placed in critical
The tensiometer is now ready for use. or problem locations where one wants special knowledge of
the soil water. These locations may be difficult to wet, may
The filling of the quick draw tensiometer is a little faster dry out quickly, or may remain excessively wet.
because of the smaller diameter of the probe and the use of Tensiometers are very useful for identifying and helping to
a null knob (see manufacturers’ operations instructions for solve irrigation or soil-water problems.
details).

100 – Module 4
 Module 4: Crop water requirements and irrigation scheduling

Figure 32
Placing tensiometers (Source: USDA, 1997)

Interpretation of readings condition (0 to 10 centibars of soil suction) is not created

A zero reading (= zero soil suction) indicates that the soil for any length of time in the feeder root zone. For those
is saturated. In this case, all of the soil pores are filled with sandy soils that have extremely limited water storage
water. A zero reading may also indicate that the instrument capacity, irrigation is started at lower soil suction values,
is out of order. Any zero reading 1-2 days after irrigation frequently in the range of 15 to 20 centibars. With drip
(surface and sprinkler irrigation systems) is an indication irrigation systems, where the readings are made
that the instrument should be checked. Under drip approximately 30-45 cm away from the emitter, soil
irrigation the tensiometer should never show zero. suction should be maintained at a relatively low value,
usually in the range from 10 to 25 centibars depending
In medium-textured soils most plants grow best where the upon soil type.
soil suction readings are kept between 20 and 60 centibars.
At this moisture level, there is good aeration as well as good Storing the tensiometer
movement of moisture. In sandy soils the optimum range is
The standard type of tensiometer needs special attention
usually 10 to 30 centibars. In heavy clay soils, which can
when it is not used for long periods in order to avoid clogging
store greater amounts of water, maximum readings of 70
of the pores of the ceramic cup by algae or fungi. Water
centibars may not be harmful to growing plants. The higher
inside the probe should be drained out. The tip should be
values in the ranges relate to approximately 50% depletion
washed with a detergent using only a soft brush. Let the
of the available moisture for these types of soils.
instrument dry in the air, wrap the porous tip in paper and
If soil suction values are allowed to reach 80 centibars, this store in a dry place. When using tensiometers, always avoid
can be detrimental to the plant, particularly for sandy and touching the ceramic tip with your hands as they will leave a
sandy loam soils. At this moisture level, the supply of water greasy film, blocking the pores of the ceramic tip.
for the roots is becoming limited and the water films are
The quick-draw type of tensiometer is kept in a special
becoming so thin that the soil moisture movement within
holder where the porous tip is always immersed in a wet
the soil is very slow. This means that the moisture
spongy material. It is enough to keep this sponge wet
withdrawn by a root in a given area is not readily replaced.
during storage.
As a result, under conditions of bright sun and wind,
destructive stress conditions can develop in the plant. It is Special care should be given to the ceramic cup as it cracks
best to keep soil suction values at a maximum of 40-50 easily and such cracks are not always detected. Once cracked,
centibars and to arrange irrigation so that a saturated no vacuum can be established and readings will be incorrect.

Module 4 – 101
Irrigation manual

9.2. Irrigation scheduling based on crop ‘user-friendly’ for the farmers, for example irrigation
water requirement calculation intervals and irrigation duration can be made uniform over
a period of 14 days or a month. This is particularly
Irrespectively of the mode (computerized or manual) to be
important in smallholder irrigation schemes where a
adopted in preparing an irrigation schedule, the following
number of small farmers are involved, living at some
parameters will be required:
distance away from the scheme. If they know the irrigation
Y Cropping programme schedules for the rest of the month, they are in a better
Y Daily water requirements of the different crops (ETc) position to organize their work, household tasks and family
at the different stages of their growth life accordingly. In Section 9.2.3, examples of such an
adjusted irrigation schedule are worked out.
Y Root zone depth at the different growth stages of each
crop (RZD) The rainfall can be taken into consideration at the time the
irrigation schedule is applied. By using a rain gauge and by
Y Total available soil moisture (SMta)
recording the amount of rainfall on a daily basis, this amount
Y Allowable soil moisture depletion level (P) can be weighted against part of, or one or more irrigation
Y On-site rainfall data applications. Therefore, the irrigation cycle is interrupted
and a number of days are skipped, depending on the amount
The cropping programme provides the different crops, their of rainfall, the daily water requirements and the moisture to
rotation and the time of planting and harvesting, as shown in be replenished in the root zone depth of the soil.
Tables 32 and 33. The ETc of each crop can be derived either
by using CROPWAT, as explained in Chapter 6, or by using 9.2.1. Irrigation frequency
the iso-ETo maps for each month and estimate the Kc values
for each growth stage as explained in Chapter 3 and 4. The Irrigation frequency is defined as the frequency of applying
RZD of each crop at the different stages of growth can be water to a particular crop at a certain stage of growth and is
derived preferably from local information or, in their expressed in days. In equation form it reads:
absence, from Tables presented in Section 7.6. The SMta is Equation 28
usually determined through laboratory analysis during the
soil surveys. As explained earlier, the level of P depends on SMra SMta x P x RZD
IF = or IF =
the crop and its stage of growth as well as on the soil type and ETc ETc
irrigation system. A rain gauge would also be required on site Where:
to record the daily rainfall received. IF = Irrigation frequency (days)
Irrigation frequency and duration have to be calculated for SMra = Readily available soil moisture
(= SMta x RZD x P) (mm)
each crop of the existing cropping pattern (see Section
SMta = Total available soil moisture
9.2.1) and a sound irrigation schedule has to be put
(= FC – PWP) (mm/m)
together in order to irrigate all crops at the time and for the
P = Allowable depletion (decimal)
duration they require the water (see Sections 9.2.2-9.2.4).
RZD = Effective root zone depth (m)
Once the irrigation schedule is known, simplifications can ETc = Crop evapotranspiration or crop water
be introduced in order to make the schedule practical and requirement (CWR) (mm/day)

Example 13

Assume that the daily ETc of onions, grown at Mahalapye irrigation scheme, is 3.86 mm/day during the 3rd decade
of August. The SMta from the soil analysis was determined to be 140 mm/m. The rooting depth from local information
at the late growth stage of onion is 0.45 and the adopted depletion (P) 50% or 0.5. What would be the irrigation
frequency for onions?
The readily available moisture within the root zone depth will be:
SMra = 140 x 0.45 x 0.5 = 31.5 mm

The irrigation frequency, which is the number of days it would take the onion to consume the 31.5 mm would be:
31.5
IF = = 8.16 or 8 days
3.86

102 – Module 4
 Module 4: Crop water requirements and irrigation scheduling

Example 14

Given a maize crop with a daily ETc in September of 5 mm/day. The total available moisture is 100 mm/m, the root
zone depth is 1 m and the allowable depletion level is 50%. What is the irrigation frequency and what is the depletion
in the different parts of the root zone system between two irrigations, if 40% of the moisture is extracted from the 1st
quarter of the root zone depth, 30% from the 2nd quarter, 20% from the 3rd quarter and 10% form the 4th quarter?
100 x 0.50 x 1
IF = = 10 days
5

The root zone depth being 1 m, the amount of water extracted and the moisture depletion from each quarter or each
25 cm of soil depth is calculated. The 100 x 0.5 = 50 mm of total water extraction in 10 days can be apportioned as
calculated in column 3. The depletion is calculated in column 5:

Soil depth Water extracted Water extracted SMta Depletion

(cm) (%) (mm) (mm) (%)
0-25 cm 40 50 x 0.4 = 20 25 20/25 x 100 = 80
26-50 cm 30 50 x 0.3 = 15 25 15/25 x 100 = 60
51-75 cm 20 50 x 0.2 = 10 25 10/25 x 100 = 40
76-100 cm 10 50 x 0.1 = 5 25 5/25 x 100 = 20

It transpires from the above example that the top half of the There are two major disadvantages to this approach. Firstly,
root zone system, from where 40% + 30% = 70% of the more effective water control is required. While this is
water is extracted, was in reality stressed above the attainable with pressurized irrigation systems, it is more
established level of 50%, while the area of the least difficult to achieve with surface irrigation systems. The
extraction in the lower half (20% + 10% = 30%) enjoyed second disadvantage is the more frequent irrigation, which
better growing conditions than envisaged. will carry additional labour cost for labour intensive
systems such as surface and semi-portable sprinkler
While the basic assumption is not necessarily based on systems. Whether this cost can be covered by the
documented data, it appears that by reducing the root zone expectations of higher yield depends on the prevailing
depth to where the majority of the feeder roots economics for each crop at different times and places. Most
concentrate, we may end up with a better depletion for the certainly this is an area where research can play an
majority of the root zone depth and provide better growing important role.
conditions. This approach was successfully applied on
vegetables and citrus trees under extreme desert conditions
(Savva et al. 1984).

Example 15

Consider a pressurized irrigation system, thereby reducing the plant feeder root depth of the maize crop to 75 cm as
recommended in Table 55. If a 50%, 30% and 20% root distribution is then assumed respectively for the 1st, 2nd and
3rd 25 cm depth in Example 14, what is the depletion in the different depths of soil, assuming again an allowable
depletion of 50%?
100 x 0.50 x 0.75
IF = = 7.5 days
5

The root zone depth being 0.75 m, the amount of water extracted and the moisture depletion from each third or each
25 cm of soil depth is calculated. The 75 x 0.5 = 37.5 mm of total water extraction in 7.5 days can be apportioned as
calculated in column 3. The depletion is calculated in column 5.

Soil depth Water extracted Water extracted SMta Depletion

(cm) (%) (mm) (mm) (%)
0 –25 cm 50 37.5 x 0.5 = 18.75 25 18.75/25 x 100 = 75
26 – 50 cm 30 37.5 x 0.3 = 11.25 25 11.25/25 x 100 = 45
51 – 75 cm 20 37.5 x 0.2 = 7.50 25 7.50/25 x 100 = 30

Module 4 – 103
Irrigation manual

9.2.2. Manual calculation of the irrigation scheduling moisture SMra = 140 x RZD x P. The irrigation frequency
programme for a drag-hose sprinkler irrigation IF = SMra/ETc. The net irrigation requirement IRn = IF x
system ETc and the gross irrigation requirement IRg = IRn/Ea,
where Ea is the field application efficiency, which is assumed
Irrigation schedule for each crop to be 75% for the drag-hose sprinkler system. The duration
Referring to Mahalapye drag-hose sprinkler irrigation of each month was assumed to be 30 days (3 decades) for
scheme, for which the crop water requirements were the results to be comparable with CROPWAT (Section
calculated in Chapter 6, the irrigation schedule for each 9.2.4). The impact of rainfall on the irrigation schedule has
crop is presented in Tables 60-65. The readily-available soil not been accounted for as yet. It will be discussed later.

Table 60
Manually-calculated irrigation schedule for tomatoes

Decade ETc RZD P SMra IF* IRn IRg (mm)

(mm/day) (m) (mm) (days) (mm) sprinkler
01/11 - 10/11 3.92 0.15 0.40 8.40 2.14 (2) 7.84 10.45
11/11 - 20/11 3.92 0.20 0.40 11.20 2.86 (3) 11.76 15.68
21/11 - 30/11 4.08 0.30 0.40 16.80 4.12 (4) 16.32 21.76
01/12 - 10/12 4.68 0.40 0.45 25.20 5.38 (5) 23.40 31.20
11/12 - 20/12 5.48 0.45 0.45 28.35 5.17 (5) 27.40 36.53
21/12 - 30/12 6.30 0.50 0.50 35.00 5.56 (5) 31.50 42.00
01/01 - 10/01 6.70 0.50 0.50 35.00 5.22 (5) 33.50 44.67
11/01 - 20/01 6.87 0.50 0.50 35.00 5.09 (5) 34.35 45.80
21/01 - 30/01 6.67 0.50 0.50 35.00 5.24 (5) 33.35 44.47
01/02 - 10/02 6.14 0.50 0.50 35.00 5.70 (6) 36.84 49.12
11/02 - 20/02 5.36 0.50 0.50 35.00 6.53 (6) 32.16 42.88
21/02 - 30/02 4.50 0.50 0.50 35.00 7.55 (7) 31.50 42.00
01/03 - 10/03 3.71 0.50 0.50 35.00 9.43 (9) 33.39 44.52
11/03 - 15/03 2.92 0.50 0.50 35.00 11.98 (12) 35.04 46.72

* The figure between brackets gives the IF rounded up in full days.

Table 61
Manually-calculated irrigation schedule for cabbages

Decade ETc RZD P SMra IF* IRn IRg (mm)

(mm/day) (m) (mm) (days) (mm) sprinkler
01/12 - 10/12 3.78 0.15 0.40 8.40 2.22 (2) 7.56 10.08
11/12 - 20/12 3.71 0.20 0.40 11.20 3.01 (3) 11.13 14.84
21/12 - 30/12 3.83 0.30 0.40 16.80 4.38 (4) 15.32 20.43
01/01 - 10/01 4.20 0.40 0.45 25.20 6.00 (6) 25.20 33.60
11/01 - 20/01 4.81 0.45 0.45 28.35 5.89 (6) 28.26 37.68
21/01 - 30/01 5.23 0.50 0.50 35.00 6.69 (6) 31.38 41.84
01/02 - 10/02 5.59 0.50 0.50 35.00 6.26 (6) 33.54 44.72
11/02 - 20/02 5.67 0.50 0.50 35.00 6.17 (6) 34.02 45.36
21/02 - 30/02 5.36 0.50 0.50 35.00 6.52 (6) 33.35 44.47
01/03 - 10/03 5.04 0.50 0.50 35.00 6.94 (7) 35.28 47.04
11/03 - 20/03 4.69 0.50 0.50 35.00 7.46 (7) 32.83 43.77
21/03 - 30/03 4.32 0.50 0.50 35.00 8.10 (8) 34.56 46.08
01/04 - 10/04 3.93 0.50 0.50 35.00 8.90 (8) 31.44 41.92
11/04 - 20/04 3.56 0.50 0.50 35.00 9.83 (9) 32.04 47.72

* The figure between brackets gives the IF rounded up in full days.

104 – Module 4
 Module 4: Crop water requirements and irrigation scheduling

Table 62
Manually-calculated irrigation schedule for rape

Decade ETc RZD P SMra IF* IRn IRg (mm)

(mm/day) (m) (mm) (days) (mm) sprinkler
15/01 - 20/01 3.99 0.15 0.40 8.40 2.11 (2) 7.98 10.64
21/01 - 30/01 3.92 0.20 0.40 11.20 2.86 (3) 11.76 15.68
01/02 - 10/02 4.14 0.25 0.40 14.00 3.38 (3) 12.42 16.56
11/02 - 20/02 4.75 0.30 0.45 18.90 3.98 (4) 19.00 25.33
21/02 - 30/02 4.99 0.35 0.45 22.05 4.42 (4) 19.96 26.61
01/03 - 10/03 4.80 0.40 0.50 28.00 5.83 (6) 28.80 38.40
11/03 - 20/03 4.50 0.40 0.50 28.00 6.22 (6) 27.00 36.00
21/03 - 30/03 4.22 0.40 0.50 28.00 6.63 (6) 25.32 33.76
01/04 - 10/04 3.92 0.40 0.50 28.00 7.14 (7) 27.44 36.59
11/04 - 20/04 3.62 0.40 0.50 28.00 7.73 (7) 25.34 33.79
21/04 - 30/04 3.33 0.40 0.50 28.00 8.40 (8) 26.64 35.52
01/05 - 10/05 3.04 0.40 0.50 28.00 9.21 (9) 27.36 36.48
11/05 - 15/05 2.75 0.40 0.50 28.00 10.18 (10) 27.50 36.67
* The figure between brackets gives the IF rounded up in full days.

Table 63
Manually-calculated irrigation schedule for onions

Decade ETc RZD P SMra IF* IRn IRg (mm)

(mm/day) (m) (mm) (days) (mm) sprinkler
01/05 - 10/05 2.22 0.15 0.40 8.40 3.78 (4) 8.88 11.84
11/05 - 20/05 2.03 0.20 0.40 11.20 5.55 (5) 10.15 13.53
21/05 - 30/05 2.10 0.25 0.45 15.75 7.50 (7) 14.70 19.60
01/06 - 10/06 2.32 0.30 0.45 18.90 8.14 (8) 18.56 24.75
11/06 - 20/06 2.46 0.35 0.45 22.05 8.96 (9) 22.14 29.52
21/06 - 30/06 2.77 0.40 0.50 28.00 10.11 (10) 27.70 36.93
01/07 - 10/07 2.92 0.40 0.50 28.00 9.59 (9) 26.28 35.04
11/07 - 20/07 3.00 0.40 0.50 28.00 9.33 (9) 27.00 36.00
21/07 - 30/07 3.36 0.40 0.50 28.00 8.33 (8) 26.28 35.04
01/08 - 10/08 3.69 0.40 0.50 28.00 7.59 (7) 25.83 34.44
11/08 - 20/08 3.82 0.40 0.50 28.00 7.33 (7) 26.72 35.63
21/08 - 30/08 3.86 0.40 0.50 28.00 7.25 (7) 27.02 36.03
01/09 - 10/09 3.81 0.40 0.50 28.00 7.35 (7) 26.67 35.56
11/09 - 20/09 3.68 0.40 0.50 28.00 7.61 (7) 25.76 34.35
21/09 - 30/09 3.36 0.40 0.50 28.00 8.33 (8) 26.88 35.84
* The figure between brackets gives the IF rounded up in full days.

Table 64
Manually-calculated irrigation schedule for potatoes

Decade ETc RZD P SMra IF* IRn IRg (mm)

(mm/day) (m) (mm) (days) (mm) sprinkler
01/06 - 10/06 1.25 0.20 0.40 11.20 8.96 (9) 11.25 15.00
11/06 - 20/06 1.15 0.20 0.40 11.20 9.73 (9) 10.35 13.80
21/06 - 30/06 1.18 0.20 0.40 11.20 9.49 (9) 16.52 22.03
01/07 - 10/07 1.44 0.25 0.45 15.75 10.93 (11) 15.84 21.12
11/07 - 20/07 1.95 0.25 0.45 15.75 8.08 (8) 15.60 20.80
21/07 - 30/07 2.73 0.25 0.45 15.75 5.77 (6) 16.38 21.84
01/08 - 10/08 3.45 0.30 0.50 21.00 6.09 (6) 20.70 27.60
11/08 - 20/08 3.91 0.30 0.50 21.00 5.37 (5) 19.55 26.07
21/08 - 30/08 4.41 0.30 0.50 21.00 4.76 (5) 22.05 29.40
01/09 - 10/09 4.76 0.30 0.50 21.00 4.41 (4) 19.04 25.39
11/09 - 20/09 4.84 0.30 0.50 21.00 4.34 (4) 19.36 25.81
21/09 - 30/09 4.65 0.30 0.50 21.00 4.52 (4) 16.80 24.80
01/10 - 10/10 4.40 0.30 0.50 21.00 4.77 (5) 22.00 29.33
11/10 - 14/10 4.09 0.30 0.50 21.00 5.13 (5) 20.45 27.27
* The figure between brackets gives the IF rounded up in full days.

Module 4 – 105
Irrigation manual

Table 65
Manually-calculated irrigation schedule for green maize

Decade ETc RZD P SMra IF* IRn IRg (mm)

(mm/day) (m) (mm) (days) (mm) sprinkler
01/08 - 10/08 2.17 0.20 0.40 11.20 5.16 (5) 10.85 14.47
11/08 - 20/08 2.38 0.20 0.40 11.20 4.71 (5) 11.90 15.87
21/08 - 30/08 2.80 0.25 0.40 14.00 5.00 (5) 14.00 18.67
01/09 - 10/09 3.46 0.30 0.45 18.90 5.46 (5) 17.30 23.07
11/09 - 20/09 4.28 0.40 0.45 25.20 5.89 (6) 25.68 34.24
21/09 - 30/09 5.05 0.50 0.45 31.50 6.24 (6) 30.30 40.40
01/10 - 10/10 5.88 0.60 0.50 42.00 7.14 (7) 41.16 54.88
11/10 - 20/10 6.61 0.70 0.50 49.00 7.41 (7) 46.27 61.69
21/10 - 30/10 6.72 0.70 0.50 49.00 7.29 (7) 47.07 62.76
01/11 - 10/11 6.72 0.70 0.50 49.00 7.29 (7) 47.07 62.76
11/11 - 20/11 6.72 0.70 0.50 49.00 7.29 (7) 47.07 62.76
21/11 - 30/11 6.30 0.70 0.50 49.00 7.78 (8) 50.40 67.20
01/12 - 10/12 5.46 0.70 0.50 49.00 8.97 (9) 49.14 65.52
11/12 - 20/12 4.53 0.70 0.50 49.00 10.82 (11) 49.83 66.44
21/12 - 30/12 3.75 0.70 0.50 49.00 13.07 (13) 48.75 65.00
* The figure between brackets gives the IF rounded up in full days.

Farm irrigation schedule portions to accommodate three crops per season. The
For easy use by the extension staff and farmers, the above sprinklers operate on a 12 m x 12 m spacing, applying 5.69
schedules are summarized in Table 66. As the duration of mm/hr. To cover each crop (one-third of the area per crop)
each irrigation affects the irrigation turns among the different twelve sprinkler positions are needed. Since six sprinklers can
crops, the same table provides the duration of irrigation operate at any time, it will take two shifts to cover each crop.
assuming a sprinkler system providing the water with field In practice, it should be expected that the farmers would
application efficiency Ea of 75% or 0.75. This system round up the duration of irrigation to the nearest quarter of
provides six sprinklers per 0.5 ha holding. This is because of an hour. Naturally, this will slightly reduce the field
the high ETc encountered in this scheme, as compared to the application efficiency. Tables 67-69 present the sequence of
example given in Module 8, where three sprinklers are irrigation of the three different crops, grown during the
sufficient for 0.5 ha. The holding is divided into three period November-May, based on this approach. The gross

Table 66
Summary irrigation schedule on a monthly basis

Month Irrigation frequency in days and corresponding hours per sprinkler position
Tomatoes Cabbages Rape Onions Potatoes Green maize Comments
IF pos. IF pos. IF pos. IF pos. IF pos. IF pos.
days hrs days hrs days hrs days hrs days hrs days hrs
January 5 8.0 6 6.6 2 1.9
A range of
3 2.9
frequency is
February 6 7.5 6 8.0 4 4.7 provided
March 9 7.8 7 8.3 6 6.3 during the
April 8 7.4 7 6.4 initial stage of
crops, where
May 9 6.4 4 2.0
transplanting
5 2.4
is practiced.
June 9 5.2 9 2.6 The first is
July 9 6.3 8 3.7 used until the
August 7 6.3 5 5.2 5 2.8 plants are
established.
September 7 4.5 4 4.5 6 6.0 There after
October 5 5.2 7 10.8 the second
November 2 1.8 7 11.0 frequency is
4 3.8 followed.
December 5 6.4 2 1.8 11 11.6
4 3.6

106 – Module 4
 Module 4: Crop water requirements and irrigation scheduling

Table 67
Irrigation programme for tomatoes

Interval Hours Hours for Date IRg IRn Starting Finishing

(days) per position 2 positions (mm) (mm) irrigation irrigation*
(1) (2) (3)=(2)x2 (4) (5)=(2)x5.69 (6)=(5)x0.75 (7) (8)
2 1.75 3.5 01 Nov 9.96 7.47 06:00 hours 10.00 hours
2 1.75 3.5 03 Nov 9.96 7.47 06:00 hours 10.00 hours
2 1.75 3.5 05 Nov 9.96 7.47 06:00 hours 10.00 hours
2 1.75 3.5 07 Nov 9.96 7.47 06:00 hours 10.00 hours
4 3.75 7.5 11 Nov 21.34 16.00 06:00 hours 14.00 hours
4 3.75 7.5 15 Nov 21.34 16.00 06:00 hours 14.00 hours
4 3.75 7.5 19 Nov 21.34 16.00 06:00 hours 14.00 hours
4 3.75 7.5 23 Nov 21.34 16.00 06:00 hours 14.00 hours
4 3.75 7.5 27 Nov 21.34 16.00 06:00 hours 14.00 hours
4 3.75 7.5 31 Nov 21.34 16.00 06:00 hours 14.00 hours
5 8 16 05 Dec 45.52 34.14 06:00 hours 22.30 hours
5 8 16 10 Dec 45.52 34.14 06:00 hours 22.30 hours
5 8 16 15 Dec 45.52 34.14 06:00 hours 22.30 hours
5 8 16 20 Dec 45.52 34.14 06:00 hours 22.30 hours
5 8 16 25 Dec 45.52 34.14 06:00 hours 22.30 hours
5 8 16 30 Dec 45.52 34.14 06:00 hours 22.30 hours
5 8 16 05 Jan 45.52 34.14 06:00 hours 22.30 hours
5 8 16 10 Jan 45.52 34.14 06:00 hours 22.30 hours
5 8 16 15 Jan 45.52 34.14 06:00 hours 22.30 hours
5 8 16 20 Jan 45.52 34.14 06:00 hours 22.30 hours
5 8 16 25 Jan 45.52 34.14 06:00 hours 22.30 hours
5 8 16 30 Jan 45.52 34.14 06:00 hours 22.30 hours
6 7.5 15 06 Feb 42.67 32.00 06:00 hours 21.30 hours
6 7.5 15 12 Feb 42.67 32.00 06:00 hours 21.30 hours
6 7.5 15 18 Feb 42.67 32.00 06:00 hours 21.30 hours
6 7.5 15 24 Feb 42.67 32.00 06:00 hours 21.30 hours
6 7.5 15 02 Mar 42.67 32.00 06:00 hours 21.30 hours
9 7.75 15.5 11 Mar 44.10 33.07 06:00 hours 22.00 hours
Total 971.57 728.63

* Assuming 30 minutes between positions to move the sprinklers from one position to the next position

irrigation requirement is equal to the number of hours per The outcome of this presentation demonstrates that the
sprinkler position times the sprinkler application rate, which preparation of an irrigation programme for a farm, where
is 5.69 mm/hour. The net irrigation requirement is equal to several crops are grown at the same time, is a time-
the gross irrigation requirement times the application consuming process when an optimum schedule is the basis
efficiency, which is 75% or 0.75. for the programme. This becomes more intricate during
the month when all crops are at the period of their peak
Looking at Tables 67-69, it is noticeable that the optimum demand, which is February in our example. At times, in
irrigation frequency scenario, based on the appropriate order to accommodate timely water application for one
depletion, was simplified by averaging the days of frequency crop, compromises were made either by increasing or
and rounding up the duration of irrigation per sprinkler reducing the frequency by a day or two of another crop.
position. The next step is to amalgamate the individual crop This is possible, because of the flexibility of the sprinkler
schedules to monthly farm irrigation schedules and to system. However, under surface irrigation it is more
ensure that no overlap occurs among the different crops. difficult to accommodate the optimum schedule. This is
Table 70 provides such a programme for the month of why smallholders tend to apply a fixed frequency
January. irrespective of the crop, and its stage of growth.

Module 4 – 107
Irrigation manual

Table 68
Irrigation programme for cabbages

Interval Hours Hours for Date IRg IRn Starting Finishing

(days) per position 2 positions (mm) (mm) irrigation irrigation*
(1) (2) (3)=(2)x2 (4) (5)=(2)x5.69 (6)=(5)x0.75 (7) (8)
2 1.75 3.5 01 Dec 9.96 7.47 06:00 hours 10.00 hours
2 1.75 3.5 03 Dec 9.96 7.47 06:00 hours 10.00 hours
2 1.75 3.5 05 Dec 9.96 7.47 06:00 hours 10.00 hours
2 1.75 3.5 07 Dec 9.96 7.47 06:00 hours 10.00 hours
4 3.5 7 11 Dec 19.92 14.94 06:00 hours 13.30 hours
4 3.5 7 15 Dec 19.92 14.94 06:00 hours 13.30 hours
4 3.5 7 19 Dec 19.92 14.94 06:00 hours 13.30 hours
4 3.5 7 23 Dec 19.92 14.94 06:00 hours 13.30 hours
4 3.5 7 27 Dec 19.92 14.94 06:00 hours 13.30 hours
4 3.5 7 31 Dec 19.92 14.94 06:00 hours 13.30 hours
6 6.5 13 07 Jan 36.99 27.74 06:00 hours 19.30 hours
6 6.5 13 13 Jan 36.99 27.74 06:00 hours 19.30 hours
6 6.5 13 19 Jan 36.99 27.74 06:00 hours 19.30 hours
6 6.5 13 25 Jan 36.99 27.74 06:00 hours 19.30 hours
6 6.5 13 31 Jan 36.99 27.74 06:00 hours 19.30 hours
6 8 16 07 Feb 45.52 34.14 06:00 hours 22.30 hours
6 8 16 13 Feb 45.52 34.14 06:00 hours 22.30 hours
6 8 16 19 Feb 45.52 34.14 06:00 hours 22.30 hours
6 8 16 25 Feb 45.52 34.14 06:00 hours 22.30 hours
7 8.25 16.5 04 Mar 46.94 35.21 06:00 hours 23.00 hours
7 8.25 16.5 11 Mar 46.94 35.21 06:00 hours 23.00 hours
7 8.25 16.5 18 Mar 46.94 35.21 06:00 hours 23.00 hours
7 8.25 16.5 25 Mar 46.94 35.21 06:00 hours 23.00 hours
7 8.25 16.5 01 Apr 46.94 35.21 06:00 hours 23.00 hours
8 7.5 15 09 Apr 42.67 32.00 06:00 hours 21.30 hours
8 7.5 15 17 Apr 42.67 32.00 06:00 hours 21.30 hours
Total 846.43 634.77

* Assuming 30 minutes between positions to move the sprinklers from one position to the next position

In the above process of preparing the individual crop irrigation was completed, then such an event does not
schedules and the farm irrigation programme, no account contribute to the crop water requirements as it will be lost
was taken of the contribution of rainfall. This is because it to deep percolation. If, however, such an event took place
is impossible to predict when rainfall occurs. There is so just before irrigation is due, then its contribution will be
much variability of the rainfall events, both in terms of time substantial. Again, if the intensity of the rainfall is very high
and amount, that the use of the effective dependable rainfall a large amount of the water will be lost to surface runoff.
calculations can cause serious problems with the irrigation
schedules. To accommodate the contribution of rainfall, the In different countries, rules of thumb have been developed
extension agent and the farmers must firstly ensure daily on the effectiveness of rainfall, based on local observations.
measurements of the rainfall at 8.00 hours using the rain In Zimbabwe, for example, rainfall up to 5 mm is
gauge installed at the site. It is equally important to keep considered as being ineffective in the Highveld and
records on when water was applied to each crop. The Middleveld. In the Lowveld, where evaporation is very high,
question is, how much of this rainfall will be effective? 10 mm of rain is considered as being ineffective. Example
Assuming that substantial rainfall was recorded right after 16 demonstrates the process.

108 – Module 4
 Module 4: Crop water requirements and irrigation scheduling

Table 69
Irrigation programme for rape

Interval Hours Hours for Date IRg IRn Starting Finishing

(days) per position 2 positions (mm) (mm) irrigation irrigation*
(1) (2) (3)=(2)x2 (4) (5)=(2)x5.69 (6)=(5)x0.75 (7) (8)
2 2 4 14 Jan 11.38 8.54 06:00 hours 10.30 hours
2 2 4 16 Jan 11.38 8.54 06:00 hours 10.30 hours
2 2 4 18 Jan 11.38 8.54 06:00 hours 10.30 hours
3 3 6 21 Jan 17.07 12.80 06:00 hours 12.30 hours
3 3 6 24 Jan 17.07 12.80 06:00 hours 12.30 hours
3 3 6 27 Jan 17.07 12.80 06:00 hours 12.30 hours
3 3 6 30 Jan 17.07 12.80 06:00 hours 12.30 hours
4 4.75 9.5 04 Feb 27.03 20.27 06:00 hours 16.00 hours
4 .75 9.5 08 Feb 27.03 20.27 06:00 hours 16.00 hours
4 4.75 9.5 12 Feb 27.03 20.27 06:00 hours 16.00 hours
4 4.75 9.5 16 Feb 27.03 20.27 06:00 hours 16.00 hours
4 4.75 9.5 20 Feb 27.03 20.27 06:00 hours 16.00 hours
4 4.75 9.5 24 Feb 27.03 20.27 06:00 hours 16.00 hours
4 4.75 9.5 28 Feb 27.03 20.27 06:00 hours 16.00 hours
6 6.25 12.5 06 Mar 35.56 26.67 06:00 hours 19.00 hours
6 6.25 12.5 12 Mar 35.56 26.67 06:00 hours 19.00 hours
6 6.25 12.5 18 Mar 35.56 26.67 06:00 hours 19.00 hours
6 6.25 12.5 24 Mar 35.56 26.67 06:00 hours 19.00 hours
6 6.25 12.5 31 Mar 35.56 26.67 06:00 hours 19.00 hours
7 6.5 13 07 Apr 36.99 27.74 06:00 hours 19.30 hours
7 6.5 13 14 Apr 36.99 27.74 06:00 hours 19.30 hours
7 6.5 13 21 Apr 36.99 27.74 06:00 hours 19.30 hours
7 6.5 13 28 Apr 36.99 27.74 06:00 hours 19.30 hours
9 6.5 13 07 May 36.99 27.74 06:00 hours 19.30 hours
Total 654.38 490.76

* Assuming 30 minutes between positions to move the sprinklers from one position to the next position.

Table 70
Farm irrigation programme (0.5 ha holding) for the month of January

Tomatoes Cabbages Rape

Irrigation Completion of Irrigation Completion of Irrigation Completion of
dates irrigationa dates irrigation dates irrigation
05/01 22.30 hours 07/01 19.30 hours
10/01 22.30 hours 13/01 19.30 hours 14/01 10.30
15/01 22.30 hours 19/01 19.30 hours 16/01 10.30
18/01 10.30
20/01 22.30 hours 21/01 12.30
24/01 12.30
25/01*b (26/01)c 22.30 hours 25/01* 19.30 hours 27/01 12.30
30/01* (31/01) 22.30 hours 31/01* (01/02) 19.30 hours 30/01* 12.30

a Irrigation starts at 0.600 hours daily.

b * indicates overlap.
c Irrigation dates between brackets are the corrected dates to avoid overlap.

Module 4 – 109
Irrigation manual

Example 16

Assume that a rainfall of 20 mm occurred in the Highveld of Zimbabwe in January, two days after irrigation was
completed. At the time of this event, tomatoes, cabbage and rape were being grown. The ETc and IF for each crop were:
Tomatoes Cabbages Rape
ETc (mm/day) 6.9 4.8 4.0
IF (days) 5 6 3

For how many days would the next irrigation be delayed for each crop?
Since the first 5 mm of rainfall is not considered as being effective, the potentially effective rainfall is 20 - 5 = 15 mm.
Such an amount would satisfy the water requirements of tomatoes for 2 days (15/6.9 = 2.2), of cabbages for 3 days
(15/4.8 = 3.1) and of rape for 3 days (15/4 = 3.75). Therefore, the next irrigation of each crop can be delayed by the
corresponding number of days (2 for tomatoes, 3 for cabbages and rape).

9.2.3. Manual calculation of the irrigation allocated 0.5 ha, each crop covers a net area of 0.125 ha or
scheduling programme for a surface irrigation system 1 250 m2 per farmer.
The method for preparing irrigation schedules for surface Referring to Table 71, it is noticeable that there is a great
irrigation systems is similar to the one used for the drag- variation in the irrigation frequency and in the required gift
hose sprinkler irrigation system, which was discussed in the (IRn and IRg) from crop to crop, month to month and at
previous section. The only differences are the less efficient times within the same month. This makes the application
water application, associated with surface irrigation of a farm irrigation programme more complicated. To
systems, and the need for relatively higher flows. simplify matters, a monthly average irrigation frequency
and the corresponding average gross gift are used as a basis
Below, an example of irrigation scheduling for a surface
for the preparation of farm and scheme irrigation schedules
irrigation system in Zimbabwe is given. The assumed field
or programmes. Table 72 provides the simplified schedule
application efficiency, Ea, is 50%. The calculations are
for the three crops during the month of June, including the
done in the same way as for the drag-hose sprinkler
contact time (see Module 7).
irrigation system, and Table 71 summarizes the irrigation
frequency IF, the net irrigation requirement IRn and the In order to calculate the duration of irrigation per furrow,
gross irrigation requirement IRg for beans, onions and border strip or basin, the cumulative infiltration rate curve
tomatoes grown during the period of April-September. is required (Figure 33). From this Figure the time the water
Each crop covers a quarter of the area of the scheme. One should be in contact with the soil (contact time) was
quarter of the area is left empty in preparation for green estimated for each crop, as shown in the last column of Table
maize to be planted in October. Since each farmer is 72. For more details the reader is referred to Module 7.

Figure 33
Cumulative infiltration rate curve

110 – Module 4
 Module 4: Crop water requirements and irrigation scheduling

Table 71
Summary irrigation schedule on a monthly basis for the surface irrigation system with Ea = 50%

Beans Onions Tomatoes

Month No. of IF IRn IRg No. of IF IRn IRg No. of IF IRn IRg
Irrig. (days) (mm) (mm) Irrig. (days) (mm) (mm) Irrig. (days) (mm) (mm)
April 1 4 8.0 16.0
2 4 8.0 16.0
3 5 9.8 19.6
4 6 11.5 23.0
5 5 10.7 21.4
6 5 11.0 22.0 1 4 10.5 21.0
May 7 5 13.4 26.8 1 3 6.4 12.8 2 4 10.1 20.2
8 5 14.0 28.0 2 3 6.4 12.8 3 5 12.4 24.8
9 5 15.3 30.6 3 4 8.5 17.0 4 6 14.2 28.4
10 7 21.9 43.8 4 4 7.9 15.8 5 6 13.9 27.8
11 7 22.2 44.4 5 5 9.9 19.8 6 5 12.0 24.0
6 4 8.4 16.4
7 4 8.5 17.0
June 12 7 21.5 43.0 8 4 8.8 17.6 7 6 14.7 29.4
13 7 20.9 41.8 9 4 9.9 19.8 8 6 15.9 31.8
14 7 20.1 40.2 10 4 9.9 19.8 9 6 16.6 33.2
15 7 20.3 40.6 11 4 10.8 21.6 10 6 17.3 34.6
12 4 11.1 22.2 11 9 28.1 56.2
13 4 11.5 23.0
14 4 12.8 25.6
July 16 7 20.4 40.8 15 7 22.8 45.6 12 8 25.8 51.9
17 7 20.5 41.0 16 6 20.5 41.0 13 8 26.5 53.0
18 7 20.7 41.4 17 6 20.9 41.8 14 8 27.3 54.6
19 7 21.5 43.0 18 6 21.1 42.2
19 6 23.1 46.2
August 20 6 23.8 47.6 15 8 28.5 57.0
21 5 20.9 41.8 16 7 25.4 50.8
22 5 21.3 42.6 17 7 25.6 51.2
23 5 22.0 44.0 18 7 25.7 51.4
24 5 22.3 44.6 19 7 26.2 52.4
25 5 22.9 45.8
September 26 5 23.1 46.2
27 5 23.5 47.0
28 5 23.7 47.4
29 5 24.0 48.0
30 5 23.9 47.8

Table 72
Simplified irrigation schedule for beans, onions and tomatoes during the month of June

Crop Irrigation frequency Gross gift (IRg) Contact time

(days) (mm per irrigation)* (minutes)
Beans 7 42 80
Onions 4 21 20
Tomatoes 6 31.5 40

* Rounded.

Module 4 – 111
Irrigation manual

The scheme under consideration covers 15 ha (net area). The figures in the last column of Table 73 demonstrate that
The design flow at the top of the field is 66 l/sec and the not all crops can be irrigated in one day. In fact, it will take
maximum duration of irrigation was set to 10 hours per about 15 hours or 1.5 days to cover all crops.
day. The water flow into the scheme would then be
2 376 m3/day (0.066 m3/sec x 10 hours x 3 600 sec). Assuming a rotational distribution of water among the
Assuming that one quarter of the total area, or 3.75 ha group, and taking into consideration that one farmer can
(15/4), is covered by one crop (which is three quarters of handle 15 siphons, the water will be distributed to a limited
the area, or 11.25 ha, for the three crops) and that one number of farmers at a time. Table 74 presents the
quarter of the total area, or 3.75 ha, is empty, the per crop calculations needed to derive the number of farmers to
daily needed flow and duration of irrigation are calculated irrigate at the same time and for each crop.
as shown in Table 73. Table 75 summarizes the irrigation schedule for the scheme
on a crop by crop basis.
Table 73
Flow rate and duration of irrigation for each crop during the month of June

Crop Area IRg Scheme flow Daily irrigation Irrigation

(ha) (mm) (m3/hr) requirements duration
(m3) (hours/day)
(1) (2) (3) (4)=(1)x(2)x10 (5)=(4)/(3)
Beans 3.75 42 237.6 1 575 6.63
Onions 3.75 21 788 3.32
Tomatoes 3.75 31.5 1,181 4.97

Table 74
Gross irrigation requirement, contact time and number of farmers irrigating at the same time

Crop Area IRg Water Contact time Required flow Scheme Number
(m2) (m) required (min) (l/sec) flow of
(m3) (l/sec) farmers
(1) (2) (3)=(1)x(2) (4) (5)=((3)x1000)/(4) (6) (7)=(6)/(5)
Beans 1 250 0.042 52.50 80 10.9 66 6
Onions 1 250 0.021 26.25 20 21.9 3
Tomatoes 1 250 0.0315 39.38 40 16.4 4

Table 75
Summary irrigation schedule for the month of June

Crop Date of irrigation IRg Duration of irrigation Scheme duration

or contact time of irrigation
(mm) (min) (hours)

Beans 5 June 42 80 6.6

12 June 42 80 6.6
19 June 42 80 6.6
26 June 42 80 6.6

Onions 1 June 21 20 3.3

5 June 21 20 3.3
9 June 21 20 3.3
13 June 21 20 3.3
17 June 21 20 3.3
21 June 21 20 3.3
25 June 21 20 3.3

Tomatoes 1 June 31.5 40 5.0

7 June 31.5 40 5.0
13 June 31.5 40 5.0
19 June 31.5 40 5.0
25 June 31.5 40 5.0

112 – Module 4
 Module 4: Crop water requirements and irrigation scheduling

Even with the simplified approach, at times two crops call deriving these requirements was explained in detail in
for irrigation during the same day. While this is possible to Chapter 4.
accommodate when onions and tomatoes (1 June) or beans
and onions (5 June) overlap, it will not be possible to Rainfall: Depending on the objective of the irrigation
accommodate beans and tomatoes within the same day (19 scheduling, monthly rainfall averages, rainfall at different
June) since the duration of irrigation will exceed the 10 levels of probability, historical data or actual data are used.
hours set at design level. However, farmers can continue Crop data: Data on rooting depth and allowable depletion
irrigating beyond the 10 hours on this particular day and are required. To assess the effect of water stress on yield, the
complete irrigation in 11.6 hours (5 + 6.6). yield response factor is also required (see Chapter 8).
With respect to the rainfall impact on the irrigation Soil data: The soil parameters important for irrigation
schedule, the same approach used for the sprinkler example scheduling and required for irrigation scheduling using the
is also applicable here. FAO CROPWAT programme are described below:
Y Total available soil moisture content (SMta), defined as
9.2.4. Irrigation scheduling using computer
programmes
the difference in soil moisture content between field
capacity (FC) and wilting point (PWP). This is the total
Computerized irrigation scheduling allows for the storage amount of water available to the crop and depends on
and easy transfer of data, easy access to data and texture, structure and organic matter content
calculations using the most advanced and complex methods
for predicting crop evapotranspiration, as has been shown Y Initial soil moisture depletion indicates the dryness of
in Chapter 6 using the FAO CROPWAT model. It has also the soil at the start of irrigation. This is expressed as a
been shown how the computerized programme can easily depletion percentage from FC
access databases for climate and crop characteristics to Y Maximum rooting depth will in most cases be deter-
allow for quick calculations of irrigation water mined by the genetic characteristics of the plant. In some
requirements. Computerized irrigation scheduling has cases the root depth can be restricted by limiting layers
enabled the use of real-time weather data from on-site
Y Maximum rain infiltration rate allows for an estimate of
weather stations to improve efficiency. Having said this, it is
the surface runoff for the effective rain calculation.
important to know that irrigation scheduling programmes
This is a function of rain intensity, soil type and slope
are no better than the data used or the ability of the user to
class
interpret the output.
In Chapter 6, an example was given for the calculation of
The FAO CROPWAT model for irrigation scheduling will
crop water requirements for a 10 ha smallholder irrigation
be elaborated in this section. The programme provides the
scheme to benefit 20 farmers at a site close to Mahalapye
possibility to:
climatic station in Botswana. A cropping pattern (Table 32)
Y Develop and plan indicative irrigation schedules and crop rotation programme (Table 33) were developed
Y Evaluate field irrigation programmes in terms of together with the farmers and the crop water requirements
efficiency of water use and yield reduction were calculated using CROPWAT. This example will be
carried forward to use the data generated for the irrigation
Y Simulate field irrigation programmes under water scheduling on this scheme, using CROPWAT.
deficiency conditions, rainfed conditions,
supplementary irrigation, etc. Crop data, crop water requirements and effective rainfall
were explained and calculated in Chapter 6. The soil data
Data required
for the same example are:

The water balance method is used for calculation of Y Total available soil moisture content (SMta): 140
irrigation schedules in CROPWAT, which means that the mm/m (medium soil)
incoming and outgoing water flows from the soil profile are Y Maximum rooting depth: set at 900 cm (a default value
monitored. For the irrigation scheduling, the programme to indicate no limitations).
requires data on crop evapotranspiration, rainfall, crop data
Y Maximum rain infiltration rate: set at 40mm/day
and soil data.
Y Initial soil moisture depletion: 0% (soil assumed to be
Crop evapotranspiration or crop water requirements: This is fully wetted)
defined as the daily water needs of the crop. The process of

Module 4 – 113
Irrigation manual

CROPWAT will provide a summary of the inputs on soil data in the way presented in Table 76.

Table 76
Soil data

SOIL DATA
Soil type: Medium
Total available soil moisture (TAM) : 140.0 mm/m
Maximum rain infiltration rate : 40 mm/day
Maximum rooting depth : 900 cm
Initial soil moisture depletion (% TAM) : 0 %
(-> Initial available soil mositure : 140.0 mm/m)
CROPWAT 7.0 Soil file: D:\CROPWAT7.0\SOI\MEDIUM.SOI 30/09/02

Irrigation scheduling options Option 4 (for practical irrigation): Irrigation water is applied on
CROPWAT allows a range of options, depending on the fixed interval turns. This method is most suitable for
objective of the user and the design restrictions that the surface irrigation systems with rotational water
irrigation system imposes. The scheduling options refer to distribution. It is an easy-to-implement method that has
two different categories: been used in several smallholder schemes. For example,
Musikavanhu irrigation scheme in Zimbabwe schedules
Y Timing options – related to WHEN irrigation is to be irrigation at 7-day intervals. However, this option may
applied result in some over-irrigation in the initial stages and
Y Application options – HOW MUCH water is to be under-irrigation in the peak season.
given per irrigation turn
Option 5 (for practical irrigation): Irrigation water is applied
whenever a predetermined amount of water has been
Timing options depleted, thus allowing a fixed water application at each
The user can select from eight options: one for evaluation turn.
and simulation, two for optimal irrigation, two for practical
irrigation, two for deficit irrigation and one for rainfed Option 6 (for deficit irrigation): Irrigation water is applied
conditions. whenever a critical reduction in evapotranspiration is
reached, predetermined by user for each stage in
Option 1 (for evaluation and simulation): Defined by the user, percentage of the reduction in evaporation:
who decides when irrigation has to take place, based on
Equation 29
historical irrigation dates from actual field data or simulated
dates. This option is to evaluate irrigation practices, to ETa
simulate any alternative irrigation schedule and, in Deficit = 100 x 1 -
ETmax
particular, to refine irrigation schedules developed through
the use of other options. Where:
ETa = Actual evapotranspiration (ETc adj)
Option 2 (for optimal irrigation): Irrigation is exercised when ETmax = Crop evapotranspiration (ETc)
readily available moisture (SMra) is depleted. It is defined as
100% SMra (or RAM, the expression used in CROPWAT). Option 7 (for deficit irrigation): Irrigation water is applied
This is the most common way to schedule irrigations. It whenever a critical yield reduction level is reached,
results in minimum irrigations, but also in irregular intervals determined by sensitivity of growing stage (see Chapter 8).
and may thus not be easy to implement in the field.
Option 8 (for rainfed conditions): No irrigation is applied.
Option 3 (for optimal irrigation): Irrigation will take place This option allows for the evaluation of the rainfall
when soil moisture reaches a defined percentage of readily- impact as related to the crop water requirements. It gives
available moisture. It is used to set a safety moisture level to a 10-day overview of deficit, evapotranspiration and
allow for possible delays to irrigation (80% SMra) or to rainfall losses.
allow for a stress level for agronomic reasons (120% SMra).

114 – Module 4
 Module 4: Crop water requirements and irrigation scheduling

Application options Column 9: Deficit indicates the soil moisture depletion

level after irrigation:
The user can select from four options: one for evaluation
A zero value represents a refill to field
and simulation, two for optimal irrigation and one for
capacity
practical irrigation.
A positive value represents an under-
Option 1 (for evaluation and simulation): The user determines irrigation, equal to the amount needed to
the application depth at each turn. This option is combined refill the root to field capacity
with Timing Option 1, described earlier. Column 10: Loss is the excess of water lost to deep
Option 2 (for optimal irrigation): The application depth will percolation of any irrigation depth or rain
bring soil moisture content back to field capacity. The exceeding refill to field capacity
depth applied will be equal to the depleted soil moisture in Column12: The flow is calculated based on IRg (Column
the root zone. The application depth will vary, as the season 11)
progresses, with changing root depth and allowable
depletion levels at each growth stage. Referring to Tables 77-79, it is noticeable that CROPWAT
scheduling provides detailed irrigation schedules in
Option 3 (for optimal irrigation): The application depth will addition to other information relevant to irrigation.
bring moisture levels to a fixed amount below or above
field capacity. It is useful to allow for leaching for salinity It provides information on the potential water use by
control (application larger than field capacity) or to crop, which is the ETc, and it compares it with the actual
accommodate possible rainfall (application lower than water used by the crop. In the above examples, where the
field capacity). optimum option (Option 2) was adopted, both the actual
and the potential water use by the crop is the same. If
Option 4 (for practical irrigation): Where irrigation is restricted however, deficit irrigation was opted for (Option 6 or 7),
by conditions set by the irrigation system, application depth then the actual water use would be less than the potential
is fixed by the user and is normally adapted to the irrigation use.
method. This option is normally used for most surface
irrigation systems, where it is not easy to vary application The contribution of rainfall to the crop water requirements
depths. is assessed by providing information on the amount of
rainfall, the effective rainfall, the rain lost and the efficiency
of rain. The efficiency of rain is derived by dividing the
Example of irrigation scheduling for a drag-hose
sprinkler irrigation system effective rain by the total rain. The actual irrigation
requirement is the actual water use by the crop minus the
The example of the drag-hose sprinkler irrigation system in effective rainfall.
Section 9.2.2 will also be used to do the irrigation
scheduling using CROPWAT. The irrigation efficiency is At the end of the season some water is left in the soil
75% and Timing Option 2 is used. Soil data are given in profile. It is expressed as soil moisture deficit at harvest,
Table 76. The results for tomatoes, cabbages and rape are representing the soil moisture depletion at the end of the
presented in Tables 77-79. The meaning of the different season. It provides a check as to whether the last irrigation
columns in the tables is as follows: was really needed. The total net irrigation (IRn, or NetGift
in the tables) equals the actual irrigation requirement
Column 4: Crop stage in which irrigation occurs:
minus the moisture deficit at harvest. The total gross
A = Initial phase
irrigation (IRg, or Gr.Gift in the tables) is the IRn divided
B = Development stage
by the field application efficiency (Ea).
C = Mid-season
D = Late season The scheduling efficiency is calculated, by the software,
Column 5: P as % of SMta in the water balance as water lost due to deep percolation
and is a consequence of inadequate scheduling. Yield
Column 6: TX = Actual evapotranspiration rate on the reduction is also provided on the printout, representing
day before irrigation, in % of ETc reduction in yield due to soil moisture stress.
Column 7: Average actual evapotranspiration calculated
over the irrigation interval period, in % of ETc

Module 4 – 115
Irrigation manual

Table 77
Irrigation scheduling for tomato from CROPWAT 7.0

IRRIGATION SCHEDULING
Rain station : MAHALAPYE Crop : TOMATOES
Eto station : MAHALAPYE Soil : Medium
Planting date : 1 November Total Soil Moist : 140 mm/m
Init Soil Moist : 140 mm/m
Timing : At critical depletion (100% RAM)
Application : Refill up to Field Capacity Field Efficiency : 75%
No. Int. Date Stage Deplet. TX ETa NetGift Deficit Loss Gr.Gift Flow
Irr. days % % % mm mm mm mm l/s/ha
1 6 7 Nov A 48 100 100 15.7 0.0 0.0 20.9 0.40
2 4 11 Nov A 44 100 100 15.7 0.0 0.0 20.9 0.60
3 10 21 Nov A 45 100 100 19.6 0.0 0.0 26.1 0.30
4 11 2 Dec B 48 100 100 24.6 0.0 0.0 32.8 0.35
5 10 12 Dec B 49 100 100 29.3 0.0 0.0 39.0 0.45
6 10 22 Dec B 53 100 100 35.3 0.0 0.0 47.1 0.54
7 9 31 Dec C 51 100 100 35.4 0.0 0.0 47.2 0.61
8 10 10 Jan C 52 100 100 36.2 0.0 0.0 48.2 0.56
9 10 20 Jan C 53 100 100 37.4 0.0 0.0 49.8 0.58
10 10 30 Jan C 52 100 100 36.6 0.0 0.0 48.8 0.56
11 8 7 Feb D 51 100 100 35.5 0.0 0.0 47.3 0.68
12 6 13 Feb D 50 100 100 35.3 0.0 0.0 47.0 0.91
13 10 23 Feb D 54 100 100 37.5 0.0 0.0 50.0 0.58
END 22 16 Mar D 33 100 100
Total Gross Irrigation 525.1 mm Total Rainfall 374.5 mm
Total Net Irrigation 393.8 mm Effective Rain 285.0 mm
Total Irrigation Losses 0.0 mm Total Rain Loss 89.5 mm
Moist Deficit at harvest 23.0 mm

Actual Water use by Crop 701.8 mm Actual Irrig. Req. 416.8 mm

Potential Water use by Crop 701.8 mm

Efficiency Irrigation Schedule 100.0 % Efficiency Rain 76.1 %

Deficiency Irrigation Schedule 0.0 %

No yield reductions

CROPWAT 7.0 30/09/02

A simple comparison between the manual and the Another element to be considered in preparing irrigation
computerized irrigation schedules, for the three crops schedules for individual crops is that at the end an overall
under consideration, shows that under both methods the farm or scheme irrigation programme is required.
total IRn and IRg are very close, as summarized in Table 80. CROPWAT 7.0 does not provide for the amalgamation of
It should be noted, however, that no rainfall was the individual crop schedules to a scheme schedule. This
incorporated in the manual schedule. Hence, for the must be done manually.
purpose of this comparison, the actual water use by crop of
CROPWAT will be considered as IRn. Also in the manual In view of the above, it is recommended that where possible
calcualtion the IRn and IRg were calculated after the CROPWAT be used for the preparation of the individual
duration of irrigation and the irrigation frequency were crop irrigation schedules and the scheme irrigation
rounded. programme is prepared manually. This is the least time-
consuming process.

116 – Module 4
 Module 4: Crop water requirements and irrigation scheduling

Table 78
Irrigation scheduling for cabbage from CROPWAT 7.0

IRRIGATION SCHEDULING
Rain station : MAHALAPYE Crop : CABBAGES
Eto station : MAHALAPYE Soil : Medium
Planting date : 1 December Total Soil Moist : 140 mm/m
Init Soil Moist : 140 mm/m
Timing : At critical depletion (100% RAM)
Application : Refill up to Field Capacity Field Efficiency : 75%
No. Int. Date Stage Deplet. TX ETa NetGift Deficit Loss Gr.Gift Flow
Irr. days % % % mm mm mm mm l/s/ha
1 6 7 Dec A 48 100 100 15.1 0.0 0.0 20.2 0.39
2 4 11 Dec A 44 100 100 15.1 0.0 0.0 20.2 0.58
3 11 22 Dec A 46 100 100 18.7 0.0 0.0 24.9 0.26
4 10 1 Jan B 42 100 100 19.5 0.0 0.0 26.0 0.30
5 11 12 Jan B 44 100 100 23.2 0.0 0.0 30.9 0.33
6 10 22 Jan B 47 100 100 28.1 0.0 0.0 37.5 0.43
7 10 1 Feb B 49 100 100 31.9 0.0 0.0 42.6 0.49
8 11 12 Feb C 51 100 100 35.7 0.0 0.0 47.6 0.50
9 10 22 Feb C 52 100 100 36.3 0.0 0.0 48.4 0.56
10 16 10 Mar C 51 100 100 35.6 0.0 0.0 47.5 0.34
11 16 26 Mar D 50 100 100 35.3 0.0 0.0 47.0 0.34
12 12 7 Apr D 55 100 100 38.7 0.0 0.0 51.6 0.50
13 12 19 Apr D 54 100 100 37.6 0.0 0.0 50.2 0.48
END 2 20 Apr D 5 100 100
Total Gross Irrigation 494.6 mm Total Rainfall 361.1 mm
Total Net Irrigation 370.9 mm Effective Rain 261.8 mm
Total Irrigation Losses 0.0 mm Total Rain Loss 99.4 mm
Moist Deficit at harvest 3.6 mm

Actual Water use by Crop 636.3 mm Actual Irrig. Req. 374.5 mm

Potential Water use by Crop 636.3 mm

Efficiency Irrigation Schedule 100.0 % Efficiency Rain 72.5 %

Deficiency Irrigation Schedule 0.0 %

No yield reductions
CROPWAT 7.0 30/09/02

Module 4 – 117
Irrigation manual

Table 79
Irrigation scheduling for rape from CROPWAT 7.0

IRRIGATION SCHEDULING
Rain station : MAHALAPYE Crop : RAPE
Eto station : MAHALAPYE Soil : Medium
Planting date : 15 January Total Soil Moist : 140 mm/m
Init. Soil Moist : 140 mm/m
Timing : At critical depletion (100% RAM)
Application : Refill up to Field Capacity Field Efficiency : 75%
No. Int. Date Stage Deplet. TX ETa NetGift Deficit Loss Gr.Gift Flow
Irr. days % % % mm mm mm mm l/s/ha
1 6 21 Jan A 50 100 100 16.0 0.0 0.0 21.4 0.41
2 6 27 Jan A 43 100 100 15.7 0.0 0.0 21.0 0.40
3 4 31 Jan A 40 100 100 15.7 0.0 0.0 21.0 0.61
4 12 12 Feb B 49 100 100 23.2 0.0 0.0 30.9 0.30
5 10 22 Feb B 52 100 100 28.6 0.0 0.0 38.2 0.44
6 13 7 Mar C 55 100 100 30.8 0.0 0.0 41.1 0.37
7 6 13 Mar C 50 100 100 28.2 0.0 0.0 37.6 0.73
8 10 23 Mar C 55 100 100 30.6 0.0 0.0 40.8 0.47
9 10 2 Apr D 56 100 100 31.3 0.0 0.0 41.7 0.48
10 10 12 Apr D 51 100 100 28.6 0.0 0.0 38.1 0.44
11 10 22 Apr D 52 100 100 29.4 0.0 0.0 39.2 0.45
12 11 3 May D 54 100 100 30.3 0.0 0.0 40.4 0.43
13 12 15 May D 55 100 100 30.7 0.0 0.0 41.0 0.40
END 1 15 May D 0 100 100
Total Gross Irrigation 452.4 mm Total Rainfall 241.0 mm
Total Net Irrigation 339.3 mm Effective Rain 146.4 mm
Total Irrigation Losses 0.0 mm Total Rain Loss 94.7 mm
Moist Deficit at harvest 3.6 mm

Actual Water use by Crop 485.7 mm Actual Irrig. Req. 339.3 mm

Potential Water use by Crop 485.7 mm

Efficiency Irrigation Schedule 100.0 % Efficiency Rain 60.7 %

Deficiency Irrigation Schedule 0.0 %

No yield reductions
CROPWAT 7.0 30/09/02

Table 80
Total net and gross irrigation requirements derived from manual and CROPWAT irrigation schedules

Crop Manual irrigation schedule CROPWAT irrigation schedule

Total IRn Total IRg Total IRn Total IRg
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
Tomatoes 728.6 971.6 701.8 935.7
Cabbages 634.8 846.4 636.3 848.4
Rape 490.8 654.4 485.7 647.6

118 – Module 4
 Module 4: Crop water requirements and irrigation scheduling

9.3. Variations in scheme irrigation rotation schedules are seldom adequate, even during peak
scheduling demand periods.
The three basic components of a scheme schedule are:
Varied frequency rotation
Y The delivery flow rate to the various canals within the
system In this variable interval-fixed amount scheduling method,
flow rate and irrigation duration remain constant but the
Y The delivery frequency or timing of the deliveries irrigation frequency is modified. This type of schedule
Y The duration of the deliveries represents a significant improvement over the fixed rotation
type. The interval is generally varied in accordance with the
The schedule selected is a function of delivery system changing water use of the crops in the scheme. For example,
flexibility and farm irrigation requirements. The more irrigations may be scheduled to occur when a fixed average
flexible on-demand irrigation delivery systems may allow deficit has built up in the scheme area. Monocrop and
the farmer to specify flow rate, irrigation frequency and/or perennial crop schemes are ideally suited for this type of
duration. The more rigid ones, such as rotational systems, schedule, provided that soils and climatic conditions in the
may have severe restraints on any of the components. scheme are similar. The method is suited to deep-rooted
Characteristics of some scheduling variations are described crops and soils with high water-holding capacities. Some
below. advantages of this system are that irrigation systems
(especially surface systems) are easily designed and operated
9.3.1. Rigid schedules for a fixed or constant depth of water application. High
This schedule is usually predetermined by the scheme by- efficiencies are possible in early and late season (in contrast
laws, scheme policy, or other means. The schedule is often to the previous method). The disadvantages of this method
determined before the start of the irrigation season-based are that schemes with a variety of crops, planting dates and
on historical crop water requirements, or simply by soil types may not permit the efficiency benefits to be realized
allocating expected water supplies proportionally to land without severe consequences for yields. Even with uniform
ownership or other criteria. Some kind of rotational crops and planting dates, such a schedule may result in
schedule is usually implied. Capital costs are the least with problems during germination and crop emergence unless
this type of schedule, as canals and structures are designed additional irrigations are planned to insure germination and
for continuous supply at peak demand periods. plant emergence (for example, in the case of soil crusting).
This method does not account for changing soil water
reservoir or sensitivity of crops through the season. Improved
9.3.2. Rotational schedules
communications between the irrigation management
Fixed rotation committee and water baillifs and farmers is required.
This schedule implies a fixed flow rate, fixed irrigation
frequency and fixed duration. It is a type of fixed interval- Varied rate rotation
fixed amount schedule. Intervals are, for example, weekly, In this type of fixed interval-variable amount scheduling
bi-weekly or monthly. The irrigation interval and amount method, irrigation frequency and duration are fixed and the
are often determined by the peak use period on a scheme. flow rate is varied to approximate seasonal demands.
The average allowable depletion (P) at peak use periods, Monocrop or perennial crop areas with deep uniform soils
along with application and distribution efficiencies, are best suited for this schedule. As with the varied frequency
determines the amount of water delivery. system, this method may result in greater efficiencies than
with fixed rotations, as over-applications early and late in the
This type of schedule is easy to administer from a schematic
season are minimized. However, small stream sizes are often
point of view. Very little communication, planning, or
difficult to manage in farm and scheme canals. Flow control
monitoring is required as compared to other systems.
structures must be capable of adjustment to the required
Canals are easy to design and operate for the fixed flow rate
rates. As surface irrigation systems are most efficiently
and durations. However, except at peak, the supply does
operated for fixed application depths, this may also present a
not equal demand and efficiencies are low early and late in
problem for farm-level management. The farmer must
the season. The excessive water applied early and late in the
generally become a better water manager to deal with the
season may result in nutrient leaching, waterlogging, and
efficient application of variable rate and amounts. Again,
salinity problems. Since cropping patterns, soils, and even
communication from the irrigation management committee
climatic conditions may vary widely in a scheme, fixed
down to farm-level must be adequate.

Module 4 – 119
Irrigation manual

Varied duration rotation Varied duration and frequency rotation

In this fixed interval-variable amount scheduling method, the This combination results in a variable interval-variable
flow rate and frequency are fixed, but delivery durations vary amount schedule, which is theoretically in tune with
through the season in tune with irrigation demands. Again, scheme crop water requirements. Frequencies should be
conditions should be similar through the scheme in terms of established with respect for the crop’s requiring the shorter
crops and soils. Flow rates are constant and manageable from intervals, if possible. Again, similarity in cropping patterns
farm to scheme levels. For surface irrigation systems, which and soils between various parts of the scheme is important.
can best be operated by applying a fixed depth of water, The fixed rate allows fixed-rate delivery structures to be
farmers may be able to irrigate only part of their farm at any efficiently operated. Efficiencies can be maximized
one delivery. They must learn to sequence their irrigations throughout the season if the farmers can develop the
between different fields and crops as the need arises. If the flexibility and knowledge to apply variable depths, or to
farmers learn to manage their variable durations, significant allocate the available water to their various crops and fields
improvements in efficiency may result early and late season throughout the season. This method also requires very
without adverse yield consequences. Communicating the good communication from scheme to farm/plot-level.
irrigation durations down to farm-level is a key element in
this approach. 9.3.3. Flexible schedules
In a flexible schedule, the farmer has control of one or
Varied frequency and rate rotation
more of the three scheduling components. The degree of
In this variable interval-variable amount scheduling flexibility is dependent on the system design and the
method, only the irrigation duration is fixed and the management capabilities at scheme-level. Compromises
intervals are varied in tune with crop water needs. In between the farmers’ needs and capabilities of the delivery
theory, this method would result in high efficiencies and system are generally required. On the systems with greatest
high yields, as the crop’s needs should be matched in terms flexibility, over-sizing of canals, offline reservoirs, and
of both timing and amount. However, this requires similar automation may be required to meet demand and to avoid
crops and conditions throughout the scheme area if spillage and overtopping. On the less flexible systems (for
frequency and rate are to be varied similarly throughout the example, restricted/arranged), the main requirements are
scheme. It requires increased sophistication by the farmers, adequate system capacities and control, along with good
whose crops must fit a scheme pattern. They must also have communication between farmers and water authorities.
the flexibility and knowledge to allocate water deliveries in
time, place and amount on their farm. Gates and control
9.3.4. On-demand irrigation
structures must be capable of handling variable flow rates.
Increased communication is required from scheme to plot- On-demand irrigation imposes no limits on rate, frequency,
level. or duration of water delivery. This type of schedule implies
that the water authorities impose no external controls on
Varied duration and rate rotation the water use. The system capacity is designed based on
certain assumptions, for example the probability that
This fixed interval-variable amount scheduling method sets maximum 85% of the farmers irrigate at the same time.
only the irrigation frequency. This method should Although this system is often ideal from the farmer’s point
theoretically, result in high efficiencies. It would, however, of view, sometimes the economics of scheme
result in adverse yield consequences, except with perennial or implementation cannot justify such a system.
monocrop systems, or perhaps with deep-rooted crops on
soils with high water-holding capacities. This system has the Variations of on-demand irrigation, used mostly with
same limitations as the varied rate or duration systems. Flow pressurized systems, can improve the economics of such
structures must be capable of handling variable rates. It is systems. For example, limits are sometimes imposed on the
difficult to plan and administer this schedule at scheme-level. flow rate and the pressure. Also at times the probability
The farmer must have a flexible farm system in terms of level can be based on a small group of farmers rather than
application depths, and must have the knowledge to apply individual farmers. Farmers would then be expected to
water in tune with crop requirements if the duration and rate rotate irrigation among themselves within each group. Such
are to be dictated at scheme-level. Again, good an arrangement would then be considered as a combination
communication from scheme to farm-level is required. of a flexible and a rigid schedule.

120 – Module 4
 References

Butling, F and Makadho J. 1991. Estimating crop water requirements: comparative analysis between the Modified Penmann method and
the Pan Evaporation method used in Zimbabwe. Department of AGRITEX, Zimbabwe.
Department of Meteorological Services, Zimbabwe. 1978. Climatological summaries: Zimbabwe, Climate handbook supplement no. 5.
FAO. 1984. Crop water requirements. By: J. Doorenbos and W.O. Pruitt. FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper 24. Rome, Italy.
FAO. 1985. Water quality for agriculture. By: R.S. Ayers and D.W. Westcot. FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper 29 Rev. 1. Rome,
Italy.
FAO. 1986. Yield response to water. By: J. Doorenbos and A.H. Kassam. FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper 33. Rome, Italy.
FAO. 1992. CROPWAT: A computer program for irrigation planning and management. Developed by: Martin Smith. FAO
Irrigation and Drainage Paper 46. Rome, Italy.
FAO. 1993. CLIMWAT for CROPWAT: A climatic database for irrigation planning and management. Developed by: Martin
Smith. FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper 49. Rome, Italy.
FAO. 1998a. Crop evapotranspiration: Guidelines for computing crop water requirements. By: Richard Allen, Luis Pereira,
Dirk Raes and Martin Smith. FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper 56. Rome, Italy.
FAO. 1998b. Guidelines for investigation, design, construction and management of irrigation schemes. Prepared by: FAO
TCP/BOT/4451 and FAO UTF/BOT/010/BOT.
Hansen, V.E. and Israelsen, O.W. 1967. Irrigation principles and practice.
Metelerkarmp, H.R.R. 1968. The use of evaporation pans for irrigation control. Rhodesia Agricultural Journal, Volume 65, No.2.
New Mexico State University. 1999. Soil water potential tutorial. Department of Agronomy and Horticulture. Soil Physics
Laboratory.
Savva, A.P., Sager, M., Thanki, M., Awrtani, M. and Fathi, M. 1984. Irrigation practices in relation to crop response, water use and
soil salinity.
Taylor, A.S. and Ashcroft, G.L. 1972. Physical edaphology: The physics of irrigated and non-irrigated soils. W.H. Freemand and Co.
USDA. 1991. National Engineering handbook Section 15, Irrigation.
USDA. 1997. National Engineering Handbook Part 652, Irrigation Guide. September 1997.
Watermeyer, J.M. 1980. Evaporation pans: their value to farmers. Cattle World, July 1980.

Module 4 – 121
 Irrigation Manual
Module 5

Irrigation Pumping Plant

Developed by

Andreas P. SAVVA
and
Karen FRENKEN

Water Resources Development and Management Officers

FAO Sub-Regional Office for East and Southern Africa

In collaboration with

Simon MADYIWA, Irrigation Engineer Consultant

Kennedy MUDIMA, National Irrigation Programme Officer, Zimbabwe
Tove LILJA, Associate Professional Officer, FAO-SAFR
Victor MTHAMO, Irrigation Engineer Consultant

Harare, 2001
 Contents
List of figures v
List of tables vi
List of abbreviations vii
1. INTRODUCTION 1
2. TOTAL DYNAMIC HEAD OR TOTAL PUMPING HEAD 5
2.1. Static suction head and static suction lift 5
2.2. Static discharge head 5
2.3. Total static head 5
2.4. Friction head 6
2.5. Pressure head 6
2.6. Velocity head 6
2.7. Drawdown 6
3. TYPES OF PUMPS AND PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION 7
3.1. Radial flow pumps 7
3.1.1. Volute pumps 7
3.1.2. Diffuser or turbine pumps 7
3.2. Axial flow pumps 14
3.3. Mixed flow pumps 14
3.4. Jet pumps 14
3.5. Positive displacement pumps 14
3.5.1. Manual pumps 14
3.5.2. Motorized pumps 17
4. PUMP CHARACTERISTICS CURVES 19
4.1. Total dynamic head versus discharge (TDH-Q) 19
4.2. Efficiency versus discharge (EFF-Q) 20
4.3. Brake or input power versus discharge (BP-Q) 20
4.4. Net positive suction head required versus discharge (NPSHR-Q) 20
4.4.1. Cavitation 20
4.5. Pumps in series 22
4.6. Pumps in parallel 22
5. SPEED VARIATION 25
6. PUMP SELECTION 27
7. POWER UNITS 31
7.1. Electric motors 31
7.2. Diesel engines 31
7.3. Power transmission 32
7.3.1. Overall derating 32
8. ENERGY REQUIREMENTS 33
9. THE SITING AND INSTALLATION OF A PUMP 37
9.1. Siting of pump station 37
9.2. Installation of a pump 37

Module 5 – iii
Irrigation manual

9.2.1. Coupling 37
9.2.2. Grouting 37
9.2.3. Suction pipe 37
9.2.4. Discharge pipe 39
10. WATER HAMMER PHENOMENON 41
10.1. Effect of temperature 43
10.2. Effect of pipe material and the relationship between pipe diameter and wall thickness 43
10.3. Design and management considerations in dealing with water hammer 45
11. OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE OF PUMPING UNITS 47
11.1. Pump start-up and shut-down 47
11.1.1. Priming 47
11.1.2. Starting the pump 47
11.1.3. Stopping the pump 47
11.2. Pump malfunctions, causes and remedies (troubleshooting) 48
REFERENCES 49

iv – Module 5
 List of figures
1. Sub-classification of pump types as a function of operating head and discharge 1
2. Schematic classification of pump types by the State Electricity Commission in 1965 2
3. Schematic classification of pump types by the Hydraulic Institute in 1983 3
4. Components of total dynamic head 5
5. Cross-section of a centrifugal pump 7
6. Pump impellers and volute casing 8
7. Classification of volute pumps based on impeller proportions 8
8. Parts of bowl assembly 9
9. Different drive configurations 10
10. Electrically driven turbine pump 11
11. Cross-section through a submersible pump and submersible motor 12
12. An example of a jet pump 13
13. Basic principles of positive displacement pumps 14
14. Hand pump with single acting bucket and piston 15
15. Double acting pressure treadle pump 16
16. Discharge-head relationship for pressure treadle pump (based on Table 1) 16
17. Double acting non-pressure treadle pump 17
18. Mono pump 18
19. Pump characteristic curves 19
20. Schematic presentation of Net Positive Suction Head Available (NPSHA) 21
21. TDH-Q curve for two pumps operating in series 22
22. TDH-Q curve for two pumps operating in parallel 22
23. Pump characteristic curves 25
24. Effect of speed change on centrifugal pump performance 26
25a. Performance curve of a pump 28
25b. Performance curve of a pump 29
26. Rating curves for engine 32
27. Foundation of a pumping unit and the reinforcement requirements 38
28. Pressure surge caused by water hammer after sudden valve closure 44

Module 5 –v
 List of tables
1. Pressure treadle pump test analysis 15
2. Variation of vapour pressure with temperature 20
3. Comparison of the energy requirements for the three irrigation systems for different static lifts 36
4. Temperature service rating factors for PVC and PE pipes 43
5. Recommended maximum surge heads for PVC pipes of different classes 43
6. Pump problems, causes and corrections 48

vi – Module 5
 List of abbreviations
AC Asbestos Cement
ASAE American Society of Agricultural Engineers
BP Brake Power
d inside pipe diameter
e vapour pressure of water
E Efficiency
E Elasticity of pipe material
EFF Efficiency
fps feet per second
g gravitational force
g gallon
H Head
HP Horse Power
Kpa Kilopascal
kW kilowatt
L Length
N Speed
NPSHA Net Positive Suction Head Available
NPSHR Net Positive Suction Head Required
P Pressure
PE Polyethylen
PVC Polyvinyl Chloride
Q Discharge
rpm revolutions per minute
SEC State Electricity Commission
t pipe wall thickness
T Time
TDH Total Dynamic Head
uPVC unplasticized Polyvinyl Chloride
V Velocity
WP Water Power
Z Elevation
ZITC Zimbabwe Irrigation Technology Centre

Module 5 –vii
 Chapter 1
Introduction

Most irrigation pumps fall within the category of pumps Longenbaugh and Duke (1980) classify pumps into:
that use kinetic principles, that is centrifugal force or
Y Vertical turbine and centrifugal pumps
momentum, in transferring energy. This category includes
pumps such as centrifugal pumps, vertical turbine pumps, Y Propeller or axial flow pumps
submersible pumps and jet pumps. Most of these pumps Y Mixed flow pumps
operate within a range of discharge and head where the
discharge will vary as the head fluctuates. Y Positive displacement pumps
The second category of pumps is that of positive Figure 1 shows this classification as a function of the total
displacement pumps, whereby the fluid is displaced by operating head and discharge. The schematic classification
mechanical devices such as pistons, plungers and screws. employed by the State Electricity Commission (SEC) is
Mono pumps, treadle pumps and most of the manual shown in Figure 2 and the one employed by the Hydraulic
pumps fall into this category. Institute in Figure 3.
Allahwerdi (1986) calls the first category of pumps turbo Positive displacement pumps are as a rule suitable for small
pumps and depending on the type of discharge subdivides discharges and high heads and the head is independent of
these pumps into: the pump speed. Some types of these pumps should only be
Y Radial flow pumps (centrifugal action) used with water free of sediments. The vertical turbine and
the centrifugal pumps fit conditions of moderately small to
Y Axial flow pumps (propeller-type action)
high discharges and moderately low to high heads. These
Y Mixed flow pumps (variation of both) are the most commonly used pumps in irrigation. They can
operate with reasonable amounts of sediments, but
It should be noted that Allahwerdi's classification does not
periodic replacement of impellers and volute casing should
include positive displacement pumps.

Figure 1
Sub-classification of pump types as a function of operating head and discharge (Adapted from
Longenbaugh and Duke, 1980)

Module 5 – 1
Irrigation manual

be anticipated. Turbine pumps are more susceptible to discharges, and moderately high heads. They have the same
sediments than centrifugal pumps. Mixed flow pumps susceptibility to sediments as do centrifugal pumps. Axial
cover a good range, from moderately large to large flow pumps are suitable for low heads and large discharges.

Figure 2
Schematic classification of pump types by the State Electricity Commission in 1965 (Source: T-Tape, 1994)

2– Module 5
 Module 5: Irrigation pumping plant

Figure 3
Schematic classification of pump types by the Hydraulic Institute in 1983 (Source: T-Tape, 1994)

Module 5 – 3
 Chapter 2
Total dynamic head or total pumping head

Head is the expression of the potential energy imparted to 2.2. Static discharge head
a liquid to move it from one level to another. Total dynamic
This is the vertical distance or difference in elevation
head or total pumping head is the head that the pump is
between the point at which water leaves the impeller and
required to impart to a fluid in order to meet the head
the point at which water leaves the system, for example the
requirement of a particular system, whether this be a town
outlet of the highest sprinkler in an overhead irrigation
water supply system or an irrigation system. The total
system.
dynamic head is made up of static suction lift or static
suction head, static discharge head, total static head,
required pressure head, friction head and velocity head. 2.3. Total static head
Figure 4 shows the various components making up the total When no water is flowing (static conditions), the head
dynamic head. required to move a drop of water from a (water source) to
b (the highest sprinkler or outlet point) is equal to the total
2.1. Static suction head or static suction static head. This is simply the difference in elevation
lift between where we want the water and where it is now.
When a pump is installed such that the level of the water For systems with the water level above the pump, the total
source is above the eye of the impeller (flooded suction), static head is the difference between the elevations of the
then the system is said to have a positive suction head at the water and the sprinkler (Figure 4a).
eye of the impeller. However, when the pump is installed
Total Static Head = Static Discharge Head – Static
above the water source, the vertical distance from the Suction Head
surface of the water to the eye of the impeller is called the
static suction lift. For systems where the water level is below the pump, the

Figure 4
Components of total dynamic head (Source: Australia Irrigation Association, 1998)

Module 5 – 5
Irrigation manual

total static head is the static discharge head plus the static Equation 1
suction lift (Figure 4b).
V2
Velocity Head =
Total Static Head = Static Discharge Head + Static 2g
Suction Lift
Where:
2.4. Friction head V = the velocity of the water (m/s)
When water flows through a pipe, the pressure decreases g = the gravitational force which is equal to
because of the friction against the walls of the pipe. 9.81 (m/s2)
Therefore, the pump needs to provide the necessary energy
to the water to overcome the friction losses. The losses Keller and Bliesner (1990) recommend that for centrifugal
must be considered both for the suction part and the pumps the diameter of the suction pipe should be selected
discharge part of the pump. The magnitude of the friction such that the water velocity V < 3.3 m/s in order to assure
head can be calculated using either hydraulic formulae or good pump performance. Assuming this maximum velocity
tables and graphs. for the flow and applying the above formula, then the
velocity head corresponding to the minimum diameter of
2.5. Pressure head the suction pipe that can be selected to satisfy this condition
is 0.56 m/sec (3.32/(2 x 9.81)).
Except for the cases where water is discharged to a
reservoir, or a canal, a certain head to operate an irrigation
2.7. Drawdown
system is required. For example, in order for a sprinkler
system to operate, a certain head is required. Usually, the level of the water in a well or even a reservoir
behind a dam does not remain constant. In the case of a
2.6. Velocity head well, after pumping starts with a certain discharge, the
water level lowers. This lowering of the water level is called
This energy component is not shown in Figure 4. It is very drawdown. In the case of a dam or reservoir, fluctuation of
small and is normally not included in practical pressure the water level is common and depends on water inflow,
calculations. Most of the energy that a pump adds to evaporation and water withdrawal. The water level
flowing water is converted to pressure in the water. Some increases during the rainy season, followed by a decrease
of the energy is added to the water to give the velocity it during the dry season because of evaporation and
requires to move through the pipeline. The faster the water withdrawal of the stored water. This variation in water level
is moving the larger the velocity head. The amount of will affect the static suction lift or the static suction head
energy that is needed to move water with a certain velocity and, correspondingly, the total static head.
is given by the formula:

6– Module 5
 Chapter 3
Types of pumps and principles of operation

3.1. Radial flow pumps high-pressure pumps. The other two types are more able to
pass solids that may be present in the water.
Radial flow pumps are based on the principles of centrifugal
force and are subdivided into volute pumps and diffuser Volute pumps may be classified under three major
(turbine) pumps. categories (Figure 7):
Y Low head, where the impeller eye diameter is relatively
3.1.1 Volute pumps
large compared with the impeller rim diameter
The well-known horizontal centrifugal pump is a volute Y Medium head, where the impeller eye diameter is a
pump. The pump consists of two main parts, the propeller small proportion of the impeller rim diameter
that rotates on a shaft and gives the water a spiral motion,
and the pump casing that directs the water to the impeller Y High head, where the impeller rim diameter is
through the volute and eventually to the outlet. The suction relatively much larger than the impeller eye diameter
entrance of the casing is in such a position that the water
enters the eye of the impeller. The water is then pushed 3.1.2. Diffuser or turbine pumps
outwards because of the centrifugal force caused by the
The major difference between the volute centrifugal pumps
rotating impeller. The centrifugal force, converted to
and the turbine pumps is the device used to receive the
velocity head and thus pressure, pushes the water to the
water after it leaves the impeller.
outlet of the volute casing. Figure 5 shows the components
of a typical centrifugal pump. In the case of the turbine pumps, the receiving devices are
diffuser vanes that surround the impeller and provide
Figure 6 shows the impeller inside the volute casing and the
diverging passages to direct the water and change the
three types of impellers commonly used in centrifugal
velocity energy to pressure energy. Deep well turbine
pumps. Closed impellers develop higher efficiencies in
pumps and submersible pumps use this principle.

Figure 5
Cross-section of a centrifugal pump (Source: Miller, 1991)

Module 5 – 7
Irrigation manual

Figure 6
Pump impellers and volute casing (Source: T-Tape, 1994)

Figure 7
Classification of volute pumps based on the impeller proportions (Source: T-Tape, 1994)

8– Module 5
 Module 5: Irrigation pumping plant

Figure 8
Parts of bowl assembly (Source: Grundfos, undated)

Module 5 – 9
Irrigation manual

Figure 9
Different drive configurations (Source: Grundfos, undated)

10 – Module 5
 Module 5: Irrigation pumping plant

Figure 10
Electrically driven turbine pump (Source: Grundfos, undated)

Module 5 – 11
Irrigation manual

Depending on the required head, these pumps have a Electro-submersible pumps are turbine pumps with an
number of impellers, each of which is enclosed with its electric motor attached in the suction part of the pump,
diffuser vanes in a bowl. Several bowls form the bowl providing the drive to the shaft that rotates the impellers.
assembly that must always be submerged in water. Figure 8 Therefore, there is no shaft in the discharge pipe. Both the
shows parts of the bowl assembly. A vertical shaft rotates the motor and pump are submerged in the water. They are
impellers. In the case of turbine pumps the shaft is located especially suitable for installation in deep boreholes.
in the centre of the discharge pipe. At intervals of usually 2- Submersible electrically driven pumps depend on cooling via
3 m, the shaft is supported by rubber lined water lubricated the water being pumped, and a failure of the water supply
bearings. Figure 9 shows different drive configurations. can result in serious damage to the unit. For this reason
Figure 10 shows a complete electrically driven turbine submersible pumps are protected with water level cut-off
pump. switches. Figure 11 shows a complete submersible pump.

Figure 11
Cross-section through a submersible pump and submersible motor (Source: FAO, 1986)

How adding stages increases the power requirements and the head with 5
stage pump (part section) on right (based on data published by Grundfos)

12 – Module 5
 Module 5: Irrigation pumping plant

Figure 12
An example of a jet pump (Source: Grundfos, undated)

This deep well pumping system is deal for small water

supply plants that are to take water from depths of
more than 6/8 metres.
1. The ejector pump system is inexpensive to
purchase initially and is quick and easy to install.
2. A separate pump house is not normally required
over the borehole/well, as the pump can be
installed in the top of the well or in an existing
adjacent building.
3. Electric cables are not needed in the well.
4. Comparatively low noise level – an even flow of
water.
5. Suitable tank pressure irrespective of depth.
6. Easy adjustment of pump output to match the well
capacity.
7. The pump is easily accessible for overhaul.
8. Sturdy and reliable even where there are long
horizontal pipe runs and great depths. The use of a multistage centrifugal pump enables the
discharge port to be positioned at a suitable stage to
Operation give the correct discharge pressure at maximum water
output. This ensures optimum operating efficiency. At
The Grundfos ejector system consists of a vertical
the same time the stages of the pump above the
multistage centrifugal pump connected by two pipes to
discharge port maintain the required pressure for the
ejector (see illustration) which is situated below the
ejector, even when the discharge pressure falls too
water level in the well. The pump has a third
zero when the consumption is momentarily larger than
connection, the discharge port and its position on the
the well capacity.
pump can be varied to give varying discharge pressure
to suit the application. Grundfos have developed this ejector system and the
present range of pumps and ejectors have evolved
The method of operation is as follows. The pump
from many years experienced under varying conditions
supplies water at high pressure down the pressure
ranging from the far North of Scandinavia to the far
pipe B, through the strainer E and into the nozzle D. In
South of Australia.
the nozzle the high pressure is converted into high
velocity water jet which passes through the chamber The ejector body is made of bronze and fitted with a
into the diffusor C. The chamber is connected via the wear-resistant stainless steel nozzle, which is protected
foot valve G and the strainer H to the well water. against blockage by the strainer E. The built-in foot valve
has a cone of stainless steel, seating on rubber and
The water in the chamber F is picked up by the high
the strainer is made of bronze.
velocity water jet passing from the nozzle into the
diffusor. Here the two water flows are mixed and the The wide range of Grundfos centrifugal pumps,
high velocity is converted into pressure, which forces ejector pumps and submersible pumps are still being
the water up the riser pipe A into the pump suction enlarged and improved and on the basis of extensive
chamber. research are THE RIGHT PUMPS for water supply.

Module 5 – 13
Irrigation manual

3.2. Axial flow pumps ground, an ejector installed below the water surface and
connecting pipes. The disadvantage of these units is that
While the radial flow type of pump discharges the water at
when they are used in high head situations, the discharge
right angles to the axis of rotation, in the axial flow type
and efficiency are greatly reduced. Basically such units are
water is propelled upwards and discharged nearly axially.
categorized as:
The blades of the propeller are shaped somewhat like a
ship's propeller. Axial flow type pumps are used for large Y Low head, large discharge – most efficient
discharges and low heads (see Figure 1). Y High head, low discharge – least efficient

3.3. Mixed flow pumps 3.5. Positive displacement pumps

This category includes pumps whereby the pressure head is
developed partially through the centrifugal force and 3.5.1. Manual pumps
partially through the lift of the vanes on the water. The flow For all practical purposes, water is incompressible.
is discharged both axially and radially. These pumps are Consequently, if a close-fitting piston is drawn through a
suitable for large discharges and medium head. pipe full of water it will displace water along the pipe
(Figure 13). Similarly, raising a piston in a submerged pipe
3.4. Jet pumps will draw water up behind it to fill the vacuum that is
This pump is a combination of a centrifugal pump and a created, and water is actually displaced by atmospheric
nozzle converting high pressure into velocity (Figure 12). As pressure on its external surface. Two examples of manual
such it cannot fit into one of the above categories. A high- pumps employing these principles are described below.
pressure jet stream is ejected through a suitable nozzle to
entrain a large volume of water at low pressure and force it Piston or bucket pumps
to a higher level within the system. The pump has no The most common and well-known form of
moving parts in the well or beneath the water surface. It is displacement pump is the piston pump, also known as
composed of a multistage centrifugal pump installed above the bucket, hand or bush pump. A common example is

Figure 13
Basic principles of positive displacement pumps (Source: FAO, 1986)

14 – Module 5
 Module 5: Irrigation pumping plant

Figure 14
Hand pump with single acting bucket and piston (Adapted from FAO, 1986)

illustrated in Figure 14. Water is sucked into the cylinder Tests carried out at the Zimbabwe Irrigation Technology
through an inlet check valve or non-return valve on the Centre (ZITC) revealed that suction heads exceeding 3 m
upstroke, which is opened by the vacuum created. This make the pump quite difficult to operate. In a similar
vacuum also keeps the piston valve closed. On the down argument, delivery heads in excess of 6 m are also not
stroke, the check valve is held closed by both its weight recommended. This shows that treadle pumps can only be
and the water pressure. As this happens the piston valve used where there are shallow water tables. In semi arid
is forced open as the trapped water is displaced through regions, their use could be confined to vleis or dambos,
the piston ready for the next upstroke. where the water tables are shallow, or to draw water from
dams or rivers.
The piston valve has two leather cup washer seals. The
outer casing and fittings are normally cast iron. While this Table 1 shows results of the tests carried out at ZITC on a
pump is widely used in Zimbabwe for domestic water pressure treadle pump. The data are plotted in Figure 16.
supplies, it is also used to irrigate gardens, but to a limited
extent. These pumps have wide operating head ranges of 2 Table 1
to 100 m depending on construction of the pump. Pressure treadle pump test analysis
Discharges of 15 to 25 m3/hr or 4 to 7 l/s could be
Total Dynamic Head (m) Discharge
realized. (= suction head + delivery head) (m3/hr)
3.5 6.9
Treadle pumps 5.0 4.9
A treadle pump is another form of a positive displacement 6.0 3.7
pump where the feet are used to treadle. Most treadle
pumps are double acting, meaning that there is discharge Other models of treadle pump, based on the same
on both the upstroke and downstroke. Figure 15 shows a principles but delivering water without pressure, have been
typical double acting pressure treadle pump. used extensively in the Indian Sub-continent, as typified by

Module 5 – 15
Irrigation manual

Figure 17, and have recently been introduced in eastern water, instead of being delivered at the lower part of the
and southern Africa. These types of treadle pump are also pump through a valve box, is delivered at the top through a
composed of two cylinders and two plungers. The pumped small channel. Figure 17 gives the details.

Figure 15
Double acting pressure treadle pump (Source: ZITC, 1997)

Figure 16
Discharge-head relationship for pressure treadle pump (based on Table 1)

16 – Module 5
 Module 5: Irrigation pumping plant

Figure 17
Double acting non-pressure treadle pump (Source: FAO, 1986)

3.5.2. Motorized pumps

Mono pumps
Mono pumps are motorized positive displacement pumps.
Water is displaced by means of a screw type rotor that
moves through the stator. As mono pumps fall in the
positive displacement category the head is independent to
the speed. However, the flow is about proportional to the
speed. Figure 18 shows the individual components of a
mono pump.

Module 5 – 17
Irrigation manual

Figure 18
Mono pump (Source: Mono Pump, undated)
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE MONO BOREHOLE PUMP 5. The drive shafting is of high tensile carbon steel which
allows for a minimum area usage in the pipe column but
retains its strength as a positive drive.
1. SELF PRIMING. Due to the material used there is an
interference fit between Rotor and Stator. This close 6. The pump unit consists of a strainer, the element and the
contact with the absence of valves or ports makes a very body.
effective air exhauster as long as a lubricating film of 7. The element is a stationary stator of a resilient neoprene
water is present. based compound in the form of a compound internal
2. STEADY FLOW. Due to the line of seal which is a curve helix vulcanised to the outer casing. A rotor with a hard
of constant shape moving through the stator at a chrome finish in the form of a single of double helix turns
constant axial velocity the rate of displacement is inside the stator. This maintains a full seal across the
uniform and steady without any pulsation, churning or travelling constantly up the pump giving uniform positive
agitation. displacement.
3. POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT. As the Mono unit is a
positive displacement pump the head developed is SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF UNIT
independent of the speed and the capacity
approximately proportional to the speed.
4. SIMPLICITY. As the mono unity consists of a fixed stator
with a single rotating element it is an extremely simple
mechanism.
5. EFFICIENCY. Because of the continuous steady
delivery coupled with the positive displacement the
Mono pump has an extremely high efficiency.
6. COMPACTNESS. Although the Mono Pump is
constructed on very robust lines the simplicity of its
pumping principle and the absence of valves or gears
makes a very compact and light weight unit.
7. ABRASION RESISTANCE. Due to the design of the
stator and rotor, the position of the seal line is
continuously changing both on the rotor and on the
stator. This fact is the chief reason for the remarkable
ability of the Mono Pump to handle water containing
some sand. If, for instance, a piece of grit is momentarily
trapped between the rotor and the stator, the resilient
rubber stator yields to it without damage in the same way
as a rubber tyre passes over a stone, and, owing to the
instant separation of the two surfaces, the particle is at
once released again and swept away by the water.
There is no possibility of pieces of grit being embedded
or dragged along between the two surfaces, which is the
chief cause of the heavy wear of most other pumps
when gritty water is being handled. The low velocity of
the water through the pump and its steady continuous
motion also contribute to freedom from wear.
8. VERSATILITY. The pump is suitable for electric motor or
engine drive.

SPECIFICATIONS OF THE MONO BOREHOLE PUMP

1. Discharge head which also incorporates the pulley

housing consists of a cast iron body with gland from
which the column is suspended. The pulley bearing
assembly contains two pre-packed ball bearings, one
being an angular contact thrust bearing.
2. Column piping is standard galvanized medium class
water piping to British standard 1387/1967 with squared
ends and B.S.P. thread.
3. Bobbin Bearing are styrene butadiene compound which
grip the column pipe walls and support the drive shaft
every 1.6m for the full length of the drive shaft. These
bearings are water lubricated and the bearing piece of
stainless steel.
4. Stabilizers are also a rubber compound stabilizing the
column in the borehole every 13m.

18 – Module 5
 Chapter 4
Pump characteristic curves

Most manufacturers provide four different characteristic 4.1. Total dynamic head versus discharge
curves for every pump: the Total Dynamic Head versus (TDH-Q)
Discharge or TDH-Q curve, the Efficiency versus Discharge
This is a curve that relates the head to the discharge of the
or EFF-Q curve, the Brake Power versus Discharge or BP-
pump. It shows that the same pump can provide different
Q curve and Net Positive Suction Head Required versus
combinations of discharge and head. It is also noticeable
Discharge or NPSHR-Q curve. All four curves are discharge
that as the head increases the discharge decreases and vice
related. Figure 19 presents the four typical characteristic
versa.
curves for a pump, with one stage or impeller.

Figure 19
Pump characteristic curves (Adapted from Longenbaugh and Duke, 1980)

Module 5 – 19
Irrigation manual

The point at which the discharge is zero and the head at Equation 3
maximum is called shut off head. This happens when a
Q x TDH
pump is operating with a closed valve outlet. As this may BP =
CxE
happen in the practice, knowledge of the shut off head (or pump

pressure) of a particular pump would allow the engineer to

provide for a pipe that can sustain the pressure at shut off
point if necessary. 4.4. Net positive suction head required
versus discharge (NPSHR-Q)
4.2. Efficiency versus discharge (EFF-Q)
At sea level, atmospheric pressure is 100 kPa or 10.33 m of
This curve relates the pump efficiency to the discharge. The water. This means that if a pipe was to be installed vertically
materials used for the construction and the finish of the in a water source at sea level and a perfect vacuum created,
impellers, the finish of the casting and the number and the the water would rise vertically in the pipe to a distance of
type of bearings used affect the efficiency. As a rule larger 10.33 m. Since atmospheric pressure decreases with
pumps have higher efficiencies. elevation, water would rise less than 10.33 m at higher
altitudes.
Efficiency is defined as the output work over the input work.
A suction pipe acts in the manner of the pipe mentioned
Equation 2
above and the pump creates the vacuum that causes water
Output work WP Q x TDH to rise in the suction pipe. Of the atmospheric pressure at
E pump = = = water level, some is lost in the vertical distance to the eye of
Input work BP C x BP
the impeller, some to frictional losses in the suction pipe
Where: and some to the velocity head. The total energy that is left
Epump = Pump efficiency at the eye of the impeller is termed the Net Positive Suction
BP = Brake power (kW or HP = 1.34 x kW): Head.
energy imparted by the prime mover to
the pump The amount of pressure (absolute) or energy required to
WP = Water power (kW): energy imparted by move the water into the eye of the impeller is called the Net
the pump to the water Positive Suction Head Requirement (NPSHR). It is a pump
Q = Discharge (l/s or m3/hr) characteristic and a function of the pump speed, the shape
TDH = Total Dynamic Head (m) of the impeller and the discharge. Manufacturers establish
C = Coefficient to convert work to energy the NPSHR-Q curves for the different models after testing.
units – equals 102 if Q is measured in If the energy available at the intake side is not sufficient to
l/s and 360 if Q is measured in m3/hr move the water to the eye of the impeller, the water will
vaporize and the pump will cavitate (see Section 4.4.1). In
order to avoid cavitation the NPSHA should be higher than
4.3. Brake or input power versus discharge the NPSHR required by the pump under consideration.
(BP-Q)
4.4.1. Cavitation
This curve relates the input power required to drive the
pump to the discharge. It is interesting to note that even at At sea level water boils at about 100°C and its vapour
zero flow an input of energy is still required by the pump to pressure is equal to 100 kPa. When water boils, air
operate against the shut-off head. The vertical scale of this molecules dissolved in water are released back into air. The
curve is usually small and difficult to read accurately. vapour pressure increases rapidly with temperature
Therefore, it is necessary that BP is calculated using increase (Table 2) while atmospheric pressure decreases
Equation 3, which can be found by rearranging Equation 2: with altitude increase.

Table 2
Variation of vapour pressure with temperature (Source: Longenbaugh and Duke, 1980)

Temperature (°C) 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Vapour pressure of 0.06 0.09 0.13 0.17 0.24 0.32 0.43 0.58 0.76 0.99 1.28
water, e (m)

20 – Module 5
 Module 5: Irrigation pumping plant

In the eye of the impeller of a pump, pressure may be Where:

reduced to such a point that the water will boil. As the water – Atmospheric pressure at the given altitude,
is carried to areas of higher pressure in the pump, the Pb = 10.33 – 0.00108 Z (Barometric
pressure)
vapour bubbles will collapse or explode at the surface of the
Z = elevation (m) can be
impeller blades or other parts of the pump, resulting in the measured
material erosion. The phenomenon described here is known – Static suction lift (m) can be measured
as cavitation. Cavitation makes itself noticeable by an – Friction losses hl, in metres, can be calculated
increase in noise level (rattling sound), irregular flow, a drop from graphs and tables or formulae
in pump efficiency and sometimes in head. Heavy cavitation, – Vapour pressure e (m) can be estimated
especially in larger pumps, sounds like the roar of thunder. from Table 2

In order to determine the possibilities of the occurrence of Gauge pressure (Figure 20) = static suction lift +
cavitation, the water pressure at the pump's entrance is friction losses in pipe + vapour pressure
determined and compared with the vapour pressure at the
temperature of the water to be pumped. For this purpose If the NPSHA is less than the NPSHR, the NPSHA will
the NPSHA is calculated as follows: have to be increased. This can be achieved by reducing the
friction losses in the pipe by using a wider suction pipe,
Equation 4
although this is not very effective. Generally, decreasing the
NPSHA = atmospheric pressure at the given static suction lift increases the NPSHA, which can be
altitude – static suction lift – friction obtained by positioning the pump nearer to the water level
losses in pipe – vapour pressure of (see Figure 4).
the liquids at the operating
temperature

Figure 20
Schematic presentation of Net Positive Suction Head Available (NPSHA) (Source: T-Tape, 1994)

Example 1

Calculate the NPSHA for a pump to operate at an elevation of 2 000 m, under 35°C temperature. The friction losses
in the suction pipe were calculated to be 0.7 m and the suction lift to be 2 m.
Pb = 10.33- 0.00108 x 2 000 = 8.17 m
e = 0.58 m (from Table 2)
Therefore, using Equation 4:
NPSHA = 8.17 - 2.0 - 0.7 - 0.58 = 4.89 m

Module 5 – 21
Irrigation manual

4.5. Pumps in series discharge. Figure 21 shows how the combined TDH-Q
curve can be derived. If pumps placed in series are to
A good example of connecting pumps in series is where a
operate well, the discharge of these pumps must be the
centrifugal pump takes water from a dam and pumps it to
same.
another pump, which in turn boosts the pressure to the
required level. Another example is the multistage turbine The following equation from Longenbaugh and Duke
pump. In fact, each stage impeller represents a pump. In (1980) allows the calculation of the combined efficiency at
general, connecting pumps in series applies to the cases a particular discharge.
where the same discharge is required but more head is
needed than that which one pump can produce. Equation 5

For two pumps operating in series, the combined head Q x (TDHa + TDHb)
Eseries =
equals the sum of the individual heads at a certain C x (BPa + BPb)

Where:
Figure 21
E = Efficiency
TDH-Q curve for two pumps operating in series
Q = Discharge (l/s)
(Adapted from Longenbaugh and Duke, 1980)
TDH = Total Dynamic Head (m)
C = 102 (coefficient to convert work to
energy units)
BP = Brake power (kW)

4.6. Pumps in parallel

Pumps are operated in parallel when, for roughly the same
head, variation in discharge is required. A typical example
would be a smallholder pressurized irrigation system with
many users. In order to provide a certain degree of
flexibility when a number of farmers cannot be present,
due to other unforeseen obligations (for example funerals),
several smaller pumps are used instead of one or two larger
pumps. This has been practiced in a number of irrigation
schemes in Zimbabwe. Figure 22 shows the TDH-Q
combined curve, for two pumps in parallel.

Figure 22
TDH-Q curve for two pumps operating in parallel (adapted from Longenbaugh and Duke, 1980)

22 – Module 5
 Module 5: Irrigation pumping plant

The equation for the calculation of the combined efficiency It should be noted from this equation that each of the
is as follows: pumps used in parallel should deliver the same head and
this has to be a criterion when selecting the pumps.
Equation 6
At times, engineers are confronted with a situation where
(Qa + Qb)) x TDH pumping is required from a number of different sources at
Eseries =
C x (BPa + BPb) different elevations. In this case each pump should deliver
its water to a common reservoir and not a common pipe in
order to avoid the flow of water from one pump to another.
Where:
E = Efficiency
Q = Discharge (l/s)
TDH = Total Dynamic Head (m)
C = 102 (coefficient to convert work to
energy units)
BP = Brake power (kW)

Module 5 – 23
 Chapter 5
Speed variation

In discussing pump characteristic curves, no mention of Y The discharge Q varies in direct proportion to the speed:
speed was made. Figure 23, a typical manufacturer's
characteristic curve, provides several TDH-Q, EFF-Q and Equation 7
BP-Q curves. This is because the same pump can operate
at different speeds. A change in the impeller speed causes a Q1 N1
=
shift of the Q-H characteristics in the diagram. It is a shift Q2 N2
upwards and to the right with increasing speed and
downwards and to the left when the speed is decreased.
The BP required power also changes. Y The head H varies directly with the square of the speed:
The relationship between speed, on the one hand, and
Equation 8
discharge, head and power on the other is described by
Euler's affinity laws in the Hydraulics Handbook of Colt H1 N1 2
Industries (1975) as follows (see also Figure 24): =
H2 N2

Figure 23
Pump characteristic curves (Source: Irrigation Association, 1983)

Module 5 – 25
Irrigation manual

Y The break power BP varies approximately with the BP2 = brake power at N2 speed in revolutions per
minute (rpm)
cube of the speed:

Equation 9 As a rule, most pump characteristic curves are presented

with one speed only. Hence the need to use Euler's affinity
BP1 N1 3 laws in deriving performance at different speeds. Example
=
BP2 N2 2 clarifies the process.

Where:
If the speed of the pump is changed from 1 200 rpm to
2 000 rpm, the discharge, head and brake power will
Q1 = discharge and change from 40 l/s to 66.7 l/s, 32 m to 88.9 m, and 16.8
H1 = head and to 77.7 kW respectively. However, the affinity laws make no
BP1 = brake power at N1 speed in revolutions per
minute (rpm)
reference as to how the pump efficiency is affected by speed
Q2 = discharge and
changes. As a rule, pumps that are efficient at one speed
H2 = head and would be efficient at other speeds.

Example 2

If a pump delivers 40 l/s at a head of 32 m and runs at a speed of 1200 rpm, what would be the discharge and head
at 2000 rpm? What would the brake power of the pump be if it were 16.78 kW at 1200 rpm?

Using Equation 7 the new discharge Q2 would be:

Q1 N1 40 1 200 2 000
= ⇒ = ⇒ Q2 = 40 x = 66.7 l/s
Q2 N2 Q2 2 000 1 200

Using Equation 8, the new head would be:

H1 N1 2 32 1 200 2 2 000 2
= ⇒ = ⇒ H2 = 32 x = 88.9 m
H2 N2 H2 2 000 1 200

BP2 is calculated using Equation 9 as follows:

BP1 N1 3 16.78 1 200 3 2 000 3
= ⇒ = ⇒ BP2 = 16.78 x = 77.7 kW
BP2 N2 BP2 2 000 1 200

Figure 24
Effect of speed change on centrifugal pump performance (Adapted from Colt Industries, 1975)

26 – Module 5
 Chapter 6
Pump selection

The selection of pumps requires the use of manufacturers' efficiency. Following the identification of the pump, the
pump curves. As a first step, by looking at the various pump NPHSR-Q curve is checked and evaluations are made to
curves we can identify a pump that can provide the ensure that its NHPSA is higher than the NPHSR.
discharge and head required at the highest possible

Example 3

Let us assume that a designed sprinkler system would require a Q = 40 m3/hr at an H = 60 m. What would be the
best pump to select?
Looking at various performance curves provided by manufacturers (Figures 25a and 25b) the curve of Figure 25b
was selected, as it appears to provide the highest efficiency (65%) for the required discharge and head requirements,
compared to an efficiency of 45% given by curves of Figure 25a. Ideally we would have preferred a pump where the
required head and flow combination falls on the right-hand side of the efficiency curve. With age, the operating point
will move to the left, then we would be able to operate with higher efficiency. This pump should be equipped with the
209 mm impeller, as shown in the curve.
Looking at the NPSH-Q curve in Figure 25b, the NPSHR of this pump is 1.2 m.
Assuming the following data for the site:

Y Elevation: 2 000 m
Y Static suction: 2 m
Y Suction pipe friction losses: 0.5 m
Y Maximum temperature: 35°C

Using Equation 4, NPSHA = (10.33 - 0.00108 x 2000) - 2.0 - 0.5 - 0.58 = 5.09 m

Since NPSHA (5.09 m) is higher than the NPSHR (1.2 m) of the selected pump no cavitation should be expected.

Example 4

Assuming a surface irrigation scheme requires a pump with a Q = 70 m3/hr delivered at an H = 23 m. In this case the
pump of Figure 25a would be more suitable. It can provide the required Q and H at an efficiency of 68%, using an
impeller of 140 mm diameter.
If we opted to use a high pressure pump (Figure 25b) instead of a high volume low pressure pump (Figure 25a), the
required Q of 70 m3/hr with 23 m head would fall outside the range of the pumps. Hence the efficiency would be very
low.

Module 5 – 27
Irrigation manual

Figure 25a
Performance curve of a pump (Source: Stork Pumps, undated)

28 – Module 5
 Module 5: Irrigation pumping plant

Figure 25b
Performance curve of a pump (Source: Stork Pumps, undated)

Module 5 – 29
Irrigation manual

When the required Q and H combination falls outside the Another important consideration in selecting a pump is the
performance curve or when it falls at the fringes of the size of the pump impeller. If the required Q and H
performance curve, that type of pump should not be combination falls between two impeller sizes, then the
selected. larger impeller will have to be used, but only after it is
trimmed down by the manufacturers so that it matches the
requested Q and H.

30 – Module 5
 Chapter 7
Power units

Most irrigation pumps are powered either with electric necessary derating. An example of the derating of diesel
motors or diesel engines. In some countries, natural gas, engines is shown in the following section.
propane, butane and gasoline engines are also used to drive
pumps. Wind and solar driven pumps are also used for 7.2. Diesel engines
pumping water, mostly for human and animal purposes.
As a rule, petrol engines drive very small pumps. For most
Chapter 4 described how to compute the size of the irrigation conditions, the diesel engine has gained
power unit. For centrifugal pumps and turbine pumps up popularity. It is more robust, requires less maintenance and
to 20 m deep it is not necessary to compute the energy has lower overall operation and maintenance costs.
required to overcome bearing losses in the pump. For
turbine pumps that are more than 20 m deep, the Most literature on engines uses English units of
manufacturer's literature should be consulted on line shaft measurement. To convert kilowatts to horsepower a
bearing losses. conversion factor of 1.34 can be applied. Horsepower
versus speed curves (Figure 26) illustrate how output
power increases with engine speed. However, there is a
7.1. Electric motors particular speed at which the engine efficiency is highest.
For most centrifugal pumps the motors are directly coupled This is the point at which the selected engine should
to the pump. This results in the elimination of belt drives operate. The continuous rated curve indicates the safest
and energy loss due to belt slippage, and safety hazards. continuous duty at which the engine can be operated.
Most centrifugal pumps used in Eastern and Southern Care should be taken to use the continuous rated output
Africa are coupled to the motor shaft through a flexible curve and not the intermittent output curve.
coupling.
Manufacturer's curves are calculated for operating
In the past it was common practice to overload motors by conditions at sea level and below 30°C. It is therefore
10-15% above the rated output without encountering necessary to derate the engines for different altitudes and
problems. However, because of the materials currently temperatures where the operating conditions are different.
used, motors can no longer stand this overloading. According to Pair et al. (1983), derating is approximately
Therefore, they should be sized to the needed and 1% per 100 m increase in altitude and 1% per 5.6°C
projected future output. increase in air temperature from the published maximum
output horsepower curve. On the top of that, an additional
For sustained use of a motor at more than 1 100 m altitude 5-10% for reserve should be deducted. If the continuous
or at temperatures above 37°C derating may be necessary. output curves are used, only the 5-10% deduction is
Manufacturer's literature should be consulted for the applied.

Example 5

What will be the output of a diesel engine with a speed of 2 600 rpm at 2 000 m altitude and a temperature of 35°C?
Referring to Figure 26, the maximum output at 2 600 rpm, by interpolation, would be around 114 hp, which falls
outside the limits of this curve. By applying the above rule for 2 000 m altitude and 35°C, a deduction of 20% should
be applied for elevation and 1% for temperature. An additional 10% should be applied for reserve. Therefore, the total
deduction should be 114 x 0.31 = 35.3 HP, resulting in an output of 78.7 HP ( = 114 - 35.3).
If we apply the 10% deduction on the continuous rating curve then the output will be 80 - 8 = 72 HP. This is a more
conservative approach.

Module 5 – 31
Irrigation manual

Figure 26
Rating curves for engine (Source: Irrigation Association, 1983)

Tractors can also be used to drive pumps. However, it may gear or V-belt drive then the power available to the pump
not be an economically sound approach to permanently would be 68.4 HP (0.95 x 72). This should satisfy the input
attach a tractor to a pump in view of the high capital cost of power requirements of the pump as calculated using
a tractor. Equation 3 and multiplying the result by 1.34 to convert to
horsepower.
7.3. Power transmission
7.3.1. Overall derating
There are four types of transmission usually applied to
irrigation pumps: direct coupling, flat belt, V-belt and gear. Most engineers multiply the result of Equation 2 by a factor
Direct coupling generally implies negligible or no loss of of 1.2 and use the engine continuous output rating curve.
power. The loss of power through flat belt varies from 3- In other words, they derate an engine by 20%.
20%. Transmission losses for V-belt and gear drive, as a
Going back to the approaches described earlier in this
rule, do not exceed 5%.
chapter, the total derating on the continuous output curve
Referring to our example, if we use direct coupling of is 10-15% for V-belt or gear (5-10% derating for
engine to pump, the HP would remain 72 HP. If we use continuous output and 5% for the transmission losses).

32 – Module 5
 Chapter 8
Energy requirements

Energy requirements are proportional to the discharge, Motor efficiency also has a bearing on energy requirement
head and efficiency of the pumping system as demonstrated calculations. According to Longenbaugh and Duke (1980),
by the formula used to calculate the kW power motor efficiencies are in the range of 0.88 - 0.92. Motors
requirements (Equation 3): of 7.5 kW or less have motor efficiencies usually below
0.88. For motors of 75 kW or larger the efficiency is 0.9 -
Q x TDH 0.92. Hence, there is the tendency to use 0.88 for motor
BP =
C x Epump efficiency in small size irrigation schemes.
From the three examples below, localized irrigation would
Where:
have the lowest energy requirements (2 741 kW/ha per
Q = discharge in l/s with C = 102 or in
year) followed by surface (3 743 kW/ha per year) and
m3/hr with C = 360
sprinkler (4 485 kW/ha per year), in that order. This is the
TDH = Total Dynamic Head (m)
result of higher irrigation efficiency combined with low
Epump = pump efficiency
operating pressure, in the case of drip irrigation. In the case
of surface irrigation the lack of operating pressure puts it in
The annual or seasonal energy requirements increase with
the second place (before sprinkler) in terms of energy
the increase of the total volume of water pumped annually
requirements, irrespectively of its low irrigation efficiency.
or seasonally, and are therefore affected by the overall
The high operating pressure of the sprinkler system (30 m)
irrigation efficiency.
makes this system the highest energy user.

Example 6

A 14 ha drag-hose sprinkler irrigation scheme, designed to satisfy 20 hours/day pumping at peak demand, requires
a discharge of 57 m3/hr. Its TDH is 56 m (20 m static lift, 30 m sprinkler operating head and 6 m friction losses). The
net irrigation requirements are 131 250 m3/year. What are the energy requirements?

The total gross annual irrigation requirements at 75% irrigation efficiency are:

131 250
= 175 000 m3 / year
0.75

From the performance curves (Figure 25b) the best pump to satisfy this discharge and head has an efficiency of 0.69.
Considering an overall derating of 20%, the power requirement is:

57 x 56 x 1.2
BP = = 15.4 kW
360 x 0.69

Looking at the sizes commonly marketed (7.5 kW, 11 kW, 15 kW, 18 kW, 22kW, 30 kW, 40 kW, 55 kW, etc.), it appears
that the 18 kW motor is the best choice for this scheme.

In order to pump the 175 000 m3 annually the motor will be in operation for 3 070 hours (175 000/57). If the motor
efficiency is 0.88, the annual energy requirements would then be:

3 070 x 18
= 62 795 kW / year for 14 ha or 4 485 kWh/ha per year
0.88

Module 5 – 33
Irrigation manual

Example 7

Assuming that the availability of water is not a constraint and that, instead of a sprinkler irrigation system, a surface
irrigation system with 40% irrigation efficiency and a pumping lift of 25 m (assumed to be 20 m static lift plus 5 m
friction losses), operating for 10 hours per day, is used. What would the energy requirements be?
Total gross annual irrigation water requirements:

131 250
= 328 125 m3 / year
0.4

Converting the discharge of 57 m3/hr for the drag-hose sprinkler system to a discharge for the surface irrigation
system gives a discharge of 213.5 m3/hr (57 x 20/10 x 0.75/0.4). Assuming the same efficiency of 69% for the best
pump to satisfy the discharge and TDH, the power requirements will be:

213.5 x 25 x 1.2
BP = = 25.8 kW
360 x 0.69

From the standard sizes of motors available on the market, a 30 kW motor will be selected.
In order to pump the 328 125 m3 of water annually the motor will have to operate for 1 537 hrs (328 125/213.5). The
energy requirements would then be:

1 537 x 30
= 52 398 kW / year for the 14 ha or 3 743 kWh/ha per year
0.88

Example 8

If, instead of a sprinkler or surface irrigation system, a localized irrigation system with 90% irrigation efficiency and a
pumping lift of 40 m (static lift of 20 m, friction losses and operating head assumed to be 20 m), operating for 20 hours
per day, is used. What would the energy requirements be?
Total gross annual irrigation water requirements:

131 250
= 145 833 m3 / year
0.9

Converting the discharge of 57 m3/hr for the drag-hose sprinkler system to a discharge for the localized irrigation
system gives a discharge of 47.5 m3/hr (57 x 20/20 x 0.75/0.9). Again assuming a pump efficiency of 69%, the power
requirements would be:

47.5 x 40 x 1.2
BP = = 9.2 kW
360 x 0.69

Although a 9.2 kW motor is required, from the standard size motors available on the market an 11 kW motor will be
selected.
In order to pump the 145 833 m3 of water annually the motor will have to operate for 3 070 hrs (145 833/47.5). The
total annual irrigation energy requirements would then be:

3 070 x 11
= 38 375 kW / year for the 14 ha or 2 741 kWh/ha per year
0.88

34 – Module 5
 Module 5: Irrigation pumping plant

The picture changes when the static lift increases to 35 m, as demonstrated in Example 9.

Example 9

Assuming all figures of the previous three examples remain the same, except for the static lift, which increases from
20 m to 35 m. What would the energy requirements be?
From Examples 6, 7 and 8

Type of Total gross annual Discharge Hours of operation

irrigation system irrigation required (m3) (m3/hr) per year
Sprinkler 175 000 57.0 3 070
Surface 328 125 213.5 1 539
Localized 145 833 47.5 3 070

57 x 71 x 1.2
Sprinkler power requirements = = 19.6 kW ⇒ motor size: 22 kW
360 x 0.69

213.5 x 40 x 1.2
Surface power requirements = = 41.3 kW ⇒ motor size: 45 kW
360 x 0.69

47.5 x 55 x 1.2
Localized power requirements = = 12.6 kW ⇒ motor size: 15 kW
360 x 0.69

3 070 x 22
Sprinkler kWh = = 76 750 kW / year for 14 ha or 5 482 kW/ha per year
0.88

1 539 x 45
Surface kWh = = 78 699 kW / year for 14 ha or 5 621 kW/ha per year
0.88

3 070 x 15
Localized kWh = = 46 050 kW / year for 14 ha or 3 289 kW/ha per year
0.88

In Example 9 surface irrigation is the most energy for surface irrigation 213.5 m3/hr and for localized 47.5
inefficient, because of the combined low irrigation m3/hr. For all systems a pump efficiency of 69% and a
efficiency and high static head. Localized irrigation again motor efficiency of 88% were assumed. It should be
has lowest demand or highest efficiency. noted that no adjustment of the kW requirements was
made to match the availability of motors in the market,
Table 3 presents a comparison of energy requirements for because the sizes of motors available vary from country
sprinkler, surface and localized irrigation systems for to country.
different static lifts and operating pressures.
Following the same procedures described in Examples 6, For surface irrigation, the head losses for conveying the
7, 8 and 9, the comparison of energy requirements of water to the night storage reservoir were assumed to be
Table 3 was prepared. This comparison is based on net 5 m. In the case of sprinkler irrigation, the sprinkler
annual water requirements of 9 375 m3/ha per year and operating pressure was assumed to be 30 m and the
an efficiency of 75% for sprinklers, 40% for surface and head losses 6 m. For localized irrigation, the operating
90% for localized irrigation. The total area is assumed to pressure plus the head losses were assumed to be 20 m.
be 14 ha. The flow rate used for sprinklers is 57 m3/hr,

Module 5 – 35
Irrigation manual

Table 3
Comparison of the energy requirements for the three irrigation systems under different levels of static lift

Power Annual Energy Requirements Annual Energy Requirements

Requirements for 14 ha per hectare
(kW) (kWh) (kWh/ha)
Static Surface Sprinkler Localized Surface Sprinkler Localized Surface Sprinkler Localized
lift (m) irrigation irrigation irrigation irrigation irrigation irrigation irrigation irrigation irrigation
5 10.3 11.3 5.7 17 989 39 426 19 887 1 285 2 816 1 421
10 15.5 12.7 6.9 27 071 44 310 24 074 1 934 3 165 1 720
20 20.6 15.4 9.2 35 988 53 731 32 099 2 571 3 838 2 293
30 36.1 18.2 11.5 63 049 63 500 40 124 4 503 4 536 2 866
40 46.4 20.9 13.8 81 038 72 920 48 148 5 788 5 209 3 439
50 56.7 23.7 16.1 99 027 82 689 56 173 7 073 5 906 4 012
55 61.9 25.1 17.2 108 108 87 574 60 011 7 722 6 255 4 286
60 67.0 26.4 18.4 117 016 92 110 64 198 8 358 6 579 4 586
65 72.2 27.8 19.5 125 748 96 994 68 036 8 982 6 928 4 860
70 77.4 29.2 20.7 135 179 101 879 72 222 9 656 7 277 5 159
75 82.5 30.6 21.8 144 086 106 736 76 060 10 292 7 626 5 433
80 87.7 31.9 22.8 153 168 111 299 79 549 10 941 7 950 5 682
85 92.8 33.3 24.1 162 075 116 184 84 085 11 577 8 299 6 006
90 98.0 34.7 25.2 171 157 121 068 87 923 12 226 8 648 6 280
95 103.1 36.1 26.4 180 064 125 953 92 110 12 862 8 997 6 579
100 108.3 37.4 27.5 188 622 130 489 95 946 13 473 9 321 6 853

The energy requirements comparison presented in Table 3 Y As the static lift increases, the difference in energy
demonstrates the following: requirements between surface and localized systems
Y The break-even point between sprinkler and surface increases, with the latter requiring less energy. This is
irrigation in terms of energy requirements occurs when attributed to the much higher efficiency of localized
both systems operate with a static lift of about 30 m. systems, which after the 8 m static lift point
compensate for the higher pressure requirements of
Y As the static lift increases, the difference in the energy the localized systems.
requirements between surface and sprinkler irrigation
increases substantially. The latter system requires less Y Localized systems are less energy demanding than
energy. This is attributed to the higher efficiency of sprinkler systems irrespective of static lift. This is
sprinkler irrigation, which after the 30 m static lift attributed to the higher efficiency and lower operating
point compensates for the higher pressure required by pressure of the localized systems.
this system for its operation. When electricity is not available and diesel engines are used
Y The break-even point between surface and localized for pumping, fuel requirements should be based on the
irrigation in terms of energy requirements falls manufacturer's catalogues as they vary according to the
somewhere between 5 and 10 m static lift (about 8 m). speed at which an engine operates. For example, a TS2
In this respect, it should be noted that low-pressure LISTER engine would consume 241 g/kWh at 1500 rpm or
drip systems operating with 1-3 heads were not 266 g/kWh at 3000 rpm. As a rule a good estimate can be
considered in this comparison. obtained by basing the diesel consumption on 0.25
litres/kWh.

36 – Module 5
 Chapter 9
Siting and installation of pumps

9.1. Siting of pumping station carefully estimated during the various stages of the design
process in order to make comparisons for the different
The careful selection of a suitable location for a pumping
options more meaningful.
station is very important in irrigation development. Several
factors have to be taken into consideration when choosing
the site. 9.2. Installation of pump
Firstly, one has to find out whether the flow is reliable in the When the correct type of pump has been selected it must
case of a river or whether the amount of water stored in the be installed properly to give satisfactory service and be
dam is enough to fulfil the annual irrigation requirements reasonably trouble-free. Pumps are usually installed with
for the proposed cropping programme. This information is the shaft horizontal, occasionally with the shaft vertical (as
often obtained from the water authority or from the local in wells).
farmers' experiences.
9.2.1. Coupling
Secondly, in the case of river abstraction one has to check
the maximum flood level of the river and preferably site the Pumps are usually shipped already mounted, and it is
pumping station outside the flood level. With the usually unnecessary to remove either the pump or the
limitations often imposed by the length of the suction pipe driving unit from the base plate. The unit should be placed
necessary to cater for the net positive suction head, where above the foundation and supported by short strips of steel
there are fluctuating flood levels, a portable pumping plate and wedges. A spirit level should be used to ensure a
station is preferable. Such a site, however, should be on perfect levelling. Levelling is a prerequisite for accurate
stable soil and have enough of water depth for the suction alignment.
pipe. For permanent pumping stations pumps are installed To check the alignment of the pump and drive shafts, place
on concrete plinth or foundation, the size of which varies in a straightedge across the top and side of the coupling,
relation to the size of the pumping unit. Figure 27 shows a checking the faces of the coupling halves for parallelism.
typical plinth and its reinforcement for pumps up to 50 kW. The clearance between the faces of the couplings should be
Thirdly, the abstraction point should not be sited in a river such that they cannot touch, rub or exert a force on either
bend where sand and silt deposition may be predominant. the pump or the driver.
Otherwise, the sand would clog both the suction pipe and
pump. Where the river is heavily silted, a sand abstraction 9.2.2. Grouting
system can be developed. The grouting process involves pouring a mixture of
Fourthly, where water is to be pumped from a dam or weir, cement, sand and water into the voids of stone, brick, or
the site should be outside the full supply level in case of concrete work, either to provide a solid bearing or to
upstream abstraction. In the case of downstream fasten anchor bolts. A wooden form is built around the
abstraction, the site should neither be too close to nor in outside of the bedplate to contain the grout and provide
line with the spillway. sufficient head for ensuring flow of mixture beneath the
only bedplate. The grout should be allowed to set for 48
Finally, as a rule, before a final decision is made on the hours; then the hold-down bolts should be tightened and
location of the pumping station, a site visit has to take place the coupling halves rechecked.
to verify the acceptability of the site, taking into
consideration the above requirements. It is generally helpful 9.2.3. Suction pipe
to talk to the local people to get information on the site.
The suction pipe should be flushed out with clear water
The cost of a pumping station will have to be divided into before connection, to ensure that it is free of materials that
investment costs, costs of operation and costs of might later clog the pump. The diameter of the suction
maintenance and repair. These costs will have to be pipe should not be smaller than the inlet opening of the

Module 5 – 37
Irrigation manual

Figure 27
Foundation of a pumping unit and the reinforcement requirements

38 – Module 5
 Module 5: Irrigation pumping plant

pump and it should be as short and direct as possible. If a 9.2.4. Discharge pipe
long suction pipe cannot be avoided, then the diameter Like the suction pipe, the discharge pipe should be as short
should be increased. Air pockets and high spots in a suction and free of elbows as possible, in order to reduce friction.
pipe cause trouble. After installation is completed, the A gate valve followed by a check valve should be placed at
suction pipe should be blanked off and tested the pump outlet. The non-return valve prevents backflow
hydrostatically for air leaks before the pump is operated. from damaging the pump when the pumping action is
A strainer should be placed at the end of the inlet pipe to stopped. The gate valve is used to gradually open the water
prevent clogging. Ideally the strainer should be at least four supply from the pump after starting and to avoid
times as wide as the suction pipe. A foot valve may be overloading the motor. The same valve is also used to shut
installed for convenience in priming. The size of the foot off the water supply before switching off the motor.
valve should be such that frictional loses are very minimal.

Module 5 – 39
 Chapter 10
Water hammer phenomenon

Water hammer is the name given to the pressure surges Another expression for the same purpose is provided
caused by some relatively sudden changes in flow velocity. through Equation 11. This equation takes the elasticity of
This can be caused by valve opening or closing, pump the pipe material into consideration. It does not, however,
starting or stopping, cavitation or the collapse of air pockets take into account the valve time closure.
in pipelines, filling empty pipelines or, of most concern to
Equation 11
irrigation applications, a power outage, which suddenly
shuts down all the electric pumps on the pipeline. E
P = 1 423 x V x
When the velocity in the pipeline is suddenly reduced, the d
E + 294 000
kinetic energy (velocity head) of the moving column of t
water is converted into potential energy (pressure head),
Where:
compressing the water and stretching the pipewalls. These
P = The excess pressure above normal (kPa)
disturbances then travel up and down the pipeline as water
V = The velocity of flow (m/s)
hammer waves. The reader has probably experienced the
banging and rattling of household pipework resulting from E = Modulus of elasticity of the pipe material
(for steel, cast iron, concrete and uPVC,
opening and closing a tap too rapidly – this is water E = 21 x 107, 0.5 x 107, 2.1 x 107 and
hammer. 0.28 x 107 respectively)
d = Pipe inside diameter (mm)
The pressure surges may either be positive or negative, i.e.
t = Thickness of pipe wall (mm)
the pressure may either rise above or fall below the
1423 = A constant for metric units
operating pressure (static pressure, Po) by an amount equal
to the maximum surge pressure, or surge head. The total
pressure (Pt) rise due to water hammer is given by In Equation 11, V = V1-V2 where V1 is the upstream
Joukowsky's Law (T-Tape, 1994), stated as: velocity and V2 is the downstream velocity of water in the
Equation 10 pipe. As can be seen, the most severe case occurs when V2
becomes zero due to a sudden valve closure or similar
0.07 x V x L action.
Pt = Po +
T
This equation calculates the surge pressure that would
Where: theoretically occur were the velocity instantaneously
Pt = The total pressure developed in the system changed from V1 to V2. If a valve is closed slowly, the actual
due to water hammer (psi) surge pressure will be less than this value. Thus, using this
Po = The static pressure (psi) equation with V2 equal to zero (or V = V1) provides a
L = Length of pipe on the pressure side of the safety factor.
valve (feet) (3.28 feet = 1 m)
V = Velocity of water at the time the reduction Characteristics of the pipe, such as temperature, pipe
occurred (fps) (3.28 fps = 1 m/s) material and the ratio of the diameter of the pipe to its wall
T = Valve closing time (s) thickness, affect the elastic properties of the pipe and will
ultimately have an impact on the speed at which the shock
waves travel up and down the pipe.

Module 5 – 41
Irrigation manual

Example 10

An irrigation system has a uPVC mainline with a pressure rating of 125 psi. The velocity of flow is 5.29 fps. The
system operating pressure (static) is 50 psi.
1. The longest length of uninterrupted piping between the source and valve is 100 feet and valve closure time is 10
seconds.

0.07 x 5.29 x 100

Pt = 50 + = 50 + 3.7 = 53.7 psi
10

2. The longest length of uninterrupted piping between the source and valve is 100 feet and valve closure time is 1
second.

0.07 x 5.29 x 100

Pt = 50 + = 50 + 37.0 = 87.0 psi
1

3. The longest length of uninterrupted piping between the source and valve is 1000 feet and valve closure time is
10 seconds.

0.07 x 5.29 x 1000

Pt = 50 + = 50 + 37.0 = 87.0 psi
10

4. The longest length of uninterrupted piping between the source and valve is 1000 feet and valve closure time is
1 second.

0.07 x 5.29 x 1000

Pt = 50 + = 50 + 370.3 = 420.3 psi. This is well above the pipe pressure rating of 125 psi
1

⇒ Severe water hammer damage

Example 11

The irrigation system in Example 10 has a uPVC mainline with a pressure rating of 125 psi. The velocity of flow is
5.29 fps. The system operating pressure (static) is 50 psi.

E
P = 1 423 x V x
d
E + 294 000
t

V = 5.29 fps = 1.61 m/s

E = 0.28 x 107 for uPVC
d = 151.4 mm
t = 4.59 mm

0.28 x 107
P = 1 423 x 1.61 x
151.4
0.28 x 107 + 294 000 x
4.59

P = 2291.03 x 0.47333
P = 1084.41 Kpa = 154.9 psi

Pt = Po + P
Pt = 50 psi + 154.9 psi
Pt = 204.9 psi

The resultant water pressure is well above the pipe pressure rating of 125 psi ⇒ Severe water hammer damage

42 – Module 5
 Module 5: Irrigation pumping plant

10.1. Effect of temperature producing higher surge wave velocities. Minimum valve
closure times are given by the formula:
As water temperature increases the pipe material will
become more ductile (elastic). The normal pressure rating Equation 12
is quoted for specific temperature conditions normally
prescribed by the manufacturer. This pressure rating will µ =
2L
need to be derated with a service factor for higher a
temperature conditions to provide for safe operation.
Where
Table 4 shows the service factors for PVC and PE pipes for µ = The return period of the surge waves or the
temperatures higher than 23°C. time taken for the surge wave to travel the
length of the pipe and return to the source
/valve (s)
Table 4
L = Pipe length (m)
Temperature service rating factors for PVC and PE
pipes (Source: Seipt, 1974) a = Surge wave velocity (m/s)

Service Factors Maximum surges will occur for any change in flow velocity
Temperature 0C PVC Pipe PE Pipe that takes place within this minimum time period. This
23.0 1.00 1.00 includes valve opening, pump start-up and pump stopping,
26.7 0.88 0.92 as well as valve closure. The surges are reduced
32.2 0.75 0.81 progressively for periods longer than this “instantaneous”
37.8 0.62 0.70 period.
43.3 0.50 -
48.9 0.40 -
As a rule, when closing valves, the last tenth of travel to
54.4 0.30 -
complete valve closure should not be less than 10 µ or 10
60.0 0.22 -
times the return period of the surge wave. This can amount
to more than 60 s/km of pipeline where uPVC is used.
The pressure rating of the pipe given by the manufacturer Hardies (1985) recommends that for PVC pipelines, the
should be multiplied by the appropriate service factor from maximum pressure variation in total surge pressure, that is
Table 4 to obtain the temperature compensated pressure maximum to minimum, should not exceed 50% of the
rating of the pipe. For example, PVC Class 6 has a rating of normal pressure rating of the pipe. For example, the
6 bars at 23°C, but when the water temperature is maximum surge head for PVC Class 6 should be ± 15 m.
increased to 26.7°C the pressure rating decreases to 5.28 Table 5 gives the recommended maximum surge heads and
bars (0.88 x 6 bars) corresponding changes in flow velocity for each class of
pipe.
10.2. Effect of pipe material and the
relationship between pipe diameter and Table 5
wall thickness Recommended maximum surge heads for PVC pipes
of different classes (Adapted from T-Tape, 1994)
Figure 28 shows the relationship between the ratio of the
diameter of the pipe to its wall thickness. Class d/t H (m) ∆H (m) ∆V (m/s)
6 39 60 ±15 ±0.55
From Figure 28 it can be seen that the wave velocities are 9 23 90 ±22.5 ±0.65
generally much less for uPVC than AC, cast iron and steel. 12 18 120 ±30 ±0.75
This means that the pressure surges will be less in PVC for
a given sudden change in velocity than for the other types. The d/t ratios vary only with pipe class. Thus the ratios used in
this table apply for different pipes sizes, i.e. 160 mm, 200 mm
However, valve closure times that will cause the maximum and 250 mm.
surge will be much longer than for the other types

Module 5 – 43
Irrigation manual

Figure 28
Pressure surge caused by water hammer after sudden valve closure (Source: T-Tape irrigation
Training Seminar, 1994)

To use the chart:

1. Determine the D/t ratio of the pipe and draw a vertical line from that point to intercept the pipe material curve – Line 1
2. Read across to establish the wave velocity (a) – Point 2
3. Determine the fluid velocity (v) from the relevant pipe flow resistance chart and plot – Point 3
4. Connect points 3 and 2 to establish pressure variation – Point 4

44 – Module 5
 Module 5: Irrigation pumping plant

In Table 5: flow of water from the suction side of the pump. This
d = Internal diameter of pipe (mm) valve opens when the pump is shut down and when a
negative pressure develops in the mainline. When the
t = Thickness of pipe wall (mm) valve opens water bypasses the pump and flows into the
H = Nominal rated head of pipe (m) pipeline, relieving the negative pressure build-up, thus
reducing the subsequent positive surge.
∆H = Maximum recommended variation in head due to
cyclic surges (m) The diameter of the suction by-pass should be the same
or bigger than the diameter of the discharge non-return
∆V = Maximum recommended instantaneous variation
valve.
in flow velocity (m/s)
Additional design considerations include:
Polyethylene pipe is not affected by cyclic pressures to
the same extent as is PVC, being more resilient material. Y Surge arrestors (devices such as pressure tanks which
However, surges still occur, as in any other pipeline, thus can absorb shock waves) or automatic pressure
the need to control them to minimize damage to the reducing valves at flow regulators and at pump
pipeline. discharge.
Y Flow controllers used to minimize the rate of filling
10.3. Design and management and to reduce start-up surge in filled lines.
considerations in dealing with water Y In cycling systems, design pipelines, if possible, to
hammer keep out all air, and then to restart with filled system.
In the design process, pipe should be selected with a
Water hammer can not be completely eliminated in an
pressure rating equal to or greater than the combination
economical design, but, by taking precautions during
of operating plus surge pressures.
management and operation, the effects can be
To help minimize surge pressures the maximum velocity minimized. Start-up is critical, especially when pipelines
of water in the pipeline should be limited. General are empty. Empty lines should be filled as slowly as
recommendations given by the Irrigation Association possible to allow entrapped air to escape. In addition, the
(1983) are to limit maximum operating velocities to following cautions should be observed:
1.5 m/s and in no case should velocity exceed 3 m/s. Y Never completely open the gate valve on the
Column separation is the division of the column of water discharge side of a deep-well turbine. This prevents
in a pipeline into two or more segments, due to the excessive shut-off heads from developing.
effects of a negative surge wave and flow velocity in the Y Open all manual valves leading to the zones to be
pipe. The separated water columns produce significant irrigated except the one at the pump discharge. The
surge pressures due to the high velocities encountered pump discharge valve should be opened slowly to
when the column rejoins. A large positive surge results allow the slow filling of the pipeline. Caution should
when the columns rejoin, which very often results in the be observed when filling is interrupted and restarted
fracture of the pipeline at that point. because a quick surge may develop during the restart,
which could slam into a stationary or slow-moving
Entrapped air in a pipeline can cause problems. Air is
body of water. This situation could result in
very compressible and can compress and expand in the
damaging water hammer pressures, especially if air
pipeline, resulting in varying velocity conditions and
becomes entrapped between the waterfronts.
significant pressure variations.
Therefore, follow the same precautions on restart as
Preventing air from accumulating in the system can during the initial starting of the system.
minimize problems associated with air entrapment and Y Make sure all air has been discharged from the
positive surges. This can be accomplished by positioning system before operating the system at full throttle.
air relief valves at the high points on the pipeline.
Y Close all manual valves slowly. No valve should ever
For negative surges a suction by-pass is placed between be closed in less than 10 seconds; 30 seconds or
the pump suction, upstream of the eccentric reducer, and more is preferable.
the pump discharge, just downstream of the butterfly
Y Use the same precautions in stopping the irrigation
valve or non-return valve. A non-return valve is installed
system as used in start-up and general operation.
on this by-pass system, which is then used to control the

Module 5 – 45
Irrigation manual

Water hammer is a complex process, the mechanics of of water hammer and some simple means of control are
which are not fully understood (T-Tape, 1994). However, essential to system designers if their schemes are to
it can be readily analyzed and many effective methods of operate effectively and be trouble-free.
control are available. A basic understanding of the effects

46 – Module 5
 Chapter 11
Operation and maintenance of pumping units

There are several types of pumps available on the market. atmospheric pressure can cause the flow of water inside the
All pump manufacturers provide users' operation and pump.
maintenance manuals specific to their pumps. These have
to be closely adhered to in order to ensure the most The simplest way of doing this is to displace the air in the
efficient operation of the pump and avoid unnecessary system by filling the pump and suction pipe with water. For
pump breakdowns. In view of the wide variety of this purpose, a tank is connected to the pump and a foot
operational instructions, which can be expected for valve to the suction pipe. The tank is filled with water when
different pumps, only general guidelines can be provided the system is operating. Before the system is switched on,
here. the water from the tank is diverted to the pump and suction
pipe via a valve.
Manual pumps are operated by people or animals, whereas
motorized pumps are operated by prime movers, engines However, the most popular priming method is the use of a
and electric motors. In general, the principles of operation manually operated vacuum pump. Other means are also
of pumps are the same. The discharge and pumping head available for priming, such as mechanically operated
relationship of all pumps is dependent on the type of pump vacuum pumps and exhaust primers. At times, horizontal
and the amount of energy that the manual operator or centrifugal pumps are installed at a dam outlet. In this case
prime mover can transfer to the pump, among other no priming is required since the water level inside the dam
factors. Since the principles of pump operation are the is higher than the level of the impeller, which forces the
same, this section will deal with the general aspects of water to remove all the air from the suction pipe and the
pump operation, but with specific reference to motorized volute of the pump.
pumps. The pump must not be run unless it is completely filled
with liquid, otherwise there is danger of damaging some of
11.1. Pump start-up and shut-down the pump components. Wearing rings, bushings, seals or
packing and internal sleeve bearings all need liquid for
There are certain procedures that are recommended by
lubrication and may seize if the pump is run dry.
pump manufactures before any pump start-up. Some of the
pre-start-up inspections recommended immediately after
pump installation are checking for correct pump-motor 11.1.2. Starting the pump
wiring connections, valve connections, shaft and gland The pump is started with the gate valve closed. This is
clearance. It has to be remembered that starting a pump because the pump operates at only 30-50% of full load
dry will cause seizing or destructive wear between the when the discharge gate valve is closed. In cases where
pump components. Therefore, pumps that are not self- the pump is below the water source, the pump can be
priming or those with a positive suction lift should be started with an open gate valve. To avoid water hammer,
primed before they are started. Different manufacturers the gate valve has to be opened gradually until it is fully
also have specific instructions for pump shut down after open.
operation. These have to be adhered to strictly.
11.1.3. Stopping the pump
11.1.1. Priming
The first step is to close the gate valve. This eliminates
While deep well pumps, such as submersible pumps, are surges that may occur in case of an abrupt closure. When
submerged into the water and have no need for priming, this has been done, the prime mover is then closed or shut
the well-known horizontal centrifugal pump usually needs down. If the pump remains idle for a long time after it is
priming. Priming is the process of removing sufficient air stopped, it gradually looses its priming. Thus the operator
from the pump and the suction pipe so that the should re-prime the pump every time before start-up.

Module 5 – 47
Irrigation manual

11.2. Pump malfunctions, causes and remedies (troubleshooting)

Following are some general causes of pump malfunctioning and their remedies that can be used for on-spot trouble-shooting
when pump problems are encountered. Cornell pump manufacturers provide useful information, presented in Table 6, for
identifying and rectifying problems with pumping plants.

Table 6
Pump problems, causes and corrections

SYMPTOMS CAUSES CORRECTIONS

Failure to pump 1. Pump not properly primed 1. Prime pump correctly
2. Speed too low or high 2. Check speed, check calculations, consult with
manufacturer
3. Not enough head to open check valve 3. Check speed, check calculations, consult with
manufacture
4. Air leak 4. Check and rework suction line
5. Plugged section 5. Unplug section
6. Excessive suction lift 6. Check NPSH and consult manufacturer
Rapid wear of 7. Misalignment 7. Align
coupling cushion 8. Bent shaft 8. Replace
Reduced 9. Air pockets or small air leaks in 9. Locate and correct
performance suction line
10. Obstruction in suction line or impeller 10. Remove obstruction
11. Insufficient submergence of suction pipe 11. Extend suction line to deeper water to the extent
that NPSH allows you or excavate and deepen the
area where the suction basket is located
12. Excessively worn impeller or wear ring 12. Replace impeller and/or wear ring
13. Excessive suction lift 13. Calculate NPSH, consult with manufacturer
14. Wrong direction of rotation 14. Ask contractor to rectify
Driver overloaded 15. Speed higher than planned 15. Reduce speed
16. Water too muddy 16. Raise suction
17. Too large an impeller diameter 17. Trim impeller
18. Low voltage 18. Consult power authority
19. Stress in pipe connection to pump 19. Support piping properly
20. Packing too tight 20. Loosen packing gland nuts
Excessive noise 21. Misalignment 21. Align all rotating parts
22. Excessive suction lift 22. Check NPSH, consult with manufacturer
23. Material lodged in impeller 23. Dislodge obstruction
24. Worn bearings 24. Replace bearings
25. Impeller screw loose or broken 25. Replace
26. Cavitation 26. Check NPSH, correct suction piping
27. Wrong direction of rotation 27. Ask contractor to rectify
Premature 28. Worn wear ring 28. Replace
bearings failure 29. Misalignment 29. Align all rotating parts
30. Suction or discharge pipe not properly 30. Correct support
supported
31. Bent shaft 31. Replace shaft
Electric motor 32. High or low voltage 32. Check voltage and consult power authority
failure 33. High electric surge 33. Monitor voltage and consult power authority
34. Poor electric connection 34. Turn power off, clean and check connections
35. Overloads 35. Check amperage, do not exceed full load amperage
36. Bearing failure 36. Change motor bearing
37. Cooling vent plugged (rodent, dirt, leaves) 37. Install proper screen
38. Moisture or water in motor 38. Send for blow-dry and protect from environment

48 – Module 5
 References

Allahwerdi. 1986. Technological Dependency and choice of pumping technologies for Irrigation systems. UNIDO.
ASAE, Undated. Transactions of the ASAE, St Joseph, MI. 417-423 pp.
Australia Irrigation Association. May 1996. Notes for Part B Examinations
Colt Industries. 1975. Hydraulic Handbook.
Cornell Pump Co. Undated. Installation and Care of Cornell Pumps.
FAO. 1986. Water Lifting Devices. FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper 43. Prepared by: Fraenkel, P.L. Rome, Italy.
Grundfos. Undated. Pump Design Manual.
Hardies. 1985. Textbook of Pipeline Design.
Irrigation Association. 1983. Irrigation. 5th Edition.
Keller, J. and Bliesner, R.D. 1990. Sprinkler and trickle irrigation. Chapman and Hall, New York.
Longenbaugh and Duke. 1980. Farm Pumps Chapter of Design and Operation of Farm Irrigation Systems. ASAE Monograph.
Miller, R. 1991. Pumps. Macmillan, New York.
Mono Pump. Undated. Sales Brochure.
Seipt, W.R. 1974. Water hammer considerations for PVC pipeline in irrigation systems.
Stork Pumps. Undated. Pump brochure.
T -Tape. 1994. Irrigation Training Seminar. Australia.
ZITC. 1998. Manual for the manufacture, operation and maintenance of the treadle pump.
ZITC. 1999. Treadle Pump Testing Project Report.

Module 5 – 49
 Irrigation Manual
Module 6

Guidelines for the Preparation of

Technical Drawings

Developed by

Andreas P. SAVVA
and
Karen FRENKEN

Water Resources Development and Management Officers

FAO Sub-Regional Office for East and Southern Africa

Harare, 2002
 Contents
List of figures iv
List of tables iv

1. INTRODUCTION 1

2. DRAWING EQUIPMENT 3

3. SIZES AND SCALES OF DRAWING 5

4. DRAWING LINES AND CHARACTERS 7

4.1. Lines and line work 7
4.2. Lettering and numerals 7

5. LAYOUT OF DRAWINGS 9
5.1. Outline 10
5.2. Plan, cross-section, scheme layout, longitudinal profile and contour map 10
5.2.1. Plans and cross-sections of structures 10
5.2.2. Layout of a sprinkler irrigation scheme 10
5.2.3. Layout of a surface irrigation scheme 14
5.2.4. Longitudinal profiles 15
5.2.5. Contour map 17
5.3. Heading 17
5.4. Legend 17
5.5. Notes and amendments 17

6. REGISTERING AND FILING OF DRAWINGS 21

Module 6 – iii
 List of figures
1. Relationship between the different normal A-size papers 5
2. An example of different stencils and letter heights used in lettering 8
3. Schematic layout of a technical drawing 9
4. Outline of a drawing 10
5. Example of lines, lettering and numerals used in the drawing of the plan of a diversion structure 11
6. Example of lines, lettering and numerals used in the drawing of a cross-section (A-A in Figure 5) 12
of a diversion structure
7. Example of lines, lettering and numerals used in the drawing of the layout of a sprinkler irrigation scheme 13
8. Example of lines, lettering and numerals used in the drawing of the layout of a surface irrigation scheme 14
9. Drawing showing the longitudinal profile of a canal 15
10. An example of a drawing of a contour map 16
11. An example of a heading or a title block used for drawings of A1 and A0 paper sizes 18
12. Some of the commonly-used legend symbols in irrigation and drainage layout drawings 19
13. Folding of different A-size papers in order to fit in a A4 document 22

List of tables
1. Minimum equipment requirements for a reasonable drawing office 3
2. Nominal sizes and areas of normal A-size papers 5
3. Nominal sizes and areas of alternative A-size papers 6
4. Example of a register for a drawing office 21

iv – Module 6
 Chapter 1
Introduction

Technical drawings should be prepared for every design, for developing plans by testing a number of alternative
whether it refers to a scheme layout, a structure or a designs, or for evolving detail drawings of complex project
longitudinal profile of a canal. They are essential for elements. They are particularly useful in recording details
completing the engineering design, for estimating the and dimensions from existing structures or prefabricated
quantities of materials and relative costs and for units.
implementing the project.
Once the final drawing has been chosen from the sketches,
Technical drawings also communicate to the contractor all it is re-drawn with instruments on tracing paper so that
the information that the designer or client has developed. prints may be readily made. Relatively light paper, 70-
Contractors, on their part, are always required to provide 75 g/m2 paper, can generally be used. However, if many
the client with so-called Working drawings and As built or prints have to be made heavier paper should be used. Plastic
Record drawings (see Module 12). These drawings should tracing film is a more durable material than tracing paper,
incorporate any modifications made to the originals especially for handling and storage, and it has the advantage
provided by the client during construction. that ink can be removed with a moist eraser. It is however
more expensive than tracing paper and requires the use of
Technical drawings also serve as future reference for anyone special lead and drawing pens, since its surface is much
who wants to obtain information about the scheme, for harder.
example for operation, maintenance, repairs and
rehabilitation purposes. Technical drawings should be easily understood, and
comprehensive and detailed enough for the purpose. They
Simple freehand sketches are convenient forerunners to the should be a good record of the designer's intentions. In this
final working, and are frequently used for preliminary module standardization of drawings and guidelines to be
studies or to illustrate an explanation during a discussion. adhered to by designers and to be used in the drawing office
They are also a logical way for the designer to convey their will be discussed.
ideas to the draftsperson. Freehand sketches may be used

Module 6 –1
 Chapter 2
Drawing equipment

It is important to have a permanent workplace, a drawing hardboard or blockboard may be used as a drawing board,
office, for the preparation of drawings. The layout of the it is advisable to install a hardwood edge such as ebony. It
drawing office should provide an efficient and comfortable may be necessary to saw longitudinal grooves 75-100 mm
environment for the draftsperson. This includes a good apart in the back of the board to prevent warping. The
chair (stool) of convenient height, a good tiltable drawing board may be placed on a table or on trestles and should be
board, sufficient light and sufficient space for the drawing covered with thick white paper or special plastic to give a
equipment (Table 1). smooth surface. Drafting tape should be used to affix the
tracing paper or film to the table, as the low adhesion allows
A good drawing board should be large enough to hold the for easy removal without damage.
size of the paper selected (see Chapter 3). While a sheet of

Table 1
Minimum equipment requirements for a reasonable drawing office

Furniture : Table Filing : Files

Chair Fling cabinet or drawer
Light Pens/pencils : Cedarwood pencil
Drawing board Clutch pencil 2mm
Cutting board Clutch pencil 0.3-0.9mm
Curves : Circles template Leads (2H, HB, 2B)
Ellipse template Ink-pen 0.25, 0.35, 0.50, 0.70
Lettering template or stencil Fibre-tip pens
French curve Sharpeners : Pen knife
Flexible curve Mechanical sharpeners
Compass plus bar Sand paper
Fixing : Drawing tape Cutting : Scissors
Masking tape Knife
Drawing pins Scalpel
Weights Paper : Sketching A4 transparent
Erasing : Rubber (vinyl) Tracing A1 transparent
Ink rubber Scratch pad A4
Razor blade Card board
Erasing shield Sketch book
Lines : T-square Grid paper
Set squares Handling : Storage shelf
Adjustable set square Tubes
Scale rule Case for instruments
Protractor Other : Cleaning cloth
Hangers
Metal ruler

Module 6 –3
 Chapter 3
Sizes and scales of drawings

For technical drawings normal A-size papers are usually equal to two times the width of the next smaller size (Table
used, for which there is a fixed relation of √2:1 between the 2). This means that the area of the next smaller size is half
length and width of the paper (Figure 1 and Table 2). In the area of the preceding size. The fixed relation between
simple terms, this relation means that the length is 1.41 length and width allows reductions and enlargements of
times the width. The width of one paper size is equal to the drawings to be made.
length of the next smaller size and the length of one size is

Figure 1
Relationship between the different normal A-size papers

Table 2
Nominal sizes and areas of normal A-size papers

Format Nominal size: width (mm) x length (mm) Area (m2)

A0 841 x 1189 1.00
A1 594 x 841 0.50
A2 420 x 594 0.25
A3 297 x 420 0.125
A4 210 x 297 0.0625
A5 148 x 210 0.0312

Module 6 –5
Irrigation manual

Table 3
Nominal sizes and areas of alternative A-size papers

Format Nominal size: width (mm) x length (mm) Area (m2)

A10 594 x 1189 0.70
A20 420 x 1189 0.50
A21 420 x 841 0.35
A31 297 x 841 0.25
A32 297 x 594 0.18

If the project plans tend to be very long, as can be the case For contour maps prepared for irrigation purposes and for
when drawing a longitudinal profile of a canal for example, irrigation layouts, common scales vary from 1:500 to 1:2 000
alternative A-sizes may be useful (Table 3). depending on the size of area. It is not recommended to use
scales larger than 1:2 000. If the scheme area cannot fit within
The formats A0, A10 and A20 are difficult to handle and one drawing, it is recommended to divide the area into
should be avoided, if possible. Instead, try to use a smaller appropriate blocks and make more drawings. For structures,
scale or divide the figure into more drawings. If possible, the scales normally vary from 1:5 to 1:100. Sufficient cross-
only one format should be used for all drawings in a project sections and details should be included.
or alternatively all drawings should have the same height.
Before starting to draw, one should estimate how large the
A number of sheets of each size of paper should be sourced figure will be and centre it on the page. A worthwhile aid to
in advance and kept in the drawing office. Then, whenever include is a small figure, identifying the location of a detail
a drawing is brought into the drawing office for tracing, the drawing in relation to the master plan.
best paper size can be chosen. The designer should select
the scale of the drawings such that they fit onto the selected The scale of a drawing should be shown on a line scale
paper size and enough detail can be seen. form, so that it remains valid when reducing or enlarging
the drawing through photocopying.

6– Module 6
 Chapter 4
Drawing lines and characters

4.1. Lines and line work Clarity, style, spacing and size are very important in a
technical drawing. Using the correct techniques, clear
Principal lines are first sketched by pencil using a number
lettering can be produced as easily and as swiftly as scratchy
of short strokes. Once the joining points have been
letters. Suggested heights for letters are:
established and lines are satisfactorily straight, they may be
traced by ink-pen and darkened as needed to give emphasis Y 3 mm or 0.3 cm for the text in figures, measurements
and easy reading. All lines should be uniformly black. and descriptive techniques
Thick continuous lines define visible edges and outlines, while Y 5 mm or 0.5 cm and 7 mm or 0.7 cm for headings and
thin continuous lines are for dimensioning and leader lines. for drawings that will be reduced

Dashed lines indicate hidden outlines and edges while thin, Lettering should normally run from left to right and be
mixed broken and dotted lines are mostly used for centre parallel to the edge of the sheet. When it becomes
lines. Dashed lines should start and end with dashes in necessary for lettering to run vertically it should always run
contact with the hidden or visible lines from which they from the bottom upwards.
originate. If a dashed line meets a curved line tangentially, Notes and captions should be placed in such a way that they
it should be so marked using a solid portion of dashed line. can be read in the same direction as the title block. The
All chain lines should start and finish with a long dash. underlining of notes and captions is not recommended.
Centre lines show the centre of a structure, such as a road Instead, larger characters should be used to draw attention
or part of it, or they indicate at what place in the structure to a note or a caption.
a designed cross-section is taken. When centre lines define For an unskilled draftsperson, guiding lines may be
centre points, they should cross one another at long dash essential. They may be drawn lightly in pencil for
portions of the line. Centre lines should extend only a short subsequent erasure when lettering is done in ink; or they
distance beyond the feature or view to which they apply, may take the form of a closely-gridded sheet laid
and they should not touch a line off the drawing (for underneath the transparent tracing paper.
example the lines indicating the dimensions).
Letters and words are spaced by eye rather than by
The drawings presented in this module provide illustrations measuring. If the proportion, form and spacing of the
of all these lines. letters are done properly, the result will be pleasing to the
eye.
4.2. Lettering and numerals
Figure 2 shows the different stencils, ink-pen sizes and
Ideally, in technical drawings letters and numbers of a letter heights that can be used in lettering.
straight upright type (sans serif) are used, as shown in the
example in the box below.

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ – bold

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ – regular

abcdefghIjklmnopqrstuvwxyz – bold

abcdefghIjklmnopqrstuvwxyz – regular

1234567890 – bold

1234567890 – regular

Module 6 –7
Irrigation manual

Figure 2
An example of the different stencils and letter heights used in lettering

8– Module 6
 Chapter 5
Layout of drawings

Figure 3 gives a schematic layout of a technical drawing. The and the most commonly used ink-pen size or thickness of
details (A, B, C and D) will be explained in the next sections, 0.50, 0.35 and 0.25 mm will be indicated in italics.

Figure 3
Schematic layout of a technical drawing

Module 6 –9
Irrigation manual

5.1. Outline
For A0, A1, A2 and A3 size paper, an outline is made by tracing The line thickness to be used is 0.50 mm. For A4 and A5 size
two lines at the edge of the paper at 1 cm spacing (Figure 4). paper, it is 0.5 cm spacing and 0.35 mm line thickness.

Figure 4
Outline of a drawing For A4 and A5 paper

For A0, A1, A2 and A3 paper

5.2. Plan, cross-section, scheme layout, should be traced with the 0.25 mm pen. The cutoff lines
longitudinal profile and contour map are also broken and dotted using a thickness of 0.25 mm.
The recommended ink-pen sizes for the different lines,
5.2.1. Plans and cross-sections of structures
letters and numbers are indicated in the Figures 5-11.
For every structure, a clear plan (top view) and a sufficient
number of cross-sections should be made so that the The parts of the structure through which one should cut in
drawing is clear. The drawing should be clear enough that order to get a view of its section could be shaded, as with
the structure can be constructed on site by reading the the concrete floor in Figure 6. This is usually done by
drawing. Figures 5 and 6 give an example of a top view and drawing lines across the section at an angle of 45° to the
a cross-section respectively. edges of the structure, as is done at the middle of the
concrete floor in Figure 6. Alternatively, dots could be used,
There should always be at least 3 cm spacing between the as shown at the edges of the concrete floor of Figure 6.
outline and the drawing, depending on the size of the paper.
By doing so, one avoids squeezing in the dimensions of the 5.2.2. Layout of a sprinkler irrigation scheme
structure. It is recommended to trace the structure itself
with the 0.5 mm ink-pen size. Less important aspects of the Figure 7 shows an example of lines, lettering and numerals
drawing, such as the canal in Figure 5, should be traced used in the drawing of a layout of a sprinkler irrigation
with the 0.35 mm pen. All dimension and centre lines system.

10 – Module 6
 Module 6: Guidelines for the preparation of technical drawings

Figure 5
Example of lines, lettering and numerals used in the drawing of the plan of a diversion structure

Module 6 – 11
Irrigation manual

Figure 6
Example of lines and numerals used in the drawing of a cross-section (A-A in Figure 5) of a diversion
structure

12 – Module 6
 Module 6: Guidelines for the preparation of technical drawings

Figure 7
Example of lines, lettering and numerals used in the drawing of the layout of a
sprinkler irrigation scheme

Module 6 – 13
Irrigation manual

The tracing should be done such that the biggest size pipe 90 and 126 mm pipes). All segments of a same pipe size
is indicated with a 0.50 mm pen. For smaller size pipes should have the same ink-pen thickness and also the same
subsequently smaller size ink-pens are used. As there are segment length.
usually more pipe sizes than there are available ink-pen
sizes, it is important to clearly indicate the diameter and the 5.2.3. Layout of a surface irrigation scheme
class of the pipe, as is done in Figure 7. For example, Ø 63
refers to the pipe diameter and the number 6 between The layout of a surface scheme should be traced in the same
brackets refers to the pipe class. All pipelines should be way as a sprinkler scheme. Figure 8 shows an example of
indicated with a broken line (see the 25, 32, 40 and 50 mm lines, lettering and numerals used in the drawing of a layout
pipes) or a mixed broken and dotted line (see the 63, 75, of a surface irrigation system.

Figure 8
Example of lines, lettering and numerals used in the drawing of the layout of a surface irrigation scheme

14 – Module 6
 Module 6: Guidelines for the preparation of technical drawings

The larger canal sizes should be traced with the largest size drop structures, bridges and culverts. These should all be
ink-pen (0.50 mm). Irrigation canals should be indicated explained in the legend (see Section 5.4 and Figure 12).
with continuous lines, drainage channels should be
indicated with broken lines. In Figure 8, some drainage 5.2.4. Longitudinal profiles
channels are perpendicular to the direction of the irrigation
water flow over the field (and at the bottom of the field). Drawings showing longitudinal profiles of canals are not
The arrows starting from field canals indicate the direction only prepared to calculate required earthworks but also to
of the irrigation water flow. Other drains, which are parallel facilitate their setting out during construction. One should
to the infield roads (shown by dashed lines with long and select an appropriate vertical and horizontal scale, such that
short segments), are parallel to the arrows showing flow the figure fits on the paper size and enough detail can be
direction. Surface irrigation schemes usually have many read. Figure 9 shows an example of a longitudinal profile.
different kinds of structures, for example diversion and The recommended ink-pen sizes to be used are again
indicated.

Figure 9
Drawing showing the longitudinal profile of a canal

Module 6 – 15
Irrigation manual

Figure 10
An example of the drawing of a contour map

16 – Module 6
 Module 6: Guidelines for the preparation of technical drawings

5.2.5. Contour map 5.4. Legend

An example of part of a contour map is shown in Figure 10. In general, many symbols are used in irrigation and
The recommended ink-pen sizes are again indicated. All drainage layouts. The most important symbols are given in
contour lines were traced with a 0.35 mm ink-pen size, Figure 12. All explanations in the legend, such as main
except those at 5 m intervals, like 100.00 and 95.00, for drain or drop structure, should be written in small letters
which a 0.50 mm ink-pen was used. using a 0.35 mm ink-pen.

5.3. Heading 5.5. Notes and amendments

Figure 11 shows the heading that could be used for all At the bottom of each drawing, a space of 4 cm in height is
drawings on A1 and A0 paper sizes. For smaller paper sizes, left for notes and amendments (see E in Figure 3).
a reduced heading size should be used, otherwise too much
space will be taken from the paper. The heading should Examples of notes are:
clearly indicate the title of the drawing, the persons Y Concrete mix is 1:2:3
responsible for survey, design, checking and approval, as
well as the scale and the date. Each drawing should be Y All brick walls to be plastered on both sides
numbered. Drawings related to each other, for example a Y Soil refill to be well compacted in layers of 15 cm at the
layout drawing and longitudinal canal sections, should be correct soil moisture
indicated as collateral drawings. Dates of any amendments
should be indicated and explained in the box containing Any amendments made after the original design should also
notes and amendments. be explained in this section. As an example, when an extra
tertiary canal is added in the field it should be indicated and
explained on the drawing.

Module 6 – 17
Irrigation manual

Figure 11
An example of a heading or title block used for drawings of A1 and A0 sizes

18 – Module 6
 Module 6: Guidelines for the preparation of technical drawings

Figure 12
Some of the commonly-used legend symbols in irrigation and drainage layout drawings

Module 6 – 19
 Chapter 6
Registering and filing of drawings

As a rule, the engineers prepare their drawings with for filing should be kept in filing cabinets. Drawings that
pencil on bond paper. These drawings or sketches are are pending should be kept flat, either in a drawer or on
brought to the drawing office for tracing. Once the top of a large table.
drawing is brought to the drawing office, the entry date,
name of designer and title of drawing should be entered Usually, prints are made of the traced original drawing. For
in a register. The supervisor of the drawing office should storage of the originals, the drawings should be rolled with
allocate one of the technical officers or draftspersons to the printed side facing outwards and kept in a dark place.
do the tracing. Their name should also be entered in the For storage of copies in a binder or for inclusion in
register, as shown in Table 4. Once the tracing of the documents, the copies (not originals) should be folded in
drawing is completed, the date should be indicated in such a way that the title block is visible and that it can be
the register. Drawings that are completed and returned unfolded without being taken out of the binder (Figure 13).

Table 4
Example of a register for drawing office

Date in Designer Drawing title Draftsperson Date completed

17.01.87 Stoutjesdijk Nabusenga layout Mabwe 23.01.87
21.02.97 Madyiwa Tikwiri land levelling map Mutasa 10.03.97
22.02.97 Chirwa Nyatate main canal Maina 28.02.97

Module 6 – 21
Irrigation manual

Figure 13
Examples of folding of different A-size papers in order to fit in an A4 document

22 – Module 6
 Friction head
100 0 Total
dynamic Pressure head
head
Example:
Module 1 Static Sprink

FAO Irrigation Manual : Volume I – Module 1–6

Total
30% Sand static discharge
80 20 head head
Irrigation development: 30% Clay

Irrigation
40% Silt Static suction head
A multifaceted process (social, economic, engineering, agronomic, Water
Clay Classification: Clay loam
health and environmental issues to be considered in a feasibility study)

y
cla

Pe
60 40

ge

rce
Module 2

nta

nta
rce

ge
Silty Friction head
Natural resources assessment

Pe
Total

Sil
clay

Manual
Sandy dynamic

t
40 60 head
Pressure head

Module 3 clay
Clay loam Silty clay
loam Static
Sprink
Sandy clay Total
Agronomic aspects of irrigated crop production loam static discharge
head
head
20 80
Module 4 Lo Sandy
Loam
Silt loam
am
Crop water requirements and irrigation scheduling ys
an
loam
Silt
Static
Sand d suction lift

Module 5 0
100 80 60 40 20 0
100
water

Irrigation pumping plant

Planning, Development,
Percentage sand

Module 6 Solar radiation

Guidelines for the preparation of technical drawings Monitoring & Evaluation
Atmospheric circulation

Module 7
Surface irrigation systems:
Planning, design, operation and maintenance
Rain clouds of Cloud formation

Module 8 Irrigated Agriculture

Sprinker irrigation systems:
Planning, design, operation and maintenance
Precipitation
with
Transpiration
Evaporation
Module 9
Localized irrigation systems:
Planning, design, operations and maintenance
Farmer Participation Runoff
Evaporation

Water table Rivers & lakes

Module 10
Irrigation equipment for pressurized systems

Module 11 Ocean
Financial and economic appraisal of irrigation projects

Module 12
Groundwater
Volume I
Salt water

Harare, 2002
Guidelines for the preparation of tender documents

Module 13
Construction of irrigation schemes
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)
Sub-Regional Office for East and Southern Africa (SAFR)
Module 1–6
Harare, 2002
Module 14 Food
Food
Monitoring the technical and financial performance of an ir rigation A And
Agriculture
Organization A And
Agriculture
F O Of Organization
scheme The F O Of

IS
F
AT N United
A

I
PA The

IS
Nations

F
AT N United

I
PA
F O Nations

IS
F
AT N

I
PA