Nuclear structure & decays

Contents
1 Structure of matter and energy scales 2

2 Binding Energy 2
2.1 Semi-empirical mass formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

3 Decays and reactions 7

3.1 Alpha Decays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.1.1 Rate calculation for α decays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.2 Beta decays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.2.1 Fermi theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

4 Nuclear Scattering 16
4.1 Cross sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
4.2 Resonances and the Breit-Wigner formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
4.3 Nuclear scattering and form factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

5 Key points 23

Appendices 24

.A Natural units 24

.B Tools 25
.B.1 Decays and the Fermi Golden Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
.B.2 Density of states . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
.B.3 Fermi G.R. example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
.B.4 Lifetimes and decays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
.B.5 The flux factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
.B.6 Luminosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

.C Shell Model § 28

.D Gamma decays § 30

1
 Nuclear structure & decays

1 Structure of matter and energy scales

Subatomic physics deals with objects of the size of the atomic nucleus and smaller.
We cannot see subatomic particles directly, but we may obtain knowledge of their
structures by observing the effect of projectiles that are scattered from them. The
resolution any such probe is limited to of order the de Broglie wavelength,
h
λ= (1)
p
where h is Planck’s constant, and p is the momentum of the projectile. If we
wish to resolve small distances, smaller than the size of the atom, we will need to
do so with probes with high momenta. Smaller objects also tend to have larger
binding energies holding them together, so require larger energies to excite their
internal components. Some typical sizes of objects are given below, together with
the momementum of the projectile required to resolve their size, and typical binding
energies in electron-volt (eV) units. keV 103 eV
MeV 106 eV
GeV 109 eV
Object Size p = λh Binding energy TeV 1012 eV
−10
Atom 10 m 10 keV/c ∼ eV
−15
Nucleus ∼ 10 m 1 GeV/c ∼ MeV
Quark < 10−19 m > TeV/c > TeV

We can see that small objects also tend to have high binding energies, and hence
probes of large energy will be required in order to excite them or break them up. The
momenta are indicated in units of eV/c where c is the speed of light. These units
make it easy to compare the momentum of the projetile to its corresponding energy
E = pc for the case of a massless probe such as a photon. The most convenient
unit for describing the size of nuclei is the femtometer 10−15 m.1 No sub-structure
has yet been found for quarks even when using very high energy (TeV) probes.

2 The Nuclear Periodic Table and Binding Energy

Nuclei are found to be made out of two constituents: protons and neutrons. We
label nuclei by their atomic number Z which is the number of protons they contain,
by their neutron number N , and by their mass number A = Z + N .
1 The unit of 10−15 m or femtometer is sometimes called the ‘fermi’ reflecting the many seminal

contributions of the Italian physicist Enrico Fermi to the field of nuclear physics.

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2.1 Semi-empirical mass formula

The symbol used to identify a nucleus is

A
Z XN

where X is the name of the chemical element. For example the Carbon-14 nucleus,
which contains 8 neutrons and 6 protons is denoted 146 C8 . Since the element’s
name specifies the number of electrons, and hence the atomic number Z, and since
A = N + Z, we can fully specify the nucleus by just the symbol for the chemical
and the mass number,
A
X e.g. 14 C.
Isotopes Same Z
Isotones Same N
Most nuclei are spherical in shape. The nuclear radius r can be measured in scat-
tering experiments, and follows the general rule Isobars Same A

Notation for related nuclei

r = r0 A1/3 (2)

where the constant r0 is the characteristic nuclear size and is about 1.2 × 10−15 m.
The fact that r is proportional to A1/3 indicates that the volume of the nucleus
V ∝ r3 is proportional to the mass number A. Each proton or neutron is therefore
making an equal contribution to the overall nuclear volume.

2.1 Binding energy and the semi-empirical mass formula

The mass m(A, Z) of the nucleus containing Z protons and A − Z neutrons should
be given by the mass of its consituents, less the mass associated with the binding
energy. The mass-energy is therefore

m(A, Z)c2 = Zmp c2 + (A − Z)mn c2 − B(A, Z), (3)

where mp ≈ 938.3 MeV/c2 and mn ≈ 939.6 MeV are the masses of the proton and
neutron respectively. In nuclear physics it is convenient to measure energies in units
of MeV and masses in units of MeV/c2 . Using these units makes it easy for us to
convert from mass to mass-energy and vice versa. By assuming such units, we can
omit the factors of c2 in what follows. 2

We can build up a functional form for the binding energy B(A, Z) by considering
the forces between the nuclear constituents. To find the full quantum mechanical
ground state for all of the protons and neutrons would be a very difficult problem.
However we can understand a great deal about nuclear behaviour by building up a
model of the mass which encapsulates its key features. This we will do over the rest
of the section, building up towards the semi-empirical mass formula of equation
(5). The ‘semi-empirical’ means that the model is built partly partly by demanding
agreement with data, and partly from our understanding of the underlying theory.

Firstly, we will need an attractive force in order to hold the nucleus together against
the mutual electrostatic replusion of its constituent protons. That force must be
2 For more on ‘natural units’ see appendix .A.

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2.1 Semi-empirical mass formula

Figure 1: Binding energy per nucleon (B/A) as a function of A for some common
nuclei. Data taken from [1]. Plot from [source].

very strong, since the Coulomb electrostatic repulsion between a pair of protons,
each of charge e and separated by distance d ≈ 1 fm, is

e2
F =
4π0 d2
≈ 230 N

which is macroscopic – comparable to the weight of a child.

What form should that nucleon-nucleon attractive force take? We can get clues
about the force by looking at the binding energy per nucleon B/A is shown for
some common nuclei, shown in Figure 1. For nuclei this binding energy is typically
of order 8 MeV per nucleon. It can be seen that the most stable nuclei are found
around 56 Fe. Different behaviours can be seen in different regions. There is a broad
flattish plateau for the central region 30 < A < 200 for which B/A ≈ 8 MeV.
For A below about 30 the binding energy per nucleon is smaller than the plateau
value and is spiky. There is a systematic drop in B/A for large A, particularly for
A > 200.

To obtain a value of B/A that is rather flat, we cannot permit strong attractions
between each of the constituent nucleons and every one of the others. If every
nucleon felt an attraction to each of the others, then the binding energy would be
expected to grow as approximately B ∝ A(A − 1) ∼ A2 , and hence B/A would be
approximately proportional to A. Such a linear growth in B/A is ruled out by the
data (Figure 1).

To obtain the flat B/A found in nature we must assume that the strongly attractive
force acts only between nearest neighbour nucleons. In this way, each nucleon
binds to the same number of nearest neighbours, independently of the size of the
nucleus, and hence the binding energy per nucleon is the same regardless of the

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2.1 Semi-empirical mass formula

nuclear size,
B ≈ αA
where α is a constant with units of energy. The use of nearest-neighbour interactions
indicates that the force must either be short-range, or screened from long-range
interactions by the effects of the nucleons in between.

In modelling a nearest-neighbour force we ought to make a correction for the fact

that those nucleons on the surface have fewer neighbours. To correct for the reduced
number of binding opportunities on the surface we reduce the binding energy by an
amount proportional to the surface area, leading to the corrected formula
2
B ≈ αA − βA 3 . (4)

The new contribution is negative since it reduces the binding energy. We have made
use of the observation (2) that since the volume of the nucleus scales as r3 ∝ A,
the surface area scales as r2 ∝ A2/3 .

These two terms (4) in this first approximation to the binding energy are known as
the volume term and the surface term respectively. Together they form what is
known as the liquid drop model, since a similar result would be found for a drop of
fluid with nearest neighbour interactions and a surface tension parameterised by β.
The liquid drop model is consistent with the observation that each nucleon requires
the same volume of space, in agreement with equation (2).

So far, so good. However there is nothing in this liquid drop model to prevent the
growth of arbitrarily large nuclei. Such large nuclei are not observed in nature, so
we must be missing something. The obvious candidate is the Coulomb repulsion,
which interacts over long distances, and so will tend to push larger nuclei apart.
This electrostatic repulsion between protons will reduce the binding energy by an
amount proportional to Z(Z − 1) ≈ Z 2 because every proton feels the repulsion
from all of the other protons (not just nearest neighbours). The binding energy will
be reduced by the electrostatic binding energy which can be parameterised by

Z2
 1 .
A3
Here  is a another constant with dimensions of energy, which we will calculate a
value for in the examples. The Coulomb repulsion energy is inversely proportional to
1
the radius of the nucleus, and hence to A 3 , since the potential energy of a uniform
2 E
sphere of charge Q is proportional to Q /r.
ΕF

Two further terms are required to give a good match between our model and the
data. Both of them are quantum mechanical in origin. P N

Firstly there is an asymmetry term. The origin of this term is as follows. Since
protons are identical fermions, the Pauli exclusion principal states that no two of
them may exist in the same state. Nor may any neutron occupy the same state as gZ HEL gN HEL
any other neutron. However it is possible for a proton and a neutron to exist in the The density of states g(E) for
same state since the two particles are not identical. The allowed states are therefore protons and neutrons as a
distinct, and are separately filled for the protons compared to the neutrons. function of energy E.

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2.1 Semi-empirical mass formula

Z Z
4 5 6
100 100
7.5 7.5
7.75
80 80
8 7
8
60 60
8.25
8.5
8.5
40 8.5 40 3
8
7.75
20 7.5 20
8.5
8.25
8 7.25
7.57
77 N N
50 100 150 50 100 150

(a) (a)

Figure 2: Diagram showing binding energies as a function of proton and neutron

number for (a) data [1] and (b) the Semi-Empirical Mass Formula.

We can work out the size of the asymmetry effect by calculating the number of
states available. Neutrons and protons are both fermions, and so obey Fermi-Dirac
statistics. The temperatures we are interested in are small compared to the chemical
potential (kB T  µ). Under these circumstances the Fermi-Dirac distribution tends
towards a step function — all levels are filled up to some energy level, known as the 1
p(Ei ) =
Fermi Energy F , with all states with energy above F left vacant. e(Ei −µ)/kB T + 1
The Fermi-Dirac function gives
At large mass number A the Coloumb repulsion term would tend to favour larger the probability p(Ei ) of filling a
state with energy Ei for a system
N and smaller Z, since neutrons do not suffer from the Coulomb repulsion as at temperature T and with
protons do. However this energic advantage of neutrons over protons will be partially chemical potential µ. kB is the
cancelled out by the fact that the additional neutrons must (on average) be placed Boltzmann constant.
in higher energy levels than additional protons, since all of the lower-energy neutron
states will already be filled.
1
The density of available states is found to be proportional to E 2 . In the examples E
we show that this leads to an energy equation of the form ΕF
2
(N − Z)
γ .
A P N

This asymmetry term reduces the binding energy, doing so most when the differ-
ence between the number of protons and of neutrons is largest.

Finally there is a pairing term which accounts for the observation that nuclei with gZ HEL gN HEL
either even numbers of protons (Z even) or with even numbers of neutrons (N The density of states g(E) for
protons and neutrons as a
even) tend to be more stable than those with odd nuclei. The pairing term is zero function of energy E.
for odd-A nuclei. Even A nuclei have two possibilities. If both Z and N are even
then the nucleus is more tightly bound and have an extra binding contribution, so
B is increased by δ. If both Z and N are odd then the nucleus is less tightly bound
and so B is decreased by δ. N Z pairing term
even even δ
Putting all five terms together we obtain a formula for the binding energy, even odd 0
odd even 0
2 (A − 2Z)2 Z2
B(A, Z) = αA − βA 3 − γ −  1 + δ(A, Z), odd odd −δ
A A3

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 Volume Surface Asymmetry Coulomb Pairing
α β γ  δ
√
15.835 18.33 23.2 0.71 11.2/ A

Figure 3: Typical values of the SEMF parameters (in MeV). From Bowler.

having eliminated N in favour of A. Substituting this into the formula defining the
binding energy (3) we obtain the semi-empirical mass formula (SEMF)

2 (N − Z)2 Z2
M (A, Z) = Zmp + (A − Z)mn − αA + βA 3 + γ +  1 − δ(N, Z).
A A3
(5)

Other than for A < 30, where our approximations are less valid, the SEMF gives a
rather good description of the binding energies of the observed nuclei (Figure 2). In
particular the SEMF correctly predicts the shape of the curved valley of stability
in the Z, N plane within which the stable nuclei are found. The relative numbers
of protons and neutrons along this valley reflects a trade-off between the Coulomb
and asymmetry terms. At low A the asymmetry term favours N = Z. At larger A Sketch of the shape of the valley
the Coulomb term starts to compete with the asymmetry term, reducing the ratio of stability.
of protons to neutrons.

It is energetically favourable for nuclei far from that valley to migrate towards it by
nuclear decay, in the ways we describe in the following section.

3 Decays and reactions

A table of the nuclides can be found in Figure 4. The stable long-lived nuclides lie
along the valley of stability where the binding energy per nucleon is largest. The
valley lies along N ≈ Z for light nuclei but has N > Z for heavier nuclei. Nuclei far
from that valley, and very heavy nuclei, tend to be unstable against nuclear decay.

While unstable nuclei will decay spontaneously, other reactions can be initiated by
firing projectiles at a nucleus. Reactions are said to be elastic if the final state
contains the same set of particles e.g. the elastic scattering of a photon from a
nucleus, via an excited intermediate state:

X + γ −→ X ∗ −→ X + γ.

Reactions are inelastic if there is a change in particle content during the reaction
e.g. radiative capture of a neutron
A
X + n −→ A+1 X∗ −→ A+1 X + γ.

For all nuclear decays and reactions we define the Q value to be amount of energy

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January 18, 2014
8

Figure 4: Table of the nuclides as a function of the number of neutrons (N , on the x-axis) and the number of protons (Z on the y-axis).

c A.J.Barr 2009-2013.
Darker colours represent longer-lived nuclides, which can be found in the ‘valley of stability’. The ‘Magic Numbers’ indicate particularly stable
nuclei and are described in the shell model (see appendix .C). From http://www.nndc.bnl.gov/nudat2/.
3.1 Alpha Decays

Figure 5: Decay modes of the nuclei. From [1].

‘released’ by the decay,

X X
Q= Mi − Mf

The first sum is over the masses of the initial particles in the decay (including Z
their binding energies), while the second sum is over the masses of the final-state Β+, EC
particles (including their binding energies). A positive Q value shows that a reaction
is energetically favourable.
Α
Β-

3.1 Alpha Decays

N
The changes in (Z, A) induced by
Alpha decays occur when (usually heavy) nuclei eject an ‘α particle’, that is a helium various decays.
nucleus containing two protons and two neutrons. The decay is
A
ZX −→ A−4 4
Z−2 Y + 2 He.

The change of mass number of the heavy nucleus is ∆A = −4 and the change in
its atomic number is −2.

The process of decay of heavy nuclei is often via sequential chains involving both
alpha and beta decays. Since ∆A = −4 for α decays and ∆A = 0 for β and γ
decays we see that for any nucleus starting with mass number A (and if it only
decays via alpha, beta or gamma decay processes) all other nuclei in that chain
must have some other set of mass numbers A0 = A − 4m, where m is an integer
indicating the number of alpha decays that have occured.

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3.1 Alpha Decays

There are therefore four non-overlapping decay chains for the heavy elements, cor-
responding to A = n, A = n + 1, A = n + 2, and A = n + 3 respectively, where
n is an integer. So for example a chain initiated by 238 U will decay via nuclides
with mass numbers separated by four units A = {238, 234, 230, . . . , 4n + 2, . . .}.
This occurs via the series of decays:
238 α β β α α
U −→ 234 Th −→ 234 Pa −→ 234 U −→ 230 Th −→ 226 Th etc.
The other three types of chain can, for example, be initiated from decays of the
following isotopes: 232 Th (leading to nuclides in the A = 4n series); 237 Np (leading
to nuclides in the A = 4n + 1 series); and 239 Pu (leading to nuclides in the A =
4n + 3 series).

3.1.1 Rate calculation for α decays

We can model the α decay as a process in which ‘proto α particles’ are pre-formed
inside the nucleus. Each is assumed to have a large number of collisions with the
edge of the nucleus, but a small probability on each collision of tunnelling through
the Coulomb barrier and escaping.

If the Q value of the decay is positive, then the decay is energetically favourable,
but it may still be suppressed by a large tunnelling factor. Let us try to model
the probability of tunnelling through the barrier. We will assume that the large
exponential in the quantum tunnelling factor will dominate the calculation of the
rate of decay, so we will neglect differences in the probability of formation of the
proto-alpha particle, and its rates of hitting the barrier.

The time independent Schrödinger equation defines the energy eigenstate |Ψi,
 2
p

E|Ψi = + V |Ψi.
2m
where E is the energy of the alpha particle, p is the momentum operator, m is its
mass, and V is the potential in which it moves.

For simplicity, we will ignore the spherical geometry and treat the problem as one-
dimensional in the radial direction r so that for a state with energy Q,
1 ∂2
 
Qhr|Ψi = − + V (r) hr|Ψi, (6)
2m ∂r2
h
where we use natural units such that ~ = 2π = c = 1 (see appendix .A). In the
Dirac notation hr|Ψi represents the wave function — that is the amplitude to find
the alpha particle located between r and r + dr. Without losing any generality we
can write the wave function as the exponential of some other function η(r),
hr|Ψi = exp[η(r)]. (7)
After inserting (7) into (6) and dividing by exp(η) we find
1  00
Q=− η + (η 0 )2 + V (r),

2m

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3.2 Beta decays

where the primes indicate derivatives by r. We can model the potential V (r) felt
by any α particle by the function
(
const r < Ra
V (r) = zZαEM
r r > Ra

where inside the nucleus V is large and negative, and outside the nucleus it is given
by the Coulomb potential and hence characterised by the charges z and Z of the 3
Re[Ψ]
α-particle and the daughter nucleus respectively. The constant αEM in the Coulomb
potential is the dimensionless electromagnetic fine structure constant
2

e2 1
αEM = ≈ .
4π0 ~c 137
1
Rb 
V
Within the barrier the potential is smoothly varying, so η should be a smoothly Q

varying function of (r). We then expect η 00  (η 0 )2 , and we can safely neglect the
η 00 term compared to the (η 0 )2 .3
r
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Ra

The tunnelling probability can be found from the ratio of the mod-squared ampli-
-1
tudes:
|hRb |Ψi|2
P = = e−2G .
|hRa |Ψi|2
where G (> 0) is given by Real part of hr|Ψi (as calculated
in the WKBJ approximation) and
Rb V (r) for a thin Coulomb
√ Z
potential barrier.
−G = η(Rb ) − η(Ra ) = − 2m dr V (r) − Q.
p
Ra

The minus sign before the radical ensures that we select the exponentially falling
solution. The inner limit of the integration is the radius of the nucleus
1
Ra ≈ r0 A 3 ,

and the outer limit

Z1 Z2 αEM
Rb = ,
Q
the radius for which Q > V , i.e. where the α particle enters the classically allowed
region.

3.2 Beta decays, electron capture

There are three related nuclear decay processes which are all mediated by the weak
nuclear interaction. Neutron-rich isotopes can decay through the emission of an
electron e and an anti-neutrino ν̄e in the beta decay a process:
A A
ZX −→ Z+1 Y + e− + ν̄e . (8)
3 This is known as the WKBJ approximation. It is a good approximation if many wave-lengths

(or in the classically forbidden regions, as here, many factors of 1/e) of the wave-function occur
before the potential changes significantly.

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3.2 Beta decays

The effect is to increase the atomic number by one, but to leave the mass number
unchanged. At the level of the individual nucleons the reaction is

n −→ p + e− + ν̄e . (9)

The emitted electron can be observed and its energy measured. The associated
anti-neutrino has a very small interaction probability, and so is expected to escape
unobserved. Long before neutrinos were observed, Wolfgang Pauli realised that an
additional, invisible, massless particle was required in order to conserve energy and
momentum in the decay (8). His arguments ran as follows. The emitted electrons
are observed to have a variety of different kinetic energies, up to Q. Meanwhile
the mass difference between the parent and daughter nucleus is fixed to a single
value. The energy given to the recoiling daughter nucleus is small and is fixed by
momentum conservation, so it can’t be responsible for the deficit observed when
the electron has energy less than Q. Energy conservation is then only possible if
the total energy Q can be shared between the electron and some other unobserved
partice – the (anti-)neutrino.

Pauli also argued that without the neutrino the reaction (9) would violate angular
momentum conservation. Adding the angular momenta of just the two observed
final state spin-half particles – the electron and the proton – according to the rules
of quantum mechanical angular momentum addition we would find
1 1
⊕ = 0 or 1.
2 2
Neither of the possibilities of total angular momentum s = 0 or s = 1 match the
spin of the initial neutron, which has s = 12 . However by adding a third spin-half
particle to the final state – the s = 12 anti-neutrino – we can reconstruct a state
which has total angular momentum equal to that of the proton (s = 12 ) since

1 1 1 1 3
⊕ ⊕ = or .
2 2 2 2 2

Isotopes which have a surplus of protons can proceed via one of two processes. The
first is the emission of a positively charge anti-electron. This is known as positron
emission or β + decay
A A +
Z X −→ Z−1 Z + e + νe (10)
The positron is the anti-particle of the electron. It has the same mass as the
electron, but positive charge.

The second method of decay of proton-rich nuclei is by the nucleus removing one
of the atomic electrons, the electron capture process:
A
ZX + e− −→ Z−1
A
Z + νe (11)

These two processes ((10) and (11)) result in the same change to the nucleus, and
so compete with one another to reduce the Z number of proton-rich nuclei. When
considering whether electron capture or β + decay will dominate we note that

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3.2 Beta decays

• The Q value for positron emission is 2 × me c2 smaller than that for the
corresponding electron capture.

• Electron capture relies on there being a substantial overlap of an electron

wave-function with the nucleus.
EOOE

When viewed at the level of the nuclear consitutents, all three of the interactions
above — β decay (8), β + decay (10) and electron capture (11) — involve the Z
interaction of four particles: a proton, a neutron, an (anti-)electron and an (anti-)
neutrino.

n −→ p + e− + ν̄e (12) OO
+
p −→ n + e + νe , (13) EE
p + e− −→ n + νe . (14)
Z
We note that all of the reactions (12)–(14) are assumed to be occurring inside the
complex environment of the nucleus. Of these three reactions, only neutron decay Mass as a function of Z for
(12) can occur in isolation, since it is the only one with Q > 0, (the neutron being nuclides of the same A, for
about 1.3 MeV/c2 heavier than the proton). The other two reactions (13)–(14) odd-A nuclei (above) and even-A
nuclei (below). The even-A case
occur only within a nucleus, when the energy released from the rearrangement of has two curves separated by 2δ.
the nuclear constituents is sufficient to compensate for the endothermic nature of
the reaction at the level of the individual nucleon.

We note that all of three transitions — β − , β + , and e− capture — leave the mass
number A unchanged. The parent and daughter nuclei are isobars. The decay
processes (12)–(14) allow transitions between isobars, and mean that for odd-A
nuclei for any value of A there is usually only one stable isobar, that for which the
mass of the system is minimum.

Even-A nuclei may have one stable isobar, but can also have two or very occasionally
three. Multiple stable states are possible for A even because the binding curves for
(even-Z, even-N ) and (odd-Z odd-N ) are separated by 2δ, where δ is the pairing
energy in the SEMF. For an even-even nucleus, since all of the reactions (12)–
(14) change both |Z| and |N | by one they result in an odd-odd nucleus, and so a
transition to the higher of the two curves. None of the reactions permit a change
in Z of two units, and the probability of two such reactions happening at once is
extremely small, so an even-even nucleus with some Z can be stable provided that
both the neighbouring nuclei with Z + 1 and Z − 1 have larger mass.

3.2.1 Fermi theory of beta decays

To understand the lifetimes of the nuclei, we wish to calculate the expected rates
for β ± decays. We follow the method and approximations of Enrico Fermi.

If we put the initial state particles on the left hand side of the diagram, and the final
state particles on the right hand side, then we obtain the following three diagrams
for the reactions (12)–(14).

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3.2 Beta decays

e− νe
e νe
n p
ν̄e e+
p n
p n

We shall assume that each of these four-particle interactions will happen at a single
point in space. The amplitude for each reaction is given by the same constant —
a four-body coupling constant which tells us the amplitude for each interaction at
that point in space. For each of the three diagrams that coupling is the Fermi
constant,
GF ≈ 1.17 × 10−5 GeV−2

which has units of inverse energy squared.

In using a single, constant factor, we implicitly make the simplifying assumption

that the four-body interaction does not depend on the spins of the incoming or
outgoing particles. To simplfy calculations we will also follow Fermi in assuming
that the wave-functions of the electron and the anti-neutrino can be represented by
plane waves. This ignores the effect of the Coulomb attraction between the electron
and the nucleus, and is a good approximation provided that the electron energy is
sufficiently high.

We recall that in quantum mechanics, the rate of some a transition from an initial
state to a final state characterised by a continuum of energy levels is given by the
Fermi Golden Rule4
2π dN
Γ= |Af i |2 (15)
~ dEf
Here the transition rate Γ is given in terms of the amplitude Af i connecting the
dN
initial and the final states, and the degeneracy dEf
of states at the final energy. It
dN
is the Af i and dEf that we shall have to calculate.

To be concrete, let us consider the beta decay reaction (12). We denote the initial
nuclear wave-function by hx|Ψi i, the final nuclear wave-function by hx|Ψf i. The
electron and anti-neutrino wave-functions are approximated as plane waves

hx|φe i ≡ φe = exp (i pe · x) (16)

hx|φν i ≡ φν = exp (i pν · x). (17)

We can now write down the initial state |Ψi i, which is just that of the parent nucleus

|Ψi i = |ψi i,

and final state |Ψf i, which is the product of the daughter nucleus state |ψf i, the
electron state |φe i and the anti-neutrino state |φν̄e i

|Ψf i = |ψf i × |φe i × |φν̄e i.

4 For a refresher, see appendix .B.1

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3.2 Beta decays

The matrix element Af i controls the transition from the initial to the final state

Af i = hΨf |A|Ψi i

It can be obtained by working in the position representation and recognising that the
amplitude GF associated with the point-like interaction (12) should be integrated
over the volume of the nucleus,
Z
Af i = d3 x GF φ∗e φ∗ν ψf∗ ψi .

The φ and ψ terms are the position representations (wave functions) of the four
particles, and in the final state are found in complex conjugate form. The inte-
gral sums over the amplitudes for the point-like reaction to occur anywhere in the
nucleus, since the reaction could have occurred anywhere within.

To perform the integral we first Taylor expand the exponentials in the plane wave
functions (16)–(17) for the electron and the neutrino. The expansion is useful
because the exponents p · x are small.5 The product of φ∗e and φ∗ν can therefore be
written
e−i(pe +pν )·x ≈ 1 − i(pe + pν ) · x + . . . (18)
Provided that the first term in this expression does not vanish when performing the
integral, it can be expected to dominate, and the whole integral can be approximated
by
Z
Af i = GF d3 x ψf∗ ψi

≡ GF Mnucl

where in the lower line Mnucl denotes the overlap integral between the neutron in
the parent nucleus and the proton in the daughter nucleus. The size of the quantity
Mnucl depends on the participating nuclei, and is known as the nuclear matrix
element.

In some particularly simple cases Mnucl can be calculated analytically. In particular,

if the initial-state neutron, and the final-state proton happen to inhabit the same
state within a nucleus, the overlap integral is maximal, i.e. for those nuclei

|Mnucl | = 1.

An example of a maximum overlap integral is found for the simplest case of the
isolated neutron decay. 6

To complete the job of calculating Γ we need to find the density of states factor
dN
dEf . The density of states for the outgoing electron can be calculated from the
density of states inside a box7 ,

d3 p
dN = .
(2π)3
5 The size of x is of order the typical nuclear size, i.e. ∼ 10 fm, which in natural units is

10 fm/(197 MeV fm) ∼ 10−1 MeV−1 . The typical momenta of the out-going particles are of order
MeV, so the dot products in the exponents are of order 10−1 .
6 Such decays are called ‘super-allowed’.
7 See appendix .B.2 for the source of this term.

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Assuming spherical symmetry the angular integrals yield 4π so

4π p2 dp
dN = .
(2π)3

A similar result holds for the neutrino. The states allowed by the daughter nucleus
are fixed by total momentum conservation, so provide no further contribution to
the density of states. The recoil energy of the heavy daughter nucleus is negligible,
so conservation of energy gives

Ee + Eν = Q,

where Ee is the kinetic energy of the electron. Hence the rate of decays that yield
electrons with momenta between pe and pe + dpe is

(Q − Ee )2 2
dΓ(pe ) = G2F |Mnucl |2 pe dpe .
2π 3
In the relativistic limit where Ee  me we can perform the integral and obtain the
simple result
Γβ ∝ Q5 .

i.e. the rate depends on the fifth power of the available energy.

‘Forbidden’ decays (Non examinable)

We have assumed that the first term in (18) will dominate, but it can vanish
due to selection rules. For example, if the nuclear matrix element has odd
parity the first term vanishes, since then we are integrating the product of
an odd and an even function. In that case, the next term in the series is
required, and the reaction rate is suppressed. Such decays are said to be
‘first forbidden’. In general the larger the change in angular momentum
required in the nuclear transition, the further along the series one will need
to go to find a non-zero term, and the slower will be the decay.

4 Nuclear Scattering

The structure of the nucleus can be probed by scattering projectiles from it. Those
projectiles might be protons, electrons, muons, or indeed other nuclei.

4.1 Cross sections

Many experiments take the form of scattering a beam of projectiles into a target.

Provided that the target is sufficiently thin that the flux is approximately constant
within that target, the rate of any reaction Wi will be proportional to the flux of

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4.1 Cross sections

We will later find that Beta decays are mediated at very small length
scales (∼ 10−18 m) by charged spin-1 force-carrying particles known as
W ± bosons.
e− νe
−
e
e+
d W− u W+ W+
ν̄e νe

u d u d
The Feynman diagrams above show the W ± bosons responsible for β −
decay, β + decay, and electron capture. For probes with wavelength λ 
λc,W , where
~
λc,W =
mW c
is the W boson Compton wavelength, or equivalently for probes with mo-
mentum p  mW , the small-distance behaviour of the interaction is not
apparent. We do not resolve the W boson and instead we get what appears
to be a single four-body interaction.

incoming projectiles J (number per unit time) the number density of scattering
centres n in the target (number per unit volume), and the width δx of the target

Wi = σi n J δx. (19)

The constant of proportionality σi has dimensions of area. It is known as the cross

section for process i and is defined by

Wi
σi = (20)
n J δx

We can get some feeling for why this is a useful quantity if we rewrite (19) as
σ
Wi = (n A δx) J
| {z } |{z}A
Ntarget
Pscatt

where A is the area of the target. Here Ntarget is the total number of targets
illuminated by the projectile, and the cross section can be interpreted as the effec-
tive area presented to the beam per target for which a particular reaction can be
expected to occur.

The total rate of loss of beam is given by W = ΣWi , and the corresponding total
cross section is therefore X
σ= σi .
i

We could choose to quote cross sections in units of e.g. fm2 or in natural units of
GeV−2 , however the most common unit used in nuclear and particle physics is the
so-called barn (b) where
1 barn = 10−28 m2

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4.2 Resonances and the Breit-Wigner formula

As well as scattering experiments, the size of various nuclei can be deter-

mined by other methods, including:
• Shifts in the energy-levels of atomic electrons from the change of
their Coulomb potential caused by the finite size of the nucleus.

• Muonic equivalents of the above. Muons are about 200 times heavier
than electrons, so their “Bohr raduis” is about 200 times smaller. One
observes the series of x-rays from the atomic (muonic) transitions

We can convert the barn to natural units of MeV−2 using the ~c conversion constant
as follows
1 barn = 10−28 m2
= 100 fm2 /(197 MeV fm)2
= 0.00257 MeV−2 .

dσ
The ‘differential cross section’ dΩ is the cross section per unit solid angle of scat-
tered particle. It is defined to be the rate of scattering per target per unit incoming
flux density per unit solid angle (dΩ) of deflected particle.

4.2 Resonances and the Breit-Wigner formula

Sometimes the projectile can be absorbed by the nucleus to form a compound

state, then later reabsorbed. The time-energy uncertainty relationship of quantum
mechanics tells us that if a state has only a finite lifetime (of order ∆t), then it has
an uncertaintity on its energy ∆E given by
∆E∆t ∼ ~.
Using the fact that the decay rate Γ = 1/τ , and using natural units to set ~ = 1,
we find that
∆E ∼ Γ. (21)
In these units, the uncertainty in the rest-energy of a particle is equal to the rate
of its decay. This means that if we take a set of identical unstable particles, and
measure the mass of each, we will expect to get a range of values with width of
order Γ.

Long-lived intermediate states have small Γ and hence well-defined energies. We

tend to think of these reasonably long-lived intermediate states as ‘particles’. The
neutron is an example of an unstable state that lives long enough for the word
‘particle’ to be meaningfully applied to it.

Short-lived intermediate states have large widths and less well defined energies.
When the intermediate state is so short-lived that its width Γ is similar to its mass,
then the decay is so rapid that it is no longer useful to think of it as a particle — it’s
really some transition through which the state happens to be momentarily passing.

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4.2 Resonances and the Breit-Wigner formula

The decay width can be generalised to a particle which has many different decay
modes. The rate of decay into mode i is given Γi . The total rate of decay is
given by the sum over all possible decay modes
X
Γ= Γi .
i=1...n

The fraction of particles that decay into final state i, is known as the branching
ratio
Γi
B= .
Γ
The quantity Γi is known as the partial width to final state i, whereas the sum
of all partial widths is known as the total width.

We can develop these ideas more quantitatively by considering the general process

A + B −→ O −→ C + D. (22)

The initial particles A and B collide to form an unstable intermediate O, which then
decays to the final state C and D (which may or may not have the same particle
content as the initial state). An example of a familiar process is the absorption and
then emission of a photon by an atom, with an intermediate excited atomic state,

A + γ −→ A∗ −→ A + γ.

Alternatively the reaction could represent an inelastic nuclear interaction, for exam-
ple the nuclear absorption of a neutron to form a heavier isotope followed by its
de-excitation
25 ∗
Mg + n −→ 26 Mg −→ 26 Mg + γ.
Other reactions can create and annihilate other types of particle.

The reaction will proceed most rapidly when the energies of the incoming particles
are correctly tuned to the mass of the intermediate. The reaction rate will be fastest
when the energy of A + B is equal to the rest-mass energy EO of the intermediate
state. The energy need only match EO to within the uncertainty Γ in the energy
of the intermediate.

Under the condition that the transition from A + B to C + D proceeds exclusively

via the intermediate state ‘0’, of mass m0 and that the width of the intermediate
is not too large (Γ  m0 ), the probability for the scattering process, as a function
of total energy E takes the familiar Lorentzian shape

1
p(E) ∝ . (23)
(E − E0 )2 + Γ2 /4

This is the same peaked shape as seen in resonances in situations involving oscil-
lators, and so the excited intermediate state is often called a resonance, and the
process is known as resonant scattering.

Taking into account density of states and flux factors, and the possibilities of decay
into multiple different final states, the overall cross-section for the process (22) is

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4.3 Nuclear scattering and form factors

given by the famous Breit-Wigner formula

π Γi Γf
σi→0→f = . (24)
k 2 (E − E0 )2 + Γ2 /4

Since excited states are very common, this is an important result not just in nuclear Σ
and particle physics, but also in any process where excitations are found. The terms
in this equation are as follows:
G
• Γi is the partial width of the resonance to decay to the initial state A + B

• Γf is the partial width of the resonance to decay to the final state C + D E0 E

Γ is the full width of the resonance at half-maximum (and equal to the sum
• P The Breit-Wigner line shape.
j Γj over all possible decay modes)

• E is the centre-of-mass energy of the system

• E0 is the characteristic rest mass energy of the resonance

• k is the wave-number of the incoming projectile in the centre-of-mass frame

which is equal to its momentum in natural units.

The cross-section is non-zero at any energy, but has a sharp peak at energies E close
to the rest-mass-energy E0 of the intermediate particle. Longer lived intermediate
particles have smaller Γ and hence sharper peaks.

Resonant scattering experiments can tell us about the excited states of nuclei,
and hence provide further information about nuclear structure and interactions.
All sorts of particles which are too short-lived to travel macroscopic distances can
nevertheless be created as intermediate states and studied from the properties of
their Breit-Wigner peaks.

4.3 Nuclear scattering and form factors

When a target only slightly perturbs the wave-function of the projectile, the resulting
scattering behaives rather like optical diffraction.

In optics, the properties of a microscopic aperture can be understood from the

pattern obtained when light, of wavelength similar to the size of the aperture, is
diffracted by that apperture. Far from the aperture, the optical pattern observed is
the two dimensional Fourier transformation of the aperture function. This is true
even if the optical aperture is too small to observe directly.

Now consider scattering a wave from a three-dimensional projectile. Again, the

observed diffraction pattern comes from a Fourier transform of the object, but now Diffractive scattering from a slit
the aperture function is replaced with the potential V (x). and from an object.

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4.3 Nuclear scattering and form factors

In the Born approximation, which is valid for weak potentials, the amplitude f (∆k)
for scattering a projectile such that its change in momentum is ∆k, is proportional
to the 3D Fourier transform of the scattering potential V ,
Z
f (∆k) = A d3 x V (x) e−i∆k·x (25)

where A is a normalising constant. The probability to scatter into some small angle
dΩ is then proportional to |f (∆k)|2 .

Let us consider the scattering of a projectile of charge z from a nucleus with charge
Z and spherically symmetric local charge density ρ(r), centred at the origin. The
potential at some point x0 is given by summing over the Coulomb potentials from
distributed charges at all other locations x00 ,

ze2 ρ(x00 )
Z
0
V (x ) = d3 x00 0
4π0 |x − x00 |
ρ(x00 )
Z
= zα d3 x00 0
|x − x00 |

where in the second step we again use the relation (valid in natural units) that the
e2
electromagnetic fine structure constant α = 4π 0
.

Substituting this form of the potential into the Born relation (25) we find

ρ(x00 )
Z Z
0
f (∆k) = zαA d3 x0 d3 x00 e−i(∆k)·x 0 .
|x − x00 |

We may simplify this expression by defining a new variable X = x − x0 . This change

of variables allows us to factorize the two integrals, giving the result

1 e−i∆k·X
 Z  Z 
3 0 0 −i∆k·x0 3
f (∆k) = d x ρ(x )e × ZzαA d X . (26)
Z |X|
| {z } | {z }
Form Factor Rutherford

The scattering amplitude from a distributed charge is therefore equal to the product
of two terms. The second term can be recognised as the Rutherford scattering
amplitude – the amplitude that would be obtained from scattering from a point
charge density ρ(x) = Zδ(x). The second term therefore tells us nothing about
the internal structure of the nucleus. All of the interesting information about the
nuclear structure is encapsulated in the first term,
Z
Fnucl (∆k) = d3 x N (x) e−i∆k·x

which is known as the nuclear form factor. The form factor is the three-dimensional
Fourier transform of the normalised charge density N (x) = ρ(x)/Z. All of the inter-
esting information about the size and structure of the nucleus is found in Fnucl (∆k).
We will find interesting scattering — that is interesting ‘diffraction patterns’ — if Sketch of a nuclear form factor
the exponent is of order unity. For this to be true the de Broglie wave-length of diffraction pattern.

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4.3 Nuclear scattering and form factors

the projectile must be of the same order as the nuclear size, as was noted in the
introduction to this chapter.

The mod-squared of the optical amplitude gives the intensity. Similarly it is |F |2

which is important when considering the flux of scattered projectile particles. The
rate at which particles are scattered into unit solid angle is given by

dN dN
 
2
= |Fnucl (|∆k|)| . (27)
dΩ dΩ Rutherford

This equation is more often written in terms of the differential cross section for
scattering
dσ dσ
 
2
= |Fnucl (|∆k|)| .
dΩ dΩ Rutherford

By examining the form factor for particles scattered with various changes in mo-
mentum |∆k| we can infer information about N (x) and hence about the size and
shape of the nuclear potential V (x).

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5 Key points
• In natural units (appendix .A), ~ = c = 1 and

[Mass] = [Energy] = [Momentum] = [Time]−1 = [Distance]−1

A useful conversion constant is

~c ≈ 197 MeV fm

• The nuclear mass is well described by the semi-empirical mass formula

2 (A − 2Z)2 Z2
M (A, Z) = Zmp + (A − Z)mn − αA + βA 3 + γ +  1 − δ(A, Z).
A A3

• The binding energy leads to a valley of stability in the (A, Z) plane where
the stable nuclei lie
• In a reaction or decay, the Q-value is the energy released in a decay
X X
Q= Mi − Mf

If Q > 0 the reaction is exothermic – it gives out energy, whereas if Q < 0

the reaction is endothermic, and energy must be supplied for it to proceed.
• Alpha decay rates are dominated by quantum tunnelling through the Coulomb
barrier.
• Beta decay rates and electron capture are governed by the Fermi coupling
constant
GF ≈ 1.17 × 10−5 GeV−2

• The cross section is defined by:

Wi
σi = (28)
n J δx

The differential cross section is the cross section per unit solid angle

dσi
dΩ

• Cross sections for sub-atomic physics are often expressed in the unit of barns.

1 barn = 10−28 m2

• The Breit Wigner formula for resonant scattering is

π Γi Γf
σi→0→f = .
k (E − E0 )2 + Γ2 /4
2

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 • In elastic nuclear scattering the form factor

ρ(x)
Z  
3
F (|∆k|) = d x e−i∆k·x ,
Z

is the 3D Fourier transform of the normalised charge density, and is related

to the Rutherford scattering differential cross section by

dσ dσ
 
= |Fnucl (|∆k|)|2 .
dΩ dΩ Rutherford

.A Natural units

In the S.I. system of units, times are measured in seconds and distances in meters.
In those units the speed of light takes the value close to 3 × 108 ms−1 .

We could instead have chosen to use unit of time such that c = 1. For example
we could have used units in which time is measured in seconds and distance in
light-seconds. In those units the speed of light is one (one light-second per second).
Using units in which c = 1 allows us to leave c out of our equations (provided
we are careful to remember the units we are working in). Such units are useful in
relativistic systems, since now the relativistic energy-momentum-mass relations are
simplified to

E = γm
p = γmv
E 2 − p2 = m2 .

So for a relativistic system setting c = 1 means that energy, mass and momentum
all have the same dimensions.

Since we are interested in quantum systems, we can go further and look for units in
which ~ is also equal to one. In such units the energy E of a photon will be equal
to its angular frequency ω
E = ~ω = ω.
Setting ~ = 1 therefore means that the units of energy are the same as the units of
inverse time. Units with ~ = 1 imply that time (and via c = 1 distance too) must
have the same dimensions as inverse energy, E −1 .

So in our system natural units with ~ = c = 1 we have have that all of the following
dimensions are the same:

[Mass] = [Energy] = [Momentum] = [Time]−1 = [Distance]−1

We are still free to choose a convenient unit for all of these quantities. In subatomic
physics it is common to use units of energy (or inverse energy). The nuclear energy

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c A.J.Barr 2009-2013.
levels have typical energies of the order of 106 electron-volts, so we shall measure
energies, momenta and masses in MeV, and lengths and times in MeV−1 . At the
end of a calculation we might wish to recover, for example, a “real” length from
one measured in our MeV−1 units. To do so we can make use of the conversion
factor
~c ≈ 197 MeV fm
which tells us that one of our MeV−1 length units corresponds to 197 fm where
1 fm = 10−15 m.

.B Tools for cross-section calculations

.B.1 Decays and the Fermi Golden Rule

In subatomic physics we are interested in the decays of unstable particles, such

as radioactive nuclei, muons from the atmosphere, or Higgs bosons. Using time-
dependent perturbation theory in quantum mechanics it is possible to show that
that the transition rate of an unstable state into a continuum of other states is
given by the Fermi Golden Rule:
2π dN
Γ= |Vf i |2 , (29)
~ dEf

where

• Γ is the rate of the decay

• Vf i is the matrix element of the Hamiltonian coupling the initial and the final
states
dN
• dEf is the density of final states.

.B.2 Density of states

The density of states for a single particle within a cubic box with sides length a can
be calculated as follows. The plane wave solution is of form
hx|Ψi ∝ exp (ik · x) .
If we require periodic boundary conditions, with period a equal to the side of the
box, then the values of the wavenumber kx are constrained to kx = 2πn/a for
integer n. Similar conditions hold for ky and kz . The number of momentum states
within some range of momentum d3 p = d3 k (for ~ = 1) is therefore given by
d3 p
dN = V
(2π)3 ~
where V = a3 is the volume of the box.

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.B.3 Fermi G.R. example

.B.3 Fermi G.R. example

Consider the isotropic decay of a neutral spin-0 particle A into two massless daugh-
ters, B and C
A −→ B + C.
The Fermi G.R. gives the decay rate (in natural units) of A as

dN
Γ = 2π |Vf i |2 .
dEf

The density of final states can be found from the allowed momenta pB of particle
B.
d3 pB
dN = V
(2π)3
When pB is fixed there is no further freedom for pC since the sum of the momenta
of the two final state particles is fixed by total momentum conservation. This
constraint means that for the two body final state there is no additional term in the
density of states for pC .8 Since all decay angles are equally probable, the integrals
over the angles contribute 4π, leading to

4π p2B dpB
Γ = 2π |Vf i |2 V.
(2π)3 dEf
dpB
The relativistic decay products each have momentum |pB | = Ef /2 so dE f
= 12 .
Normalising to one unstable particle in our unit volume gives V = 1, and results in
a decay rate
1
Γ = |Vf i |2 p2B
2π
1
= |Vf i |2 m2A .
8π

.B.4 Lifetimes and decays

The number of particles remaining at time t is governed by the decay law9

dN
= −ΓN,
dt
where the constant Γ is the decay rate per nucleus. The equation is easily integrated
to give
N (t) = N0 exp (−Γt) .
3
8 For d p
a three-body final state there would be terms in dN of the form (2π)3 for two of the three
particles, the third again being fixed by momentum conservation.
9 The decay law was discovered experimentally by Frederick Soddy (1877-1956). Soddy, who

had been a scholar at Merton, was also first person to understand that radioactivity led to the
transmutation of the elements — in effect making him the first true alchemist.

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.B.5 The flux factor

We can calculate the particles’ average proper lifetime τ , using the probability that
they decay between time t and t + δt

1 dN
p(t) δt = − δt = Γ exp (−Γt) δt.
N0 dt

The mean lifetime is then

τ = hti
R∞
t p(t) dt
= R0∞
0
p(t) dt
1
=
Γ

The decay law can be justified from precise experimental verification. In essence
it represents a statement that the decay rate is independant of the history of the
nucleus, its method of preparation and its environment. These are often excellent
approximations, provided that the nucleus lives long enough that has mass m  Γ
where Γ is its decay width, and provided it it not bombarded with disruptive probes,
such as high-energy strongly interacting particles.

.B.5 The flux factor

When calculating a cross section σ from a rate Γ, we need to take into account
that for scattering from a single fixed target

W
σ=
J
where J is the flux density of incoming particles. The flux density is itself given by

J = np v

where np is the number density of projectiles and v is their speed. If we normalise to

one incoming particle per unit volume, then np = 1 and the cross section is simply
related to the rate by
W
σ=
v

.B.6 Luminosity

In a collider — a machine which collides opposing beams of particles — the rate

of any particular reaction will be proportional to the cross section for that reaction
and on various other parameters which depend on the machine set-up. Those
parameters will include the number of particles in each collding bunch, their spatial
distributions, and their frequency of bunch crossings.

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We can define a parameter called the luminosity L which encapsulates all the
relevant machine parameters. It is related to the rate W and the cross section σ by
W
L= .
σ
For any collider the luminosity tells us the instantaneous rate of reaction for any
cross section. The product of the time-integrated luminosity and the cross section
tell us the expected count of the events of that type
Z
Nevents, i = σi L dt .

For a machine colliding trains of counter-rotating bunches containing N1 and N2

particles respectively at a bunch-crossing rate f , we can show that the luminosity
is
N1 N2 f
L= ,
A
where A is the cross-sectional area of each bunch (perpendicular to the beam di-
rection).

We have assumed above that the distributions of particles within each bunch is
uniform. If that is not the case (e.g. in most real experiments the beams have
approximately Gaussian profiles) then we will have to calculate the effective overlap
area A of the bunches by performing an appropriate integral.

.C Shell Model §

Non examinable

The SEMF provides a reasonable description of the binding energies of the nuclei
for A > 30 but only the overall structure, not the finer details.

Differences at small A (e.g. the tightly bound isotopes 42 He and 168 O) are already
obvious in Figure 1. Figure 6 shows in more detail the difference between the mea-
sured binding energy (per nucleon) and the SEMF prediction. Islands of particularly
high stability — that is with anomalously large B/A — are clearly visible near some
special values of N or Z:
{2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, 126}.
These are known as the magic numbers. They correspond to configurations of
nuclear shells that are precisely filled with either protons or neutrons. Evidence
for this shell structure can be found in the binding energies, excitation energies,
abundances, spins, and magnetic moments. Some nuclei, such the Helium nucleus
4
2 He have magic numbers both for N and for Z. This observation goes some way to
explaining why it is that Helium nuclei are emitted by heavy particles in the process
of alpha decay. The shell model gives further insight into a variety of nuclear
properties, but is beyond the scope of this course.

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c A.J.Barr 2009-2013.
HB - SEMFLA
9

0.35
8
BA
7
0.30

0.25
5

0.20 4

N
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
0.15

0.10

0.05

0.00
40 60 80 100 120 140 N

-0.05

HB - SEMFLA
(a)
10

9
0.20

8
BA
7

6
0.15

0.10 3
Z
0 5 10 15 20 25 30

0.05

0.00
40 60 80 100 Z

(b)

Figure 6: Difference between the measured binding energy (per nucleon) and
the SEMF prediction. (a) The x-axis shows the number of neutrons in the nu-
cleus; curves show isotopes (same Z). (b) The x-axis shows the number of
protons in the nucleus; curves show isotones (same N ). In both cases the inset
shows the binding energy per nucleon for the low-A nuclei. The magic numbers
{2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, 126} are marked with dashed lines.

January 18, 2014 29

c A.J.Barr 2009-2013.
.D Gamma decays §

Non examinable

Gamma decays are electromagnetic transitions, and are found when excited nuclear
states relax to their ground states.

Similarly to the beta decay case, one can work out the rate using the Fermi golden
rule. If one represents the initial nuclear wave-function by Ψa and the final nuclear
wave-function by Ψb , then the appropriate matrix element is found to be
Z
hΨf |M |Ψi i = d3 x Ψ∗b (A · Ĵ) e−ik·x Ψa

where A represents the electromagnetic 4-potential and Ĵ = q P̂/m is the electric 4-

current operator. The electromagnetic selection rules and transitions are analogous
to those of atomic physics.

Further Reading
• “An Introduction to Nuclear Physics”, W. N. Cottingham and D. A. Green-
wood, 2001 for the basics
• “Nuclear Physics”, M.G. Bowler, Pergamon press, 1973

• “Introductory Nuclear Physics”, P.E. Hodgeson, E. Gadioli and E. Gadioli

Erba, OUP, 2003
• The BNL table of the nuclides provides good reference data
http://www.nndc.bnl.gov/nudat2/.

Bolwer and Hodgeson et. al. are good books which go well beyond this course.

References

[1] G. Audi, A. H. Wapstra, and C. Thibault. The 2003 atomic mass evaluation:
(ii). tables, graphs and references. Nuclear Physics A, 729(1):337 – 676, 2003.
The 2003 NUBASE and Atomic Mass Evaluations.

January 18, 2014 30

c A.J.Barr 2009-2013.