Multiplexing

Sharing Medium
• A link is divided into channels

D
M
1 link, n channels E
n signals U M
n signals
(input) X U (output)
X

Multiplexer Demultiplexer
Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

• An analog multiplexing technique to combine signals

Channel 3
Channel 2
Channel 1
f3
f2
f1
Guard Bands
• Strips of unused bandwidth to prevent signals from
overlapping

FDM

f f
3 kHz 3 kHz 3 kHz 3 kHz

FDM
(no guard band)

f
3 kHz 3 kHz 3 kHz

3 kHz f
FDM
(with guard band)

f
3 kHz 3 kHz 3 kHz
FDM: Example 1
Five voice channels, each with 3-kHz bandwidth,
are to be multiplexed together.
If there is a need for a guard band of 1.5 kHz, what
is the minimum bandwidth of the link?

1.5 kHz 1.5 kHz 1.5 kHz 1.5 kHz

f
21 kHz
FDM Carrier Standards in Telephone Network
Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)

• WDM is a special case of FDM used for optical signals

1 1

2 WDM WDM 2
1+2+3
3 3

1 1
1+2+3
2 Fiber-optic cable 2

3 Multiplexer Demultiplexer 3
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
• A Digital multiplexing technique to combine data
• Medium Data Rate > Signal Data Rate
• Multiple digital signals interleaved in time

one unit
A Frame
T
D
B M C B A C B A C B A

C Time slot

• Time slots
• are preassigned to sources and fixed
• are allocated even if no data
• do not have to be evenly distributed among sources
 1

E 2

X 3
M
U
D

3 2 1 3 2 1 3 2 1
Conceptual View of TDM
Data flow

Channel 1
Channel 2
Channel 3
Channel 1
Channel 2
Channel 3
Channel 1
Channel 2
Channel 3
2 M
U
X
3
1
TDM Frames
• A frame consists of one complete cycle of time slots
Empty Slot
TDM of Different Data Rates
• Data rate from one source may be faster than the others
• More than one time slot can be assigned to certain sources
4 kbps
A 1 frame
B C B A
8 kbps 16 kbps
B MUX
4 kbps
C

4 kbps
A
4 kbps
8 kbps 16 kbps
B MUX
4 kbps
4 kbps
C
Note: assume 1 unit = 1 bit 15
TDM Link Control
• no headers and trailers
• data link control protocols not needed
• flow control
• data rate of multiplexed line is fixed
• if one channel receiver can not receive data, the others
must carry on
• corresponding source must be quenched
• error control
• errors detected & handled on individual channel
Data Link Control on TDM
Framing
• no flag or SYNC chars bracketing TDM frames
• must still provide synchronizing mechanism between
src and dest clocks
• added digit framing
• one control bit added to each TDM frame
• identifiable bit pattern used on control channel
• eg. alternating 01010101…unlikely on a data channel
• frame search mode
• compare incoming bit patterns on each channel with
known sync pattern
Synchronization
• Multiplexer and demultiplexer must be synchronized
• Framing bits are used to provide synchronization
Synchronization pattern
…1010…

C B A 1 C B A 0 C B A 1 C B A 0

framing bit
Pulse Stuffing
• have problem of synchronizing data sources
• also issue of data rates from different sources not
related by simple rational number
• Pulse Stuffing a common solution
• stuff extra dummy bits or pulses into each incoming signal
until it matches local clock
• stuffed pulses inserted at fixed locations in frame and
removed at demultiplexer
Digital Carrier Systems
• long-distance links use an TDM hierarchy
• AT&T (USA) and ITU-T (International) variants
• US system based on DS-1 format
• can carry mixed voice and data signals
• 24 channels used for total data rate 1.544Mbps
• each voice channel contains one word of digitized
data (PCM, 8000 samples per sec)
• same format for 56kbps digital data
• can interleave DS-1 channels for higher rates
• DS-2 is four DS-1 at 6.312Mbps
Digital Signal (DS) Hierarchy
T Lines and Analog Signals
T-1 Frame Structure
SONET/SDH
• Synchronous Optical Network (ANSI)
• Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (ITU-T)
• have hierarchy of signal rates
• Synchronous Transport Signal level 1 (STS-1) or Optical
Carrier level 1 (OC-1) is 51.84Mbps
• carries one DS-3 or multiple (DS1 DS1C DS2) plus ITU-T
rates (eg. 2.048Mbps)
• multiple STS-1 combine into STS-N signal
• Each frame of 810 bytes sent every 125 microsec.
• 9 rows of 90 octets
• 27 octets reserved for overhead
 SONET Frame Format

Section: Between regenerators; Line: Between Mux and Demux; Path: Between SONET terminals
Statistical TDM
• synch TDM many slots are wasted
• statistical TDM allocates time slots dynamically based on demand
• multiplexer scans input lines and collects data until frame full
• multiplexed line data rate lower than aggregate input line rates
• can support more users than sync TDM
• may have problems during peak periods
• must buffer inputs
Synchronous vs Statistical TDM
Statistical TDM Frame Format
Performance
• Output data rate less than aggregate input rates
• May cause problems during peak periods
• Buffer inputs
• Keep buffer size to minimum to reduce delay
• Queueing delay is random and makes end-to-end delay unpredictable
• Packet losses occur when buffer is full
Buffer Size
and Delay
Cable Modems
• dedicate two cable TV channels to data transfer
• each channel shared by number of subscribers, using
statistical TDM
• Downstream
• cable scheduler delivers data in small packets
• active subscribers share downstream capacity
• also allocates upstream time slots to subscribers
• Upstream
• user requests timeslots on shared upstream channel
• Headend scheduler notifies subscriber of slots to use
Cable Modem Scheme
Asymmetrical Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL)
• link between subscriber and network
• uses currently installed twisted pair cable
• is asymmetric - bigger downstream than up
• uses frequency division multiplexing
• reserve lowest 25kHz for voice (POTS)
• uses echo cancellation or FDM to give two bands
• has a range of up to 5.5km
ADSL Channel Configuration
Discrete Multitone (DMT)
• multiple carrier signals at different frequencies
• divide into 4kHz subchannels
• test and use subchannels with better SNR
• 256 downstream subchannels at 4kHz (60kbps)
• in theory 15.36Mbps, in practice 1.5-9Mbps