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Medium sharing (multiplexing,

Advanced channelization)
Communication Systems

Lecture 06: Multiplexing and Multiple

Access Techniques

Solomon Nunoo
Dept. of Electrical and Electronic Eng.
University of Mines and Technology, Tarkwa

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Presentation Outline Multiplexing

• Multiplexing:
• Frequency Division Multiplexing
• Time Division Multiplexing
• Code Division Multiplexing

• Multiple Access Techniques:

• Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
• Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
• Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
• Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA)

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Telecommunications Frequency Division

Processors Multiplexing
• Modems – convert digital signals from a • FDM
computer into analog frequencies that can be
transmitted over ordinary telephone lines • Useful bandwidth of medium exceeds
required bandwidth of channel
• Each signal is modulated to a different
carrier frequency
• Carrier frequencies separated so signals do
not overlap (guard bands)
• Multiplexers – allows a single communications • e.g. broadcast radio
channel to carry simultaneous data
transmissions from many terminals • Channel allocated even if no data

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Frequency Division Multiplexing

Diagram
Analog Carrier Systems
• AT&T (USA)
• Hierarchy of FDM schemes
• Group
• 12 voice channels (4kHz each) = 48kHz
• Range 60kHz to 108kHz
• Supergroup
• 60 channel
• FDM of 5 group signals on carriers between 420kHz and
612 kHz
• Mastergroup
• 10 supergroups

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FDM Wavelength Division

System Multiplexing
• Multiple beams of light at different frequency
• Carried by optical fiber
• A form of FDM
• Each color of light (wavelength) carries separate data
channel
• 1997 Bell Labs
• 100 beams
• Each at 10 Gbps
• Giving 1 terabit per second (Tbps)
• Commercial systems of 160 channels of 10 Gbps now
available
• Lab systems (Alcatel) 256 channels at 39.8 Gbps each
• 10.1 Tbps
• Over 100km

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FDM of Three Voiceband Signals WDM Operation

• Same general architecture as other FDM
• Number of sources generating laser beams at
different frequencies
• Multiplexer consolidates sources for transmission
over single fiber
• Optical amplifiers amplify all wavelengths
• Typically tens of km apart
• Demux separates channels at the destination
• Mostly 1550 nm wavelength range
• Was 200 MHz per channel
• Now 50 GHz

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Dense Wavelength Division TDM

Multiplexing System
• DWDM
• No official or standard definition
• Implies more channels more closely
spaced than WDM
• 200 GHz or less

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Synchronous Time Division

TDM Link Control
Multiplexing
• Data rate of medium exceeds data rate of • No headers and trailers
digital signal to be transmitted • Data link control protocols not needed
• Multiple digital signals interleaved in time • Flow control
• Data rate of multiplexed line is fixed
• May be at bit level of blocks
• If one channel receiver can not receive data,
• Time slots preassigned to sources and fixed the others must carry on
• Time slots allocated even if no data • The corresponding source must be quenched
• This leaves empty slots
• Time slots do not have to be evenly • Error control
distributed amongst sources • Errors are detected and handled by individual
channel systems

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Time Division Multiplexing Data Link Control on TDM

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Framing Digital Carrier Systems

• No flag or SYNC characters bracketing TDM • Hierarchy of TDM
frames • USA/Canada/Japan use one system
• Must provide synchronizing mechanism • ITU-T use a similar (but different) system
• Added digit framing • US system based on DS-1 format
• One control bit added to each TDM frame
• Looks like another channel - “control channel” • Multiplexes 24 channels
• Identifiable bit pattern used on control channel • Each frame has 8 bits per channel plus one
• e.g. alternating 01010101…unlikely on a data framing bit
channel
• 193 bits per frame
• Can compare incoming bit patterns on each
channel with sync pattern

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Pulse Stuffing Digital Carrier Systems (2)

• Problem - Synchronizing data sources • For voice each channel contains one word
• Clocks in different sources drifting of digitized data (PCM, 8000 samples per
sec)
• Data rates from different sources not • Data rate 8000x193 = 1.544Mbps
related by simple rational number • Five out of six frames have 8 bit PCM samples
• Solution - Pulse Stuffing • Sixth frame is 7 bit PCM word plus signaling bit
• Outgoing data rate (excluding framing bits) • Signaling bits form stream for each channel
higher than sum of incoming rates containing control and routing info
• Stuff extra dummy bits or pulses into each • Same format for digital data
incoming signal until it matches local clock
• Stuffed pulses inserted at fixed locations in frame • 23 channels of data
• 7 bits per frame plus indicator bit for data or systems control
and removed at demultiplexer
• 24th channel is sync

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TDM of Analog and Digital Sources Mixed Data

• DS-1 can carry mixed voice and data
signals
• 24 channels used
• No sync byte
• Can also interleave DS-1 channels
• Ds-2 is four DS-1 giving 6.312Mbps

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DS-1 Transmission Format Statistical TDM

• In Synchronous TDM many slots are wasted
• Statistical TDM allocates time slots
dynamically based on demand
• Multiplexer scans input lines and collects
data until frame full
• Data rate on line lower than aggregate
rates of input lines

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Statistical TDM Frame

SONET/SDH
Formats
• Synchronous Optical Network (ANSI)
• Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (ITU-T)
• Compatible
• Signal Hierarchy
• Synchronous Transport Signal level 1 (STS-1) or
Optical Carrier level 1 (OC-1)
• 51.84 Mbps
• Carry DS-3 or group of lower rate signals (DS1
DS1C DS2) plus ITU-T rates (e.g. 2.048 Mbps)
• Multiple STS-1 combined into STS-N signal
• ITU-T lowest rate is 155.52 Mbps (STM-1)

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SONET Frame Format Performance

• Output data rate less than aggregate input
rates
• May cause problems during peak periods
• Buffer inputs
• Keep buffer size to minimum to reduce delay

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Buffer Size
Cable Modem Scheme
and Delay

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Asymmetrical Digital
Cable Modem Outline
Subscriber Line
• Two channels from cable TV provider dedicated to • ADSL
data transfer
• One in each direction
• Link between subscriber and network
• Local loop
• Each channel shared by number of subscribers
• Scheme needed to allocate capacity • Uses currently installed twisted pair cable
• Statistical TDM • Can carry broader spectrum
• 1 MHz or more

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Cable Modem Operation ADSL Design

• Downstream • Asymmetric
• Cable scheduler delivers data in small packets • Greater capacity downstream than upstream
• If more than one subscriber active, each gets fraction of
downstream capacity • Frequency division multiplexing
• May get 500kbps to 1.5Mbps • Lowest 25 kHz for voice
• Also used to allocate upstream time slots to subscribers • Plain old telephone service (POTS)
• Upstream • Use echo cancellation or FDM to give two
• User requests timeslots on shared upstream channel bands
• Dedicated slots for this • Use FDM within bands
• Headend scheduler sends back assignment of future tme
slots to subscriber • Range 5.5 km

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ADSL
Channel DMT Transmitter
Configuration

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Discrete Multitone xDSL

• DMT • High data rate DSL
• Multiple carrier signals at different frequencies • Single line DSL
• Some bits on each channel • Very high data rate DSL
• 4 kHz subchannels
• Send test signal and use subchannels with
better signal to noise ratio
• 256 downstream subchannels at 4 kHz (60
kbps)
• 15.36 MHz
• Impairments bring this down to 1.5Mbps to 9Mbps

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DTM Bits Per Channel

Allocation

Multiple Access Techniques

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Introduction
 Multiple access schemes are used to allow
many mobile users to share simultaneously a
finite amount of radio spectrum.
 High capacity is required.
 must be done without severe degradation in the
performance.

 Duplexing is needed to allow subscribers

send and receive information
simultaneously.
• e.g., telephone systems, (a)FDD provides two simplex channels at the same time;
(b)(b) TDD provides two simplex slots on the same frequency.
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Trade-offs between FDD

(1) Duplexing
and TDD:
• Using frequency or time domain techniques. FDD
• Each transceiver simultaneously transmits and receives radio
signals which vary by more than 100 dB, the frequency allocation
Frequency Division Duplexing (FDD) used for the forward and reverse channels must be carefully
• Provides two distinct bands of frequencies for coordinated with out-of-band users that occupy spectrum between
every user. these two bands.
• Forward band: from the base station to the mobile • The frequency separation must be coordinated to permit the use of
• Reverse band: from the mobile to the base. inexpensive RF technology.
• Consists of two simplex channels TDD
• Duplexer is used  Eliminate the need for separate forward and reverse frequency

• The frequency split between the forward and bands.

reverse channel is constant.  There is a time latency due to the fact that communications is
not full duplex in the truest sense.

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(1) Duplexing (2) Multiple Access

Time Division Duplexing (TDD)  Three major techniques:
 Frequency division multiple access (FDMA)
• Uses time to provide both a forward and  Time division multiple access (TDMA)
reverse link.  Code division multiple access (CDMA)
 Others:
• If the time split between the forward and  Packet radio (PR)
reverse time slot is small, then the  Space division multiple access (SDMA)
transmission and reception of data
These techniques can be grouped as narrowband and
appears simultaneous. 
wideband systems, depending upon how the available
bandwidth is allocated to the users.
• Allows communication on a single channel • The duplexing technique of a multiple access system is usually
and simplifies the subscriber equipment described along with the particular multiple access scheme
since a duplexer is not required.

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a) Narrowband Systems Frequency Division Multiple

 The available radio spectrum is divided into a large number of
narrowband channels. Access (FDMA)
 Each channel is relatively narrow compared with the coherence
bandwidth.  Each user is allocated a unique frequency
 The channels are usually operated using FDD. band or channel.
 To minimize interference between forward and reverse links,
the frequency split is made as great as possible  These channels are assigned on demand,
allowing inexpensive duplexers and can not be shared.
 Narrowband FDMA: a user is assigned a particular channel
which is not shared by other users in the vicinity.
If FDD is used, the system is called FDMA/FDD.

 Narrowband TDMA: allows users to share the same channel

but allocates a unique time slot to each user.
 For narrowband TDMA, there generally are a large number of
channels allocated using either FDD or TDD, and each channel
is shared using TDMA.
TDMA/FDD or TDMA/TDD
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b) Wideband systems

 The transmission bandwidth of a single channel is much larger

The features of FDMA
than the coherence bandwidth.
multipath fading does not greatly affect the received signal,
 The FDMA channel carries only one phone circuit at a time.
frequency selective fades occur in only a small fraction of the
bandwidth.  If an FDMA channel is not in use, then it sits idle and
 A large number of transmitters are allowed to transmit on the cannot be used by other users to increase or share
same channel. capacity. It is essentially a wasted resource.
 After the assignment of a voice channel, the base station
Wideband TDMA: allocates time slots to the many transmitters and the mobile transmit simultaneously and
on the same channel and allows only one transmitter to access continuously.
the channel at any instant of time,  The bandwidths of FDMA channels are relatively narrow
TDMA/FDD, TDMA/TDD (30 kHz) as each channel supports only one circuit per
carrier. That is, FDMA is usually implemented in
Wideband CDMA: allows all of the transmitters to access the narrowband systems.
channel at the same time.
 The symbol time is large as compared to the average delay
CDMA/FDD, CDMA/TDD spread. This implies that the amount of intersymbol
interference is low and, thus, little or no equalization is
required in FDMA narrowband systems.
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The features of FDMA

 The complexity of FDMA mobile systems is lower when
compared to TDMA systems, though this is changing as digital
signal processing methods improve for TDMA.
 Since FDMA is a continuous transmission scheme, fewer bits
are needed for overhead purposes (such as synchronization
and framing bits) as compared to TDMA.
 FDMA systems have higher cell site system costs as compared
to TDMA systems, because of the single channel per carrier
design, and the need to use costly bandpass filters to eliminate
spurious radiation at the base station.
 The FDMA mobile unit uses duplexers since both the
transmitter and receiver operate at the same time. This results
in an increase in the cost of FDMA subscriber units and base
stations.
 FDMA requires tight RF filtering to minimize adjacent channel
interference.

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Frame structure:

Nonlinear Effects in FDMA

 In FDMA, many channels share the same antenna at
the base station.
 The power amplifiers or the power combiners, when
operated at or near saturation for maximum power
efficiency, are nonlinear.
 The nonlinearities cause signal spreading in the
frequency domain and generate intermodulation The transmission from various users is interlaced into a repeating
(IM) frequencies. frame structure.
• interfere adjacent-channels, or adjacent services
 Frame ---- consists of a number of slots (information message),
 Intermodulation distortion products occur at together with a preamble, and tail bits.
frequencies mf1 + nf2 for all integer values of m and n.
Some of the possible intermodulation frequencies  Preamble ---- contains the address and synchronization

that are produced by a nonlinear device are information that both the base station and the subscribers use to
• (2n+1)f1-2nf2, (2n+2)f1-(2n+1)f2, (2n+1)f1-2nf2, (2n+2)f2- identify each other.
(2n+1)f1, etc. for n = 0, 1, 2, … …  Guard times ---- allow synchronization of the receivers between
different slots and frames.
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Time Division Multiple Access

Features of TDMA
(TDMA)
 Each user occupies a cyclically repeating time  TDMA shares a single carrier frequency with several users, where each
user makes use of nonoverlapping time slots. The number of time slots
slot, per frame depends on several factors, such as modulation technique,
available bandwidth, etc.
• a channel may be thought of as particular  Data transmission for users of a TDMA system is not continuous, but
time slot that reoccurs every frame, where occurs in bursts. This results in low battery consumption, since the
subscriber transmitter can be turned off when not in use (which is most
N time slots comprise a frame. of the time).
 Transmit data in a buffer-and-burst method,  Because of discontinuous transmissions in TDMA, the handoff process
is much simpler for a subscriber unit, since it is able to listen for other
the transmission for any user is base stations during idle time slots. An enhanced link control, such as
noncontinuous. that provided by mobile assisted handoff (MAHO) can be carried out by
a subscriber by listening on an idle slot in the TDMA frame.
• digital data and digital modulation must be  TDMA uses different time slots for transmission and reception, thus
used with TDMA. duplexers are not required. Even if FDD is used, a switch rather than a
duplexer inside the subscriber unit is all that is required to switch
between transmitter and receiver using TDMA.

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Time Division Multiple Access

Features of TDMA
(TDMA)
 Adaptive equalization is usually necessary in TDMA systems,
since the transmission rates are generally very high as compared
to FDMA channels.
 In TDMA, the guard time should be minimized. If the transmitted
signal at the edges of a time slot are suppressed sharply in order
to shorten the guard time, the transmitted spectrum will expand
and cause interference to adjacent channels.
 High synchronization overhead is required in TDMA systems
because of burst transmissions. TDMA transmissions are slotted,
and this requires the receivers to be synchronized for each data
burst. In addition, guard slots are necessary to separate users,
and this results in the TDMA systems having larger overheads as
compared to FDMA.
 TDMA has an advantage in that it is possible to allocate different
numbers of time slots per frame to different users. Thus
bandwidth can be supplied on demand to different users by
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concatenating or reassigning time slots based on priority.
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Efficiency of TDMA:
Frequency Hopped
 The frame efficiency, is the percentage of bits per frame which
contain transmitted data.
Multiple Access (FHMA)
Difference between FHMA and FDMA:
 In FHMA, The frequency hopped signal changes channels at
rapid intervals.
It is a measure of the percentage of transmitted data that contains
information as opposed to providing overhead for the access Fast hopping and slow hopping:
scheme.  fast frequency hopping ---- the rate of change of the carrier
frequency is greater than the symbol rate
 The transmitted data may include source and channel coding bits,
Can be thought of as an FDMA system which employs frequency
so the raw end-user efficiency of a system is generally less than diversity
frame efficiency.  slow frequency hopping ---- the channel changes at a rate less
than or equal to the symbol rate
Number of channels In TDMA system:
 Can be found by multiplying the number of TDMA slots per
channel by the number of channels available

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Spread Spectrum Multiple Frequency Hopped

Access (SSMA) Multiple Access (FHMA)
 Transmission bandwidth is several orders of magnitude greater  FHMA systems often employ energy efficient constant
than the minimum required RF bandwidth. envelope modulation.
Pseudo-noise (PN) sequence converts a narrowband signal to a  Inexpensive receivers may be built to provide noncoherent
wideband noise-like signal. detection of FHMA.
linearity is not an issue.
 Provides immunity to multipath interference and robust
multiple access capability.  A frequency hopped system provides a level of security,
especially when a large number of channels are used.
 Bandwidth efficient in a muthple user environment.

 Two main types SSMA:

 Frequency hopped multiple access (FH)
 Direct sequence multiple access (DS)

Direct sequence multiple access is also called code division

multiple access (CDMA).

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Frequency Hopped Code Division Multiple

Multiple Access (FHMA) Access (CDMA)
Definition： In CDMA, the narrowband message signal is multiplied by a

The carrier frequencies of the individual users are varied in a very large bandwidth signal called the spreading signal.
pseudorandom fashion within a wideband channel.  The spreading signal is a pseudo-noise code sequence that
has a chip rate which is orders of magnitudes greater than the
data rate of the message.
 Data is broken into uniform sized bursts then transmitted on
different carrier frequencies.  All users use the
 The instantaneous bandwidth of any one transmission burst is same carrier
much smaller than the total spread bandwidth. frequency and may
 The pseudorandom change of the carrier frequencies of the transmit
user randomizes the occupancy of a specific channel at any simultaneously.
given time, multiple access allowed.  Each user has its
 In the FR receiver, a locally generated PN code is used to own pseudorandom
synchronize the receivers instantaneous frequency. codeword which is
approximately
 At any given point in time, a frequency hopped signal only orthogonal to all
occupies a single, relatively narrow channel. other code words.

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Code Division Multiple Code Division Multiple

Access

(CDMA)
The receiver performs a time correlation operation to detect
Access (CDMA)
Features of CDMA:
only the specific desired codeword.
All other codewords appear as noise due to decorrelation.  Many users of a CDMA system share the same frequency.
 The receiver needs to know the codeword used by the Either TDD or FDD may be used.
transmitter.
Each user operates independently with no knowledge of the other  Unlike TDMA or FDMA, CDMA has a soft capacity limit.
users. Increasing the number of users in a CDMA system raises the
noise floor in a linear manner. Thus, there is no absolute limit
on the number of users in CDMA. Rather, the system
performance gradually degrades for all users as the number of
users is increased, and improves as the number of users is
decreased.

 Multipath fading may be substantially reduced because the

signal is spread over a large spectrum. If the spread spectrum
bandwidth is greater than the coherence bandwidth of the
channel, the inherent frequency diversity will mitigate the
effects of small-scale fading.
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Code Division Multiple Code Division Multiple

Access (CDMA)
near-far problem:
Access (CDMA)
Features of CDMA (continued):
 The near-far problem occurs when many mobile users share
the same channel.  Channel data rates are very high in CDMA systems.
 In general, the strongest received mobile signal will capture the Consequently, the symbol (chip) duration is very short and
demodulator at a base station. usually much less than the channel delay spread. Since PN
 In CDMA, stronger received signal levels raise the noise floor at the sequences have low autocorrelation, multipath which is
base station demodulators for the weaker signals, thereby delayed by more than a chip will appear as noise. A RAKE
decreasing the probability that weaker signals will be received. receiver can be used to improve reception by collecting time
 the power of multiple users at a receiver determines the noise floor delayed versions of the required signal.
after decorrelation.

 Since CDMA uses co-channel cells, it can use macroscopic

spatial diversity to provide soft handoff. Soft handoff is
performed by the MSC, which can simultaneously monitor a
particular user from two or more base stations. The MSC may
chose the best version of the signal at any time without
switching frequencies.

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Code Division Multiple Code Division Multiple

Access
Power control:
(CDMA) Access (CDMA)
Features of CDMA (continued):

 Provided by each base station in a cellular system and assures  Self-jamming is a problem in CDMA system. Self-jamming
that each mobile within the base station coverage area arises from the fact that the spreading sequences of different
provides the same signal level to the base station receiver. users are not exactly orthogonal, hence in the despreading of a
This solves the problem of a nearby subscriber particular PN code, non-zero contributions to the receiver
overpowering the base station receiver and drowning out the decision statistic for a desired user arise from the
signals of far away subscribers. transmissions of other users in the system.

 Power control is implemented at the base station by rapidly  The near-far problem occurs at a CDMA receiver if an undesired
sampling the radio signal strength indicator (RSSI) levels of user has a high detected power as compared to the desired
each mobile and then sending a power change command over user.
the forward radio link.
out-of-cell mobiles provide interference which is not under
the control of the receiving base station.

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Hybrid Spread Spectrum 9.4.3 Hybrid Spread

Techniques
(1) Hybrid FDMA/CDMA (FCDMA)
Spectrum Techniques
(3) Time Division CDMA (TCDMA)

 The available wideband spectrum is divided into a number of  Different spreading codes are assigned to different cells. Within
subspectras with smaller bandwidths. each cell, only one user per cell is allotted a particular time slot.
 Each of these smaller subchannels becomes a narrowband Thus at any time, only one CDMA user is transmitting in each
CDMA system having processing gain lower than the original cell.
CDMA system.  When a handoff takes place, the spreading code of the user is
changed to that of the new cell.
Advantages: The required bandwidth need not be continuous and
different users can be allotted different subspectrum Advantage:
bandwidths depending on their requirements. Avoids the near-far effect.
Since only one user transmits at a time within a cell.
Capacity: equal to the sum of the capacities of a system operating
in the subspectra.

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Hybrid Spread Spectrum

Techniques
(4) Time Division Frequency Hopping (TDFH)

 The subscriber can hop to a new frequency at the start of a new

TDMA frame, thus avoiding a severe fade or erasure event on a
particular channel.

Advantage: robust in severe multipath or when severe co-channel

interference occurs.
Adopted for the GSM standard, where the hopping sequence is
predefined and the subscriber is allowed to hop only on certain
frequencies which are assigned to a cell.

 The use of TDFH can increase the capacity of GSM by several

fold.

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Hybrid Spread Spectrum Space Division Multiple

Techniques
(2) Hybrid Direct Sequence/Frequency Hopped Multiple Access
Access (SDMA)
Principle:
(DS/FHMA) SDMA serves different users by using spot beam antennas to
control the radiated energy for each user in space.
 Consists of a direct sequence modulated signal whose center These different areas covered by the antenna beam may be served
frequency is made to hop periodically in a pseudorandom by the same frequency (in a TDMA or CDMA systern) or different
fashion. frequencies (in an FDMA system).
Advantage: Avoid the near-far effect.
Drawback: Not adaptable to the soft handoff process  Sectorized antennas ----
primitive application of
for it is difficult to synchronize the frequency hopped base station
receiver to the multiple hopped signals. SDMA.
 Adaptive antennas ----
simultaneously steer
energy in the direction
of many users at once.
Appear to be best
suited for TDMA and
CDMA base station
architectures.
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Space Division Multiple

Packet Radio Protocols
Access (SDMA)
Problem:
 Vulnerable period ----the time interval during which the packets
are susceptible to collisions with transmissions from other
The reverse link presents the most difficulty in cellular systems. users.

 First, the transmitted power from each subscriber unit must be

dynamically controlled to prevent any single user from driving up the
interference level for all other users.

 Second, transmit power is limited by battery consumption at the

subscriber unit, therefore there are limits on the degree to which power
may be controlled.

If the base station antenna is made to spatially filter each desired

user so that more energy is detected from each subscriber, then the
reverse link for each user is improved and less power is required.

• The Packet A will suffer a collision if other terminals transmit

packets during the period t1 to + 2ı .
Even if only a small portion of packet A sustains a collision, the
interference may render the message useless.
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Space Division Multiple

Packet Radio Protocols
Access (SDMA)
Adaptive antennas
 Assume:
 Can be used at the base station (or subscriber units) to mitigate  All packets sent by all users have a constant packet length and
some of the problems on the reverse link. fixed, channel data rate
 All other users may generate new packets at random time
 optimal SDMA can be realized if infinitesimal beamwidth and intervals.
infinitely fast tracking ability are available.  Packet transmissions occur with a Poisson distribution having a
 Unique channel that is free from the interference of all other users in the mean arrival rate of  packets per second.
cell is provided.
 All users within the system would be able to communicate at the same
time using the same channel.  Then, the Normalized Channel Traffic R is given by
 A perfect adaptive antenna system would be able to track individual
multipath components for each user and combine them in an optimal R  
manner to collect all of the available signal energy from each user.  R is a measure of the channel utilization, the unit is Erlangs.
 If R>1, then the packets generated by the users exceed the
 The perfect adaptive antenna system is not feasible. maximum transmission rate of the channel.
Since it requires infinitely large antennas.  To obtain a reasonable throughput, the rate at which new packets
Gains might be achieved using reasonably sized arrays with are generated must lie within 0<R<1.
moderate directivities.
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Packet Radio (PR) Packet Radio Protocols

 In PR, many subscribers attempt to access a single channel in an
uncoordinated (or minimally coordinated) manner.  The normalized throughput T (Under conditions of normal
 Contention technique is used to transmit on a common channel. loading)
 Transmission is done by using bursts of data.
 Collisions are detected at the BS, ACK or NACK signal is broadcast.
 ACK ---- Acknowledgment of a received burst
T  R  Pr[no  collision]    Pr [no  collission]
 NACK ---- Negative acknowledgment)
 T is the same as the total offered load L.
 Advantage:
 0<T<1, and can be thought of as the fraction of time (fraction of
 Very easy to implement an Erlang) a channel is utilized.
 Have the ability to serve a large number of subscribers with virtually no
overhead.
 Drawback: low spectral efficiency and may induce delays.  For a Poisson Distribution,
 Example: ALOHA Rn e R
 Each subscriber transmit whenever they want Pr (n) 
 If a collision occurs, waits a random amount of time, and retransmits. n!
 Main parameter:  Therefore,
 Throughput (T) ---- the average number of messages successfully
transmitted per unit time Pr[no  collision]  Pr (0)  e R
 Average delay (D) ---- time delay experienced by a typical message burst.
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Packet Radio Protocols

Based on the type of access, contention protocols are
categorized as

Random access ---- there is no coordination among the users

and the messages are transmitted from the users as they
arrive at the transmitter

Scheduled access ---- based on a coordinated access of users on

the channel, and the users transmit messages within allotted
slots or time intervals.

Hybrid access ---- a combination of random access and

scheduled access.

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Carrier Sense Multiple

(1) Pure ALOHA
Access (CSMA) Protocols
 Random access protocol. ALOHA protocols do not listen to the channel before
 Whenever ready, transmitted immediately, then check ACK transmission, therefore do not exploit information about the other
and NACK. users.
As the number of users increase, a greater delay occurs
because the probability of collision increases  CSMA listens to the channel before engaging in transmission
 If the channel is idle, then transmit.
 Vulnerable period: double the packet duration Greater efficiencies may be achieved.
 Probability of no collision:
found by evaluating Pr (n) given as Parameters:
 Detection delay ---- the time required for a terminal to sense
whether or not the channel is idle.
is a function of the receiver hardware.
 Then the throughput is
 Propagation delay ---- a relative measure of how fast it takes
for a packet to travel from a base station to a mobile terminal.
Propagation delay impacts the performance of CSMA protocols.
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Carrier Sense Multiple

(2) Slotted ALOHA
 Time is divided into equal time slots of length greater than the
Access (CSMA) Protocols
packet duration.
propagation delay td (in packet transmission units)
 The subscribers each have synchronized clocks and transmit
a message only at the beginning of a new time slot
Resulting in a discrete distribution of packets. where tp is the propagation time in seconds
Rb is the channel bit rate
 Prevents partial collisions through synchronization. m is the expected number of bits in a data packet
 As number of users increase, greater delay will occur due to
collisions and retransmissions.
The number of slots which a transmitter waits prior to
retransmitting also determines the delay characteristics of the
traffic.

The vulnerable period is only one packet duration

Throughput:
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Carrier Sense Multiple

Reservation Protocols
Access (CSMA) Protocols
Several variations of the CSMA strategy:
(2) Packet Reservation Multiple Access (PRMA)
(1) 1-persistent CSMA
 The terminal listens to the channel and waits for transmission  PRMA uses a discrete packet time technique similar to
until it finds the channel idle. reservation ALOHA, and combines the cyclical frame structure.
 As soon as the channel is idle, the terminal transmits its The frame structure is much like in TDMA.
message with probability one.
(2) non-persistent CSMA  Each slot carry either voice or data, where voice is given
 After receiving a negative acknowledgment the terminal waits priority.
a random time before retransmission. Aim to integrate bursty data and human speech.
This is popular for wireless LAN applications, where the packet
transmission interval is much greater than the propagation delay to  Within each frame, there are a fixed number of time slots which
the farthermost user. may be designated as either “reserved" or "available",
(3) p-persistent CSMA depending on the traffic as determined by the controlling BS
 When a channel is found to be idle, the packet is transmitted in (Detailed in next chapter).
the first available slot with probability p or in the next slot with
probability 1-p.
Applied to slotted channels.
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Carrier Sense Multiple

Capture Effect in Packet Radio
Access (CSMA) Protocols near-far effect:
(4) CSMA/CD (CSMA with collision detection) Due to the contention, it is possible for the strongest user to
 User monitors its transmission for collisions. successfully capture the intended receiver.
 If collision happens, abort transmission in midstream. Often, the closest transmitter wins because of the small propagation path
 User having both a transmitter and receiver loss.
support listen-while-talk operation. Advantages: many packets may survive despite collision on the
channel.
(5) Data sense multiple access (DSMA) Disadvantages: a strong transmitter may make it impossible for the receiver
 A special type of CSMA to detect a much weaker transmitter which is attempting to communicate
A forward control channel is employed. to the same receiver.
 Each user attempts to detect a busy-idle message which is This problem is known as the hidden transmitter problem.
interspersed on the forward control channel.
 When the busy-idle message indicates that no users are Capture ratio:
transmitting on the reverse channel, a user is free to send.  Defined as the minimum power ratio of an arriving packet, relative to
Used in the cellular digital packet data (CDPD) cellular network the other colliding packets, such that it is received.
(see next chapter).  It is a useful parameter in analyzing the capture effects.
This ratio is dependent upon the receiver and the modulation used.
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Reservation Protocols Summary of this subsection

(1) Reservation ALOHA:  Packet radio techniques support mobile transmitters sending
bursty traffic in the form of data packets using random access.
 A packet access scheme based on time division multiplexing.
 Ideal channel throughput can be increased if terminals
 Certain packet slots are assigned with priority, and it is possible synchronize their packet transmissions into common time slots.
for users to reserve slots for the transmission of packets. Such that the risk of partial packet overlap is avoided.
Permanently reserved or reserved on request.  With high traffic loads, both unslotted and slotted ALOHA
 For high traffic conditions, reservations on request offers better protocols become inefficient.
throughput. Heavy collision, multiple retransmissions and increased delays.
 CSMA can be used where the transmitter first listens either to
the common radio channel or to a separate dedicated
Examples of Reservation ALOHA:
acknowledgment control channel from the base station.
 Type 1: The terminal making a successful transmission reserves a
In a practical mobile system, the CSMA protocols may fail to detect
slot permanently until its transmission is complete. ongoing radio transmissions of packets subject to deep fading on the
But very large duration transmissions may be interrupted. reverse channel path.
 Type 2: Allows a user to transmit a request on a subslot which is  Utilization of an ALOHA channel can be improved by deliberately
reserved in each frame. If the transmission is successful, the terminal introducing differences between the transmit powers of multiple
is allocated the next regular slot in the frame for data transmission. users competing for the base station receiver.
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9.7 Capacity of Cellular Systems

 Usually, the C/I for each user is required to be greater than
some minimum (C/I)min, then the following equation must
hold for acceptable performance:

 Therefore, the reuse factor is

 The radio capacity of a cellular system is defined as

, where N=Q2/3

 Thus, The radio capacity is

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9.7 Capacity of Cellular Systems 9.7 Capacity of Cellular Systems

Channel capacity ---- the maximum number of channels or users  In order to provide the same voice quality, (C/I) min may be
that can be provided in a fixed frequency band. lower in a digital systems when compared to an analog
 This parameter measures spectrum efficiency of a wireless system.
system. (C/I) min is about 12 dB for narrowband digital systems
 Determined by the required carrier-to-interference ratio (C/I) and and 18 dB for narrowband analog FM systems.
the channel bandwidth Bc.  Each digital wireless standard has a different (C/I) min .

Carrier-to-interference ratio (C/I): How to compare different systems?

 reverse channel interference ---- Interference at a base station use an equivalent C/I .
receiver, comes from the subscriber units in the surrounding cells.
 If Bc and m are kept constant, we have
 forward channel interference ---- interference at a particular
subscriber unit, comes from the surrounding co-channel base
stations.
(Considering the forward channel interference problem)
Bc ---- bandwidth of a particular system
 the M closest co-channel cells may be considered as first order (C/I)min ---- tolerable C/I value for the same system
interference in which case C/I is given by Bc’ ---- bandwidth for a different system
n ---- path loss exponent. (C/I)eq ---- minimum C/I value for the different system when
D0 ---- distance from the mobile to the desired BS. compared to (C/I)min the for a particular system.
D ---- distance of the mobile to the cells in the first tier.
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9.7 Capacity of Cellular Systems

Capacity of Digital Cellular TDMA in practical systems:
TDMA systems improve capacity by a factor of 3 to 6 times
as compared to analog cellular radio systems, because of
many techniques used.
 Powerful error control and speech coding enable better link
performance in high interference environments.
 By exploiting speech activity, some TDMA systems are able
to better utilize each radio channel.
 Mobile assisted handoff (MAHO) allows subscribers to
monitor the neighboring base stations, and the best base
station choice may be made by each subscriber.
 MAHO allows the deployment of densely packed microcells,
thus giving substantial capacity gains in a system.
 TDMA also makes it possible to introduce adaptive channel
allocation (ACA). ACA eliminates system planning since it
is not required to plan frequencies for cells.
Various proposed standards such as the GSM, U.S digital cellular
(USDC), and Pacific Digital Cellular (PDC) have adopted digital
TDMA for high capacity.
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9.7.1 Capacity of
Cellular CDMA
Derivation of the capacity:
 Let the number of users be N. Then, each Demodulator at the cell site
receives a composite waveform containing the desired signal of
power S and (N-1) interfering users, each of which has power, S.
Thus, the signal-to-noise ratio is

 The SNR at the base station receiver can be represented in terms of

Eb/N0 given by

 Take the background thermal noise into consideration, Eb/N0 can be

represented as

 Then the number of users that can access the system is

W/R is called the processing gain.

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9.7.1 Capacity of 9.7.1 Capacity of

Cellular
 CDMA
The capacity of CDMA systems is interference limited Cellular CDMA
In order to achieve an increase in capacity, the interference due
to other users should be reduced.
while it is bandwidth limited in FDMA and TDMA.
 Reduction in the interference will cause a linear increase in the Ways to reduce interference:
capacity of CDMA.  multisectorized antennas
 Link performance for each user increases as the number of users  Results in spatial isolation of users.
decreases.  The directional antennas receive signals from only a
 Ways to reduce interference: fraction of the current users
multisectorized antennas  Leading to the reduction of interference.

 Operate in a discontinuous transmission mode (DTX) e.g., using three antennas, each having a beam width of
120o, increases the capacity by a factor of 3.
 Operate in a discontinuous transmission mode (DTX)
 CDMA can reuse the entire spectrum for all cells  Takes advantage of the intermittent nature of speech.
Results in an increase of capacity by a large percentage over the normal  Transmitter is turned off during the periods of silence in
frequency reuse factor. speech.
Voice signals have a duty factor of about 3/8 in landline
networks and 1/2 for mobile systems.
 The average capacity of a CDMA system can be
increased by a factor inversely proportional to the duty
factor.
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9.7.1 Capacity of 9.7.1 Capacity of

Cellular CDMA Cellular
With the use of CDMA
these two techniques, the new average
value of Eb/No' within a sector is given as
Capacity of a single cell CDMA system
• interference received by a sector
forward link:

 The cell-site transmitter linearly combines the spread signals
antenna, which
where Ns is the number is
of one-third ofandthe
users per sector, N o' is
of the individual users. interference received by an omni-
A weighting factor for each signal is used for power control.
directional antenna.

For a single cell system weighting factors can be assumed to be equal.
 A pilot signal is also included in the cell-site transmitter
Used by each mobile to set its own power control for the reverse link.
 When the number of users is large and the
 Reverse link: system is interference limited rather than
 All the signals on the reverse channel are received at the same
power level at the base station noise limited, the number of users can be
shown to be
When voice activity factor = 3/8, using three sectors, the SNR
increases by a factor of 8, which leads to an 8 fold increase in
the number of users.
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9.7.1 Capacity of 9.7.2 Capacity of CDMA

Cellular
CDMA CDMA
Power Control: with multiple
The average
 Cellular
received power from users in an adjacent cell:
the system capacity is maximized if each mobile
transmitter power level is controlled so that its signal
arrives at the cell site with the minimum required signal-to- where Nij is the power received at the base station of interest
interference ratio. from the jth user in the ith cell.

 if a mobile signal arrives at the cell site with a signal that is Note:
too weak, and often the weak user will be dropped.
1. Each adjacent cell may have a different number of
users.
 If the received power from a mobile user is too great the 2. each out-of-cell user will offer a different level of
performance of this mobile unit will be acceptable, but it interference depending on its exact transmitted
will add undesired interference to all other users in the cell. power and location relative to the base station of
interest.
3. The variance of Nij can be computed using
standard statistical techniques for a particular cell.

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9.7.2 Capacity of CDMA 9.7.2 Capacity of CDMA

with multiple
In actual
 Cellular
CDMA cellular systems, neighboring cells share with
Libertimultiple
 and Rappaport andCellular
Milstein uses a recursive
the same frequency. geometric technique to determine how the propagation
 A particular base station is unable to control the power of path loss impacts the frequency reuse of a CDMA system
users in neighboring cells. by considering the interference from both in-cell and out-of-
cell users.
 Interference from neighboring cells add to the noise floor
and decrease capacity on the reverse link.

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9.7.2 Capacity of CDMA 9.7.2 Capacity of CDMA with multiple Cellular

with
 multiple
The amount of out-of-cellCellular
interference determines the  Simulation results show that f can range between 0.316 ~
frequency reuse factor, f. 0.707, depending on the path loss exponent, n, and the
 Ideally, f = 1. distribution of users.
 In practice, interference reduces f significantly.
 The frequency reuse factor for a CDMA system on the
reverse link can be defined as

 N0 ---- total interference power received from the N-1 in-cell users
 Ui ---- number of users in the i th adjacent cell
 Na,i ---- average interference power for a user located in the i th
adjacent cell.

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9.7.3 Capacity of space division multiple

Interference analysis for adaptive antenna system:
Cellular
Assume a CDMA system that:
Assume
 Interference limited;  A single cell CDMA system;
 AWGN channel;  Beam pattern, G( ), is formed such that the pattern has maximum
gain in the direction of the desired user;
 Perfect power control;
The pattern can be formed using an N-element adaptive array
 No interference from adjacent cells; antenna.
 Omnidirectional antennas used at the base stations.  No variation of gain of G( ) in the elevation plane;
 signature sequences are random;  The power can be steered through 360° in the horizontal plane,
 Number of users, K, is sufficiently large to allow the Gaussian such that the desired user is always in the main beam of the
approximation to be valid. pattern;
 Number of users is K, and they are uniformly distributed
Then the average bit error rate for a user is throughout a two-dimensional cell;
 The base station antenna is capable of simultaneously providing
such a pattern for all users in the cell.
 On the reverse link, the power received from the desired mobile
signals is Pr;0.
 The powers of the signal incident at the base station antenna
from K-1 interfering users are given by Pr;i for i = 1,2,……k-1.

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Three possible base station antenna configurations:

 Omni-directional antenna
 Detect signals from all users in the system;
 Receive the greatest amount of noise.
 Sectored antenna
 Divide the received noise into a smaller value.
 Increase the number of users.
 Adaptive antenna
 The most powerful form of SDMA.
 Be able to form a spot beam for each user.
 Can track each user in the cell as it moves.

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Then:
 The average total interference power, at the base station

 If no interference from adjacent cells, and perfect power control

is applied (Pr;i=Pc), then

 Assuming users are independently and identically distributed

throughout the cell, the average total interference seen by a
user in the central cell is given by

 D is the directivity of the antenna, given by max(G())

 In typical cellular installations, D ranges between 3 dB to 10 dB.
 As the antenna beam pattern is made more narrow, D increases,
and the received interference decreases proportionally.
 The average bit error rate for user 0 can thus be given by

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conclusion:
 The probability of bit error is dependent on the beam pattern of
a receiver;
 There is considerable improvement that is achieved using high
gain adaptive antennas at the base station.

For multiple-cell system

The additional interference from adjacent cells simply adds to the
interference level
 The average probability of error:

f is the frequency reuse factor described

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Note: multipath is not considered.

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Dates for Quizzes

• Quiz 1: 1st November, 2018
• Chapters 1-3

• Quiz 2: 8th November, 2018

• Chapters 4-6

• Quiz 3: 15th November, 2018

• Chapters 7-9

•Final Exams: 27th Nov. – 14th Dec. 2018

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