INDIAN LANDSCAPE

Submitted
by

PRATHEEBHA P
LA639, 3RD SEMESTER
2018- 2020 batch

A comprehensive article based on various

Department Of Landscape Architecture,

Garden art has a long tradition in India, experiencing its heyday in the Mughal era.
At that time the construction of gardens was used to mark out places of beauty or
religious significance and to exert territorial control. A study of the history of
Indian landscape clearly indicates that the central feature of pre-colonial Indian
landscape design was its complementary relationship with nature and an
experiential aesthetics. Research themes
The first Master’s programme in landscape architecture in India was established
forty years ago at the School of Planning and Architecture in New Delhi. Given the
fact that post-graduate programmes currently exist only in Delhi, Ahmedabad,
Chennai, and Pune, only about seventy Master’s degree holders in landscape
architecture enter the job market per year. The professional association, the
Indian Society of Landscape Architects (ISOLA), has existed for a mere ten years.

Now it is certainly important to place landscape architects in the public sector, i.e.
within teams for city development plans, open space planning, regional plans, and
infrastructural developments, domains that are more or less unexplored so far.
In most cases, architects are the project leaders, but landscape architects are
more and more often hired as part of the project team. While previously the
question was about why a landscape architect was needed at all, nowadays the
question asked by clients is: who is your landscape architect? Accordingly, most
commissions for landscape architects come from architects.
The reader brings together knowledge about the meaning and scope of landscape
architecture in the Indian subcontinent, in a regionally specific manner. It seeks to
introduce landscape matters to to students and future professionals in spatial
design disciplines.
India’s regions and to a presentation of major works of Indian landscape
architecture.
By publishing this volume the authors have laid the floor for a better
understanding of landscape architecture. One can only fully agree with Geeta
Wahi Duawhen she writes: “There is a great need for many more publications and
discussions on this very fascinating and creative profession.“ Landscape
architecture in India is a huge task.
• Religion in the Landscape
The study of ancient Indian religion has long since been dominated by textual
scholarship which has given priority to the Sanskrit tradition, and drawn on
archaeology largely for supplementary evidence. Furthermore, until recently the
site-based focus of South Asian archaeology has meant that ritual sites have
tended to be studied in isolation from wider patterns in the landscape. This
project has sought to build a more integrated approach to textual and
archaeological scholarship on early Indian religion, focussing in particular on the
following questions: What was the changing relationship between the state and
religion? How did the different religious traditions attract local patronage
networks? How did they relate to local agricultural communities? What was the
nature of inter-religious dynamics?
• Water and Civilisation
The development of advanced irrigation systems has been seen as a major factor
in the rise of complex, urban societies in ancient India. However, a number of
questions regarding the history and chronology of irrigation technology and its
role in the wider economic, political and religious landscape, have remained
unanswered. The traditional view, based largely on readings of problematically
dated texts such as the Arthasastra, is that the building and management of
irrigation works was dependent on centralised state administration. Marxist-
inspired models such as Wittogel's 'Hydraulic Civilisations of the Orient' have led
to similar notions regarding Asian economic systems as a whole. In recent years,
these have undergone major revision following studies of more devolved systems
of irrigation management in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia involving village councils
and religious institutions. In India, however, traditional models have until recently
remained unchallenged due in part to the paucity of archaeological research on
irrigation.Steps towards redressing this problem have been taken in relation to a
group of dams documented during the Sanchi Survey Project (Madhya Pradesh)
with comparative studies in Gujarat and Maharashtra. Datable to the early
centuries BC, the Sanchi dams appear to have been central to the development of
sustainable exchange networks between Buddhist monks and the local laity, just
as contemporaneous irrigation systems in Sri Lanka formed the basis of monastic
landlordism and a distinctly 'Buddhist economics'.

India is one of the few nations to have had a continuous civilization from about
3000 B.C. It is interesting to know that the Indians were aware of the nation' s
cultural heritage. This had an important impact on successive developments.
Information available about the earlier period is very limited and ,often one has to
guess the type of development that might have existed.
The earliest information we have is from the Harappa Civilization, i.e. around
2500-2000 B.C. Trees were considered important and to protect them they were
given religious values. Even at this early period, there were trade and cultural
contacts with Central Asia.
Around 1200to 1000B.C.,lndiahad a developed art of town planning. Irrigation
systems were also developed and were in use. Some information is available
about parks and gardens. However, it was not till the time of Lord Buddha, (563 to
483 B.C.), that we have sufficient information about the development of parks
and gardens. Lord Buddha was born in a park. During that period more emphasis
was on woodlands and parks rather than on gardens.
From the point of view of cultural and artistic development, the Mauryan period
(322 to 185 B.C.) could be considered as one of the 'best periods in the history of
India. It is said that no other country or city except perhaps Athens, could have
surpassed this level of development. King Ashoka (270- 250 B.C.) not only loved
trees and parks but gave royal orders to plant trees and develop gardens aIl over
his kingdom. As they were Rock Edicts, these instructions are still available to us.
Instructions were given regarding the location and composition of parks. Bach
park was expected to have water pools, creeper arbors and shaded walks. The
design was more informal than formal, the emphasis was on shade and the
cooling effects of water; and trees, shrubs and creepers were given preference for
their fragrance, and their fruits, etc.
Another example of the same period is also very interesting. Menander (180- 160
B.C.) was the Indian-born Greek king. Ris capital, Sagola (present day Sialkot), had
extensive parks and gardens. Many of these gardens and parks had lakes and
tanks with shaded walks. From the wall paintings, sculptures, and rock-cut
temples and from Sanskrit literature, one can get a fairly accurate idea of garden
development from the 1 st to the 5th century A.D.
Kalidasa and other poets give us detailed information about the gardens. Kalidasa
(Malavikagnimitra Drama) has described a machine which is similar to our
present-day water sprayers There were water-cooled garden pavilions and
bathing tanks. Gardens were watered from the main tank by weIl laid out water
channels. The pools had fountains. The concept of a pleasure garden with use of
water was fully developed and utilizled. In the literature nearly thirty different
types of lily pools have been described.
According to information about the Chola kings (around the 10th and 11th
century A.D. ) in South India their cities were weIl developed with weIl planned
gardens. The great South-Indian temples, gems of Indian architecture, usually had
water tanks in their compounds with gardens attached to them. Invariably, such
gardens were called "Nandanvaruun" (heavenly gardens). Similarly, on the
western coast, some 80 kms. to the north IDf the present city of Ahmedabad was
Anhilvad, capital of the Solanki King:s of Gujarat (961 A.D). We not only have
information about the gardens, the pools and the fountains, but also about what
plants were grown at that time:. But now the city lies in ruins
Al-Biruni (around 1020 A.D.) author of Kitab-u-Hind :and the "Chronology of
Ancient Natiot1s" has given us a good description of the development of tanks
and reservoirs. He says, "In this, Indians have attained a very high degree of art,
so that when our people see them, they wonder at them and are unable to
describe them, much less to construct anything like them".
An ambassador from the kingdom of the Pandya was stationed in Athens around
20 B.C. But it was not till the lst century A.C. that there was any ex change of ideas
between the West and India. Trade and cultural contacts which India had
developed with Central Asia not only continued but developed further. Indian
influence was clearly seen in Persia, Greece and Rome. Traders from Central Asia,
particularly Arab traders, were regular visitors to India, and some of them even
settled down, generally in the coastal areas.
Ideas were exchanged in a friendly manner. ln the early part of the 8th century
there was conflict between Indian and Islamic traders. Around the l0 th century
A.D. Arab traders were attacked by pirates near Sind. The king of Sind did not take
any action and therefore Mohamed-bin Kasim attacked and captured Sind. This
can also be called the beginning of the interaction of Indian (Hindu) art and
culture with that of Islamic conceptions and culture. Regarding the art of Arabs,
Rawlinson makes a very important statement, which has some bearing on the
development of Indo-Islamic art. He says, "The early Muslim conquerors of
Hindustan were bigots but they were at the same time men of considerable taste
and patrons of art and literature". Reference has been made to the short-Iived
splendors of the Court of Gazani during its brief period of prosperity .The Arabs
had no art of their own and Islamic art is largely an adaptation to the
requirements of the Mohammedan religion and of indigenous elements borrowed
from the various nations which they overcame. This was the case in India".
However, the Turki invaders from the north brought with them important new
ideas, the arch, the dome and minaret and combined them with the art of this
country. ln this they were aided by Hindu craftsmen and by the fact that in many
cases they either refashioned existing Hindu temples or used them as quarries for
new buildings. Indo- Islamic architecture, then, is a fusion of Central Asian and
Hindu concepts. Again. the rise of Islam was largely responsible for giving a new
dimension to the age old trade connection of India with Central and Western Asia.
At an early period Hindu art and science had a strong influence in the Arab
kingdoms. particularly in Baghdad.
The chief feature of Hinduism. its power of assimilation. was also an important
factor. Invaders like the Greeks. Saka. Kushan and Huna were gradually absorbed
into Hindu society. But the Mohammedans with their strongly marked religious
characteristics remained apart; They lived as a garrison in a hostile country.
holdil11g little or no intercourse with their subjects. They made comparisons with
their homelands and tried to create a similar environment in India. While doing
this they unknowingly used Indian materials and methods. thus changing the
image they really wanted to create.
Information available on gardens during the earlier period of Islamic rule. that is
up to the time of Babar , is rather limited. This is largely for two reasons. First.
there were very few historians or chroniclers present during this period. Secondly.
time has taken its toll in this tropical country and what was left. succeeding kings
demolished.
For the purpose of this study .we can divide India into two regions. The lslamic
kingdoms in the North mostly around Delhi. Agra. etc. and Islamic Kingdoms.
popularly known as Sultanates, in the South of India. Climatically and
geographically. these two regions differ from each other. The North. the plains of
Indus and Ganges. is mostly flat and fertile. The climate is hot and dusty during
summer and pleasantly cold during winter. In the South however. the land is
mostly hilly. the soil is poor, and the climate generally warm throughout the year,
but not reaching the extremes.
Four different Islamic dynasties ruled Delhi before Babar came to the throne. A
Turkish slave Mohammed Ghory established bis kingdom at Delhi, inaugurating
the Slave Dynasty, ( in 1206 A.D). Kutb-din Ibak (1210 A.D.) made an important
contribution to architecture during bis time. Very little information about gardens
is available. We have some information about the gardens and garden pavilions
built during the reign of queen Razia Begam (1236 A.D.). However, ber rule was
short lived.
Perhaps, the king best known for bis love of gardens before Babar would be King
FirozShah (1351 A. D.) Contemporary historians have left a good record of bis
work. Sultan Firoz developed more than 1200 gardens in and around Delhi. True,
the gardens may have been mainly fruit orchards, but recreation was no sman
part of it. More use was made of running water in the gardens. He developed
forty-four gardens near Chittor and eighty gardens near Salaura. He was
responsible for completing about 30 gardens which were started by Ala-ud-din
(1296 A.D.). Most of the gardens bad irrigation channels, and some bad fountains
also. Sultan Firoz Shah was a great builder. It is recorded that he established
nearly 200 towns in addition to a new capital called Firozabad. He also
constructed thirty reservoirs and fifty dams. Another important engineering feat
of bis time was that of transporting two monolithic pillars of the Emperor Ashok
and erecting them in Delhi. This in itself deserves credit.
After the fan of the Tughlak dynasty , by 1300 A.D., two important events took
place in the country: the end of Delhi as a seat of political power in die country
and secondly and of interest to us, the rise of independent Islamic kingdoms in
other parts of the country . The Lodhi dynasty wbich ruled from 1450 to 1526 A.D.
contributed greatly to architecture and to the art of gardens in India. It was
Sikandar Lodhi who sbifted bis capital to Sidandra near Agra. The place is now
famous for Akbar's tomb. Lodhi tombs in Delhi and other structures of this period
speak of development achieved during this time.
As has been said earlier, after the fall of the Tughlak dynasty, independent
kingdoms were established in other parts of the country. Their contribution to the
art of Islamic gardens in India is of importance to us. lit might sound surprising but
some of these gardens were more advanced for their time than the gardens
developed by Babar in India. We will briefly deal with these gardens.
Let us consider the Malava kingdom (1297-1531 A.D.) in central India. The most
interesting work of this period is the Fort Palace at Mandu. Anyone who has
visited the site will be surprised by the sheer location of the fort. not 10 speak of
its architecture. Mandu was known in the 8th to 13th century as belonging to
Parmar kings. It was attacked by Ala-ud-din Khilhji, Sultan of Delhi in 1305 A.D.
But it was not till 1401 A.D. that it became the Islamic capital under king Dilawar
Khan. The present city of Mandu was built by Hoshang 1405-1432 A.D.
ItwastoKingBaz-Bahadur,1555to 1562 A. D. , that the honors must go for the
development of the art of gardening. The Reva Garden was square in shape with a
great tank or pool in the center. The garden was set with trees and flowers. In the
center of the garden was a pleasure house. Now only a few traces of the original
gardens remain. ln the palace, there were fountains and tanks with colored glass.
Water used to flow over the colored glass tiles which were lighted.
The gardens of this period were enriched by introducing plants from other
nations. As has been said earlier, there were trade contacts with Central Asia. The
traders used to visit various places and bring back interesting goods as presents or
for trade. We have evidence that during the reign of Mahamud Khilaji, 1436-1469
A.D.,AdanonSonia Digitata, a plant of the East coast of Africa, was introduced at
Mandu.
Anotherimportant kingdom was the Baihmani kingdom (1347 to 1482 A.D) in the
south of India, which ultimately broke up to fonn several small
Sultanates.lmportant from our point of view are the City of Sultan Feroz Shah
Bahmuny (1397 to 1422 A.D.) and the Sultanate of Bidar (1490 to 1574 A.D.) Feroz
Shah Bahmuny built a town called Ferozabad on the banks of the river Bhima in
the Deccan; The palace was provided with water from a canal which was
connected to the Bhima river. The palace was divided into several courtyards.
Many court yards had gardens with water running through channels. Similarly the
Tomb of Quasim Barid who died in 1504 had a weIl laid out garden with paved
paths etc. The same is true of the Tomb of Ali Barid who died in 1580 A.D.
Coming to the gardens of Bidar, we have some interesting information. The
"RangaMahall" (literally: Ranga= colour, Mahall=pavilion, but it was actually a hall
for recreation) had a courtyard. This court-yard was developed as a garden with a
cistem. The cistem's dimensions are: 2.90 m. long, 2.08 m. wide, 0.76 m. deep
The royal pavilion in the same palace also had a fountain made of dark horblende,
octagonal in shape, with cusps at the margin. The basin is 75 cms across. Some
traces do remain of intricate water channels. The kings were very fond of water,
and runriing water in particular .Then there is a Lalbagh or Ruby (red) garden, so
called because of red flowers which may have been grown in the garden. This
garden is rectangular in shape, 125 meters by 64 meters. The pavilion which is in
the centre has water channels beside it. A cistem of elegant design, built in the
middle of a platformis 1.2m.highand 12rn. square. The cistem itself is only, 1.02
rn. deep having a fourteen-sided oval shape, with a black stone margin. A narrow
channel only 86 cms. wide, runs and joins another ci stem 18 ms. by 2.5 ms. with
fountains. Two small water cascades are also provided. The water for the garden
was lifted from wells. Then there is the Tarkash Mahall, with a garden and cistern.
These gardens were further modified by the Mughal governors. There is a
reference to the Farh-bagh garden being laid out by Mukhtar , Mughal Governor
of Bidar in 1671' We will consider only two more examples before coming to the
Mughal contribution.
First, Mahmud Peghadra, King of Gujarat(from 1459to 1511 A"D.)built an
excellent palace in a lake ait Sarkhej near Ahmedabad. No details of the gardens
are easily available but contemporary works give us some information on the
garden at that time. The second example is also of the 15th century: Champaner,
near Baroda, the Islamic Capital of Gujarat; whatever little information is available
goes to prove that is was a real garden city.
Perhaps it may be out of place, but is of interest to mention, that the
predominantly Hindu Kingdom of Vijayanag~ (1336-1565 A.D.) had well laid out
gardens. This has been reported by Domingo Peos, a Portuguese merchant, in
1522 A. D. We will now consider the final phase of the Islamic garden in India. The
work of this period is best known as it is not only fairly well preserved as
monuments, but is well documented in histories, biographies and miniature
paintings. Unfortunately, similar informat1on is not available for earlier gardens.
Moreover, there was continuity and stability during the Mughal period. It is
generally believed that Babar introduced Islamic gardens, prior to Babar' s arrival.
One wiIl find this hard to believe. It is clear that there was a free ex change of
ideas between India and Central Asian countries and also between various Islamic
rulers. Many Indian artisans and craftsman were work - ing in faraway places such
as Baghdad and Gazani. The concept of "Bostan" (fruit orchard) and the "Gulistan"
(flower garden) was an Islarnic concept. This being the case, it will be somewhat
impractical to give alI the credit to Babar .As has been said earlier, information
about the Mughal period is readily available, and this may lead one to believe that
no other gardens existed earlier. However, alI said and done, Babar did give a very
solid impetus to garden development in India. Babar was a shrewd observer and a
very ambitious person. He tried to make the best of every situation. His
observations of Indian plant life are remarkable in this respect. Babar laid out and
improved many gardens around Kabul. Important among these gardens is the
Bagh-i- Vifa (Garden of fidelity) which he developed with great care, planting
trees and plants brought from India. In his memoirs he refers to this garden
several times.
When Babar came to Agra, he immediately started bis first garden, Char-Bagh. It
is interesting to note his efforts in establishing this garden:
"Shortly after ,coming to Agra, I passed the Jumuna with this object in view, and
examined the country , to pitch upon a fit spot for a garden. The whole was so
ugly and detestable. that I repassed the river quite repulsed and disgusted. In
consequence of the want of beauty and the disagreeable aspect of the country
.Igave up my intention of making a Char-Bagh; but as no better situation
presented itself near Agra. I was fmally compel1ed to make the best of this same
spot. First of all I began to sink the large weIl which supplies the baths with water;
I next fell to work on the piece of ground on which are the ambili (Tamarindus
Indica). and the octagonal tank; I then proceeded to form the large tank and its
enclosure; and afterwards the tank and lalar .I next finished the garden of the
private apartments, and the apartments themselves. after which I completed the
baths. In this way. going on. without neatness and without order.in the Hindu
fashion, I. however. produced edifices and gardens which possessed considerable
regularity. In every corner I planted suitable gardens; in every garden I planted
roses and narcissus regularly. and in beds corresponding to each other.
The gardens developed by Bahar .were usually constructed in a series of terraces
of sloping ground, which was the usual Turki and Persian plan. The religious
concept of Paradise was predominant in garden planning. Paradise had eight
divisions and based on this concept the gardens were divided into eight terraces.
However, in some places, the number seven was also chosen to represent the
seven planets.
ln these terraced pleasure gardens the main pavilion, the climax of the design,
was in nearly every case placed either on the topmost terrace from which one
could get a wide view, or else on the lowest terrace from where one could enjoy
the garden with its background. This system has been commonly used in Kashmir .
But it was not always possible to have a site where terraces were possible. This
led to the development of gardens on flat ground. ln such gardens the main
structure was raised sufficiently high so as to achieve an imposing effect.
Secondly, were eight terraces or seven terraces and if it were not possible two
water channels were designed to form a cosmic cross. Islamic gardens could be
divided into three types:
a. gardens developed around a mausoleum,
b. gardens developed as pleasure gardens,
c. court yard gardens.
The simple plan which was followed in the plains could have been influenced by
Hindu mythology. The Hindus considered Mount Meru as the center of the world,
while from the four cardinal points holy springs the life giving springs used to
flow, On the central mount stood the tree of knowledge and a temple. ln the
Islamic concept, which had a strong ideology of a Paradise, the mausoleum
replaced the temple.
The gardens in the plains, and particularly around the mausoleum, follow a very
simple plan. Where possible, the king used to develop the garden himself, and
after his death a mausoleum used to be built in the garden. Arnong mausoleum
gardens we have:
1. Humayun's Tomb, Delhi, (1556 A.D.),
2. A:kbar's Tomb, Sikandra near Agra, (1605 A.D.)
3. Jahangir' s Tomb, Shahadra, Lahore, (1627 A.D.)
4. The Taj Mahal, Agra, (1658 A.D.)
5. Mausoleum for Rabi a Darauni.
Among pleasure gardens" the important gardens are the Nasim Bagh by Akbar
.Shalimar Achabal, Vernag and Nishat, built during the time of Jahangir. Then
during Shahjahan's time, we have the Chasma Shahi in Kashmir, Shalimar at Delhi
and also at Lahore and the gardens of the Red Fort at Delhi. The Pinjore Gardens
near present-day Chandigarh are perhaps the only important gardens of
Aurangzeb' s period. Among court-yard gardens, we have the Anguri bagh, Agra
fort, the Garden of the Amber Fort and Udaipur Lake Palace.
The garden around Humayun' s tomb is perhaps the oldest garden of the Mughal
period to have preserved most of its original design. It is here we find that water
was passed over small chutes with designs giving different patterns.
Up to the time of Akbar, the water channels were somewhat narrow, with broad
pavements adjoining them. Water fans, or water sheets, and fountains were not
fully developed. But it was for Jahangir to utilize water fully as had been done in
the gardens of Kashmir .
The water was taken through narrow or wide channels according to the design.
The channels were generally shallow and were filled up to the brim. From the
main channels, small channels were developed to water the garden. At suitable
places, small tanks were constructed from which the water was distributed. These
tanks or basins were carved in various shapes. Water falls and water chutes were
developed. Water rushing over the carved chute was either thrown up in ripples
or broken pearls or formed a sheet of water . There were water jets of various
types.
Perhaps the most famous of terraced gardens will be the Nishat Bagh in Kashmir,
built by Jehangir. It has twelve terraces, rising higher and higher and reaching the
mountain. The stream tears down these terraces in cascades enlivening each
terrace by its movement. An important feature of the Nishat Bagh is the stone
and marble thrones. Generally one such throne is placed at the head of every
water fall. The Nishat Bagh also has a tower at either end, surveying the whole
landscape. But to some the Shalimar, or Royal Gardens, are more interesting.
They are truly called Paradise in Paradise. The most important feature is the black
marble pavilion, surrounded by jets of water; this pavilion in the Ladies' garden is
the climax of the whole design, and is the best example of a Mughal "Baradari"
open on all sides.
Among court-yard gardens the Anguri Bagh is the finest example. This gem of a
garden lies in the Khas Mahall royal quarters, with ladies' quarters on three sides.
The garden is divided into four squares, which are laid out in beautiful
geometrical shapes. ln the center there is a raised platform with a small tank and
fountain. This is perhaps the most intimate garden.
Although the Hindu influence on Islamic architecture has always been strong, it
was perhaps most prominent during Akbar' s times. The Anguri Bagh at Agra, the
Amber garden at Jaipur and the Lake Palace garden at Udaipur are classical
examples of this influence. Another product of this influence was development of
moon-light gardens as against sun-lit Islamic gardens.
Information is available about the plants used in Islamic gardens. Groundcover
which was "clover" in Bahar' s garden, was not used in Indian gardens. Fruit trees
like citrus spp. pomegranate, were commonly planted. Among shrubs narium
spp., jasminum spp., roses, hibiscus spp., were very common. Among seasonal
plants., hollyhocks, carnations, narcissus, polyanthus and marigolds were
common.
The subject of Islamic gardens in India is in itself a wide one, covering nearly 1500
years and two different religions. ln this short paper, efforts have been made to
put forward the salient points, rather than a detailed description.
Our present concern is two-fold: first to preserve what we have and; secondly, to
restore or reconstruct wherever possible. lt is needless to say, as every one will
agree, that efforts must be made to protect and preserve whatever little has been
left. After the fall of the Mughal Empire and also during the British period, these
monuments suffered a lot. If one goes through the reports of Archaeological
Survey, one will be shocked to read of old monuments used as Military barracks,
schools, railway stations, Government offices and what not. Three examples of
this misuse would be sufficient to illustrate the point: the Red Fort of Delhi, part
of which is still used as a military garrison: a machine tool factory has been
established right in front of Pinjore Garden, completely destroying the view.
Elsewhere a modem swimming pool has been built in the middle of an old Mughal
garden. There are many other examples like this, some small, others big, but each
example has its own impact. Even the Nishat and Shalimar gardens in Kahsmir
have not escaped from this destruction. The gardens themselves have suffered.
During reconstruction work, proper thought was not given to them. ln some
places, even the existence of a garden was ignored or forgotten. Fathepur Sikri,
Akbar's capital, is one such example. British gardeners also modified the plans of
gardens and introduced new plants. This must have been done in enthusiasm and
unknowingly.
The problem is enormous, but a solution has to be found. the following are some
of the suggestions for tackling the problems:
-complete survey of the existing gardens and probable garden sites.
-detailed study of each garden in terms of design elements such as pavilions,
water channels, paving, fountains, etc.; study of the evolution of various forms.
-study of plant material so as to establish a list of suitable plants which could be
used in each garden.
-giving suitable training to Landscape Architects in Archaeology, and to
Archaeologists in Landscape design, so that the process of conservation and
restoration can be safely carried out.
For the purposes of this paper, geographical and political boundaries are assumed.
to be thosc of the 181h century i.e. during the Mughal period.
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 Shaw, J. (2007), 'Landscape, Water and Religion in Ancient India', Archaeology
International 2006-2007, 43-52.
 Shaw, J., J. V. Sutcliffe, L. Lloyd-Smith, J-L. Schwenninger, and M.S. Chauhan,
with contributions by E. Harvey and O.P. Misra, (2007), 'Ancient Irrigation and
Buddhist history in Central India: optically stimulated luminescence and pollen
sequences from the Sanchi dams', Asian Perspectives 46(1): 166-201.
 Beck, A., J. Shaw, and D. Stott (2007), 'Best practice aproaches for applying
satellite imagery for landscape archaeological applications: a case study from
 the world heritage site of Sanchi, India', Proc. SPIE 6749, Remote Sensing for
Environmental Monitoring, GIS Applications, and Geology VII, 774905 (Oct 29,
2007).
 Shaw, J. (2005), 'The archaeological setting of Buddhist monasteries in central
India: a summary of a multi-phase survey in the Sanchi area, 1998-2000', in C.
Jarrige and V. Lefèvre (Eds.), South Asian Archaeology 2001: proceedings of the
16th international conference of the European Association of South Asian
Archaeologists, Paris: Éditions Recherche sur les Civilisations, ADPF, Vol. 2,
665-676.
 Shaw, J. and J.V. Sutcliffe (2005), 'Ancient Dams and Buddhist Landscapes in
the Sanchi area: New evidence on Irrigation, Land use and Monasticism in
Central India', South Asian Studies 21, 1-24.
 Shaw, J. (2004), 'Naga sculptures in Sanchi's archaeological landscape:
Buddhism, Vaisnavism and local agricultural cults in central India, first century
BCE to fifth century CE', Artibus Asiae LXIV(1), 5-59.
 Shaw, J. (2004), 'Early historic landscapes in central India: recent
archaeological investigations in districts Raisen and Vidisha, Madhya Pradesh,
2003-4', Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies in History and Archaeology 1, 143-
150.
 Shaw, J. and J.V. Sutcliffe (2003), 'Ancient dams, settlement archaeology and
Buddhist propagation in central India: the hydrological background',
Hydrological Sciences Journal 48 (2), 277-291.
 Shaw, J. and J.V. Sutcliffe (2003), 'Water management, patronage networks
and religious change: new evidence from the Sanchi dam complex and
counterparts in Gujarat and Sri Lanka', South Asian Studies 19, 73-104.
 Shaw, J. and J.V. Sutcliffe (2001), 'Ancient irrigation works in the Sanchi area:
an archaeological and hydrological investigation', South Asian Studies 17, 55-
75.
 Shaw, J. (2000), 'The sacred landscape', in M. Willis, with contributions by J.
Cribb and J. Shaw, Buddhist Reliquaries from Ancient India, London: British
Museum Press, 27-38.
 Shaw, J. (2000), 'Sanchi and its archaeological landscape: Buddhist
monasteries, settlements and irrigation works in central India', Antiquity 74,
775-776.
 Shaw, J. (1999), 'Buddhist landscapes and monastic planning in eastern Malwa:
the elements of intervisibility, surveillance and the protection of relics', in T.
 Insoll, (ed.), Case Studies in Archaeology and World Religion: the proceedings
of the Cambridge conference, Oxford: Archaeopress, 5-17.
Publications in preparation
 Shaw, J., Archaeologies of Wellbeing and Suffering: environmental ethics and
Buddhist economics in ancient India.
 Shaw, J., J., Sutcliffe, E. Cork, and H. Bakker. 'Archaeological landscapes at
Ramtek and Mansar: religion, politics and water in the Vakataka empire', South
Asian Studies
Funding
 British Association for South Asian Studies (2006-8)