NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY,

ROURKELA - ODISHA

VACUUM TECHNOLOGY ASSIGNMENT

VACUUM TECHNOLOGY LAB

SUBMITTED BY

GULLIPALLI. VENKATESH,

219ME5289,

M.TECH 1ST YEAR,

CRYOGENICS AND

VACUUM TECHNOLOGY
Q2). Production and measurement of low pressure?
Generally low vacuum is observed below atmospheric pressure values. There are some ranges
or classification for vacuum, like low, medium, high, ultrahigh vacuum.
In order to create vacuum we need to use pumps and to measure how much vacuum we have
produced, it is done by gauges. Different pumps are developed to produce different ranges of
vacuum.
Based on vacuum range pumps are classified as
1.Primary stage pumps
2.Secondary stage pumps
Based on exhaust pressure
1.Pumps which exhaust to atmosphere
2.Pumps which exhaust only to sub-atmospheric pressures
3.Pumps which immobilize
Vacuum is produced by using mechanical ailments and they are so called mechanical pumps.
MECHANICAL PUMPS
1.Liquid pumps
2.Piston pumps
3.Water ring pumps
4.Rotating vane pumps
5.Sliding vane pumps
6.Rotating plunger pumps
7.Roots pumps
8.Molecular pumps
VAPOUR PUMPS
1.Ejector pumps
2.Diffusion pumps
ION PUMPS
1.Evapor Ion pumps
 2.Orbitron pump
3.Sputter ion pumps
SORPTION PUMPS
Based on the requirement of vacuum we can install above pumps for the chamber of our
interest.so we will classify these pumps based on there working vacuum range and principle of
working.
Based on vacuum range
Low vacuum pumps → Rotary, Vane and piston, Scroll, Screw, Diaphragm
Medium Vacuum pumps → Lobe or Root pumps, Claw pumps
High vacuum pumps → Claw pumps
Based on principle of working
Gas transfer → Gas displacement, kinetic
Gas binding → Adsorption vacuum pumps
Explaining every pump is a difficult task so let us take few pumps and generalize all the pumps
according to their function and working so first we classify the pumps and next we will go for
the working of different pumps.
Compression-expansion of the gas →Piston Pumps, Liquid Column or Liquid Ring Pumps,
Rotary Pumps, Root's Pumps
Drag by viscosity effects → Vapor ejector pumps
Drag by diffusion effects → Vapor diffusion pump
Molecular drag → Molecular Pump
Ionization effects → Ion pumps
Physical or chemical sorption → Sorption pumps, Cryopumps and Gettering Processes
MECHANICAL PUMPS
We can get high flow rate but vibrations are the drawback of this pump
In this we study about sprengel, water jet, Toepler pump, water ring pump, rotating vane pump,
sliding vane pump etc
Sprengel pump:
In sprengel pump mercury from column absorbs air bubbles from side ward tube which creates
vacuum. This is the first pump used in lamp factories.
Rotary vane pump:
Spring loaded on a rotor confine, compress and discharge gas. Good workhorse pump, used as
fore pumps for high vacuum pumps like diffusion pumps. Works from atmospheric pressure to
low vacuum pressures. Uses oil as lubricant and vacuum supplier.
Roots pump:
Lobes rotate in opposite directions for pumping. Close tolerances eliminate the need for oil.
Used to maintain a low vacuum in high volume systems but can be used with the assistance of a
rotary vane pump.
Diffusion pump:
Si oil is boiled and vaporized in a multistage jet assembly. Oil vapors emerging from the nozzles
impart momentum on the residual gas molecules and drive them towards the bottom of the pump.
The molecules are compressed and exhausted. No vibrations are observed while functioning.
From works in the molecular flow regime. Wide range of flow rates can be achieved. Requires
mechanical pump as primary pump. Back streaming of the vapors are a problem and can be
minimized with cooling coils. These coils are used to condense the oil before it enters the
vacuum chamber.
Turbo molecular pump:
High rpm (20-30K) rotor blades impart momentum to molecules. Used for high vacuum
production. Because of motor vibrations are there. Needs mechanical pump. Not good for H2
pumping.
Ion pump:
A cold cathode electrical discharge creates an electron gas which is trapped by a small magnetic
field. The electron gas ionizes residual gas particles in the chamber which are attracted to the
cathode made of titanium. The incident ions sputter off titanium which forms a thin film on
neighboring surfaces and form stable compounds with the residual gases in the chamber. Thus
creating high vacuum conditions, Wide range of flow rate and pressure are possible. But
mechanical pump is required. No moving parts or oil is needed. Need high voltage and magnetic
fields.
Rest of the pumps are moreover similar to above discussed pumps. So production of low
pressures by using different methods had given wide applications in the field of vacuum
technology. Still ongoing research makes new inventions which help to develop new pumps and
new range of vacuum region will be explored.
New technology pumps are the cryo pumps
CRYO PUMP: gases are adsorbed on cold pump walls thus creating high vacuum conditions.
Vacuum pumps

In order to measure how much vacuum created or produced by pumps and also in general to
know the pressures in chamber of certain situations we need a device which can measure. They
are called pressure gauges or vacuum gauges.
VACUUM GAUGES:
There is big range of pressures to measure. Each type and kind of gauge is sensitive to
variations of pressure in a specific range.
Classification and selection of vacuum gauges
For selecting a suitable gauge for a definite purpose, consideration must be given to the
following points
The pressure range for which the gauge is desired. If the total or the partial pressure is to be
measured. If the gauge reading can be dependent on the kind of gas. The accuracy of
measurement required. Kind of mounting.
Types of gauges
Mechanical gauges → Bourdon gauge, Diaphragm gauge
Gauges using liquid → U tube manometer, Inclined manometer, differential manometer,
Dubrovin gauge, Mcleod gauge
Viscosity Gauges
Radiometer gauge
Thermal conductivity gauges → Pirani gauge. Thermocouple gauge, Thermistor gauge, Combine
mcleod pirani gauge
Ionisation gauges → Discharge tube, Hot cathode ionization gauges, Bayard alpert gauge,
Orbitron gauge, Lafferty gauge, Klopfer gauge, penning gauge, Inverted magnetron gauge,
Redhead magnetron gauge, Alphatron gauge

PIRANI GAUGE
Operation is based on thermal conductivity. A filament is heated and its temperature is measured.
The temperature depends on the heat loss to the environment which in turn depends on the
vacuum level. They will work between 10 – 10-3 Torr.
ION GAUGE
A filament is used to emit electrons which are attracted to a positively charged grid. Inside the
grid is a negatively charged collector. The electrons collide with gas molecules around the grid
and ionize them. The positively charged ions are attracted to the collector and create an ionic
current. Works between 10-3 –10-10 Torr.
THERMOCOUPLES
Thermal gradients will produce electrical voltage differences in conductors. Using two different
conductors meeting at a point will generate a voltage difference that can be calibrated. The V vs
T relationship is non-linear and not very precise.
KNUDSEN GAUGE
The basic element of the radiometer gauge proposed by Knudsen consists of two parallel plates
one of which is heated, separated by a distance. The unheated plate is supported on a sensitive
suspension so that a small force acting upon it can be measured by its deflection. The Knudsen
gauge consists of a light vane C supported vertically at its centre point by a torsion wire, and of
two plates A and Β heated to temperature. Surfaces Ε and F receive molecules. While surfaces
G, H molecules from the walls of the vessel. The resultant torsional twist in the suspension wire
is measured by the conventional mirror, lamp and scale. The useful range of the Knudsen gauge
is 10-3 to 10-5 torr.
Q3). Vacuum materials?
For the construction of vacuum systems or vacuum devices it is conventional to use metals,
glasses, ceramics and some rubbers and plastics.
Valves, Seals, O rings and materials used for Vacuum systems are of our prime focus.
Valves are essential components in vacuum system they are categorized in to three
1. Operational valves
2. Closing valves
3. Sealing valve
What is a vacuum valve?
A vacuum valve is a device placed in a feed or vent line on a vacuum furnace whose purpose is
to isolate the vacuum chamber or direct the flow of gas into the vacuum vessel. These valves can
be actuated manually, pneumatically, electro pneumatically, electrically or electromagnetically.
A series of pressure switches are also installed in most lines with vacuum valves (other than
manual valves) to control the flow and changing the internal furnace pressure as demanded by
the process being run.
Due to the nature of vacuum, it is necessary to choose a vacuum valve capable of working in the
operating vacuum range of the furnace. The knowledge of the application end-use for a given
vacuum valve is key to determining the right vacuum valve for the specific application.
Examples of design parameters include:

 Size
 Geometry
 Material
 Surface finish
 Vacuum range
 Flow capacity and conditions
 Shutoff response to leakage
 Temperature limits
 Cost
 Actuation method
 Operational speed
 Port configuration
 Conductance
 Suitability, reliability, and durability
 Life span
 Resistance to reaction
 Remote or interlock facility
 Installation
 Ease of cleaning, dismantling and reassembling
 Leak rate (including virtual leak rate)
 Vapor pressure
 Outgassing

Common Types of Vacuum Valves

Roughing and Roughing Vent Valves
The roughing valve is used when evacuating a vacuum furnace chamber from atmospheric
pressure to a so-called “rough” vacuum. In some instances, this level of vacuum is adequate to
run the intended process. In other applications, a diffusion pump is added to the pumping
package and the roughing pump is used prior to connecting the chamber to the diffusion pump.
The mechanical pump vent valve serves to admit atmosphere to the roughing line, thus “breaking
vacuum” and allowing the mechanical pump to return to atmospheric pressure. It is used when
shutting down a vacuum furnace pumping system or for maintenance on the pumps or the
furnace proper. If present, the diffusion pump is turned off first and allowed to cool, and then the
mechanical pump is turned off. Bringing the stopped mechanical pump to atmospheric pressure
prevents mechanical pump oil from being drawn back into the foreline. The holding valve and
the foreline valve should be closed during the operation, thus keeping the diffusion pump, cold
trap and baffle under high vacuum. This assures a clean system when starting up at some later
date.
The mechanical pump vent valve serves to admit atmosphere to the roughing line, thus bringing
the mechanical pump to atmospheric pressure. It is used when shutting down the system; the
diffusion pump is turned off and allowed to cool, and then the mechanical pump is turned off.
Bringing the stopped mechanical pump to atmospheric pressure prevents mechanical pump oil
from being drawn back into the foreline.
Foreline and Holding Valves
The foreline valve and the holding valve serve to isolate the diffusion pump, the baffle and cold
trap from the roughing line. When roughing has been completed, the roughing valve is closed
before the foreline valve and the hi-vac valve are opened. The manifold vent valve admits air to
the port manifold to “break” the vacuum and make possible the removal of objects after they
have undergone vacuum processing. The roughing valve and the holding valve must be closed
during this operation if the pumps on the vacuum system are still in operation. The holding valve
and the foreline are usually closed during the operation, thus maintaining the diffusion pump,
cold trap and baffle under high vacuum. This assures a clean system when starting up at some
later date.
Poppet valves
Poppet valves are standard on most diffusion pump systems operating in a vacuum range down
to 10-7 Torr. A poppet valve consists of a relatively large valve body and an internal poppet that
moves linearly when activated. When the poppet is adjusted towards the top of the valve, the
body cavity is open to the system and the gas flow is unimpeded, allowing for maximum gas
conductance. When the actuator moves the poppet to the bottom of the valve, the sealing ring
attached to the poppet is compressed onto the seal surface, stopping gas flow and creating a
vacuum-tight seal.
Gate valves
A vacuum gate valve is designed to isolate and seal a vacuum chamber. Gate valves fall into
three main categories based on where the valve body is sealed: negative pressure valves, where
the valve body is sealed from the vacuum side, equalization valves and positive pressure valves
where the valve body is sealed from the atmosphere side (i.e., high pressure to low pressure).
A gate valve provides straight-through and uninterrupted flow in a typically large diameter. They
are characterized by their low flow resistance and compact size and are an ideal valve for
furnaces where maximum clearance and flow conductance is needed but space is tight. They
typically have an inside diameter range of around 25-300 mm (1-12 inches).
An actuator within the valve can cause a central gate within the body to be either raised, allowing
uninterrupted airflow past the valve or lowered, stopping the flow completely. Gate valves can
typically seal against a differential pressure in the range of 1.3-13.3 mbar (1-10 Torr).
Butterfly or Plate valves
Butterfly valves are often used to isolate the vacuum furnace pumping system from the main
chamber. These types of valves are subject to repeated, cyclical operation and are highly reliable
in service. Their construction consists of a sealing plate that is swung open via a lever or tilted
open using a rotary motion with the valve plate remaining in the valve opening. Due to their
design, butterfly valves are often used to close rather large openings.
Ball valves
Ball valves are less sensitive than other vacuum valves to particulate contamination, making
them the ideal solution for “dirty” vacuum operations. A ball is sealed within the valve’s body by
end caps, creating a vacuum-tight central cavity. The valve is opened and closed by turning the
stem 90º. Ball valves have a “self-cleaning” feature wherein the sealing seat for the ball wipes
the ball clean as it is opened and closed.

SEALS
A vacuum system or even a vacuum chamber cannot be constructed as a single unit. One must
use various components of various shapes and different materials and provide for the possibility
to change the parts or to open and close the chambers. These various parts are joined together
using various seals, which afford joining the parts but prevent leakage through the joint. A
common requirement and permanent problem of all the vacuum seals is their leak tightness.
Any vacuum seal must be leak tight but must not necessarily be hermetic. A hermetic seal is
designed to permit no detectable leak through it while a leak tight seal is just free of leaks
according to a given specification.
The classification of seals used:
1. Permanent seals (welded and brazed metal joints, glass-to-glass, glass-to-metal, and
ceramic-to-metal seals)
2. Demountable seals (wax and resins, ground, liquid and gasket seals)
3. Electrical lead-throughs
4. Seals for motion transmission
5. Seals for transfer of materials (cut-offs, valves, vacuum locks).
Permanent seals → Metal parts are joined permanently by welding or by brazing.
Glass-to-glass is joined permanently by fusion
Glass-to-metal, and ceramic-to-metal seals are constructed by using specific techniques.
Welded seals
Different processes used are
1. Non-pressure welding processes
2. Pressure welding processes
3. Resistance welding
4. Arc welding
5. Electron beam welding process
6. Resistance welding
7. Friction welding
8. Cold welding
O Rings seals
An 0-ring seal is a demountable joint which uses a gasket with circular cross section. The 0-ring,
made of an elastomer or a metal is compressed between the sealing parts.
If the main compression force is exerted axially the seal is known as flange seal.
If the force works radially the connection is a shaft seal.
Generally, groove seals are also used for most of the purposes.
Assembly and maintenance of 0-ring seals.
The proper size of 0-ring should be used. When using 0-rings with smaller cross sectional
diameters than that required, the needed compression ratio cannot be reached and the seal may
leak immediately or after a short time. With an 0-ring having a larger cross-sectional diameter
than designed, the seal cannot be brought to metal-metal contact or the 0-ring is sheared in the
seal. The resulting seal can be leak-tight, but the alignment of the sealing parts is difficult and a
larger surface area of the 0-ring is exposed to the evacuated space.

Q4). Measurement of pumping speed?

Pumping speed refers to the volume flow rate of a pump at its inlet, often measured in volume
per unit of time
(or)
When a pump is used to remove gas from a system, the rate at which the gas is removed is given
by its pumping speed
(or)
It is defined as volume of gas per unit time a pump removes gas from the system at the pressure
(P) existing at the inlet to the pump(Sp).
Throughput is defined as the product of pumping speed and inlet pressure
Q = P.Sp = P dV/dt
The throughput is also defined as the quantity of gas, in pressure X volume units, at a specified
temperature, flowing per unit time across a specified cross section.
Q is the quantity of gas entering per unit of time the pipe with conductance C, at pressure Ρ. If no
additional gas leaks into or is removed from the pipe this same quantity of gas comes out of the
pipe at pressure P2. Thus if the system is isothermic Q is the same all over the system.
when the value of the conductance is equal to that of the pumping speed of the pump, 50% of the
pumping speed is used at the vacuum vessel. In order to use 80% of the pumping speed the ratio
C/Sp must be 4, while for a ratio C/Sp=0.1, only 10% of the pumping speed of the pump is felt in
the vacuum enclosure. From this it results that it is no use increasing the pump, if the
conductance of the pipe is the factor which limits the pumping speed.
Effective pumping speed or system pumping speed (S’)
 1 1 1
= +
S' S C
Calculating pumping speed directly is difficult, so we can go for measuring throughput such that
we can just divide by pressure at the place give the pumping speed
In Vacuum mass flow rate is called throughput, Throughput for various flow regimes:
Continuum Flow
Kn < 0.01
Re > 2200 Turbulent
Re < 1100 Laminar
Q = AUP
Where U is stream velocity
A is Cross section
For circular cross section
R = 8.41* 10-4 * Q/d
For Orifices ( tubes of zero length)
P2/P1 = (2/Y+1)(Y/Y-1)
For long round tubes
Q = 718.5* d4(P1+P2)/l*(P1-P2)
Molecular flow
Kn > 1.0
For Orifices
Q = V/4* A* (P1-P2)
V= velocity of stream
For Long Round Tubes
π d3
Q= *V* * (P1-P2)
2 l
For transitional flows
Q = Qviscous+ Z’Qmolecular
1+ 2.507(d /2 δ)
Z’ =
1+ 3.095(d /2 δ)
Where d is diameter
δ is wavelength
By using above formulas we can calculate throughput, later we can go for pumping speed of the
corresponding pumps.

Q5). Pumpdown characteristics of diffusion pump?

The amount of time taken by a vacuum pump to reduce the pressure from P i to Pf is called as
pump down time. The Pump down time helps in selection of vacuum pump.
The pumping speed of a diffusion pump is determined by the size of the intake clearance and the
Ho-factor. The area A (cm2) of the intake annulus is

The ratio between the admittance (i.e. the true pumping speed S across the throat of the pump)
and the maximum flow rate Smax is known as the Ho-factor or speed factor. The pumping speed
of the pump is thus given by

Assuming that the Ho-factor is independent of the molecular weight of the gas being pumped
implies that the pumping speed of a diffusion pump should be inversely proportional to the
square root of the molecular weight of the gas. It also implies that the pumping speed of a
diffusion pump is independent of the pressure.
Roughing and backing
The single jet pump does not function very efficiently in practice. For efficient operation two
conditions must be fulfilled: - The system pressure must be initially reduced below a certain
value (roughing).
The pressure below the jet must be kept reasonably low (backing pump) to reduce the probability
of back-diffusion
Typical pump down characteristic curves of diffusion pump

Characteristic curves. The characteristic curves of diffusion pumps are generally plotted in the
form of pumping speed (lit/sec) against the fine side pressure

The curves above are for

1. Pressure vs Pumping speed
2. Pressure vs Relative pumping speed
3. Pressure vs Pumping speed for different fluids
4. Pumping speed and Equivalent throughput curve
Q6). Measurement of conductance of pipe?
Conductance:
Conductance is similar to the opposite of resistance in electrical analogy
C∝Q
For an ideal gas
C = m/∆ ρ
Vacuum chamber are connected to vacuum pump via piping. Flow resistance will be there due to
external friction between gas molecules and wall surfaces or between two same molecules
internal friction.
This flow resistance causes 1. Pressure drop
2. Decrease in volume flow rate
3. Decrease in pumping speed
Units of conductance
Coherent system = m3/sec
Non coherent system = lit/sec
Conductance in series
1 1 1
= + + ……
C C1 C2
Conductance in parallel
 C = C1 + C2 + C3 +….
The flow of a gas can be interpreted as the number of molecules N, passing per unit time through
a cross section of the pipe.
Conductance is the characteristic of a vacuum component or system to readily allow the flow of
gas and can be thought of as the inverse of resistance to flow.
It must be closely considered when designing a vacuum system and selecting the pump and other
components, otherwise, your vacuum chamber will take too long to reach the pressure required.
Well-designed piping of vacuum equipment, as well as proper component selection, increases
production efficiency by minimizing the vacuum pumping time.
It also minimizes energy use, making your equipment less expensive to operate.
The time required to draw a vacuum depends on the pumping speed. Due to the flow resistance
(inverse of conductance) caused by the necessary separators, valves, cold traps and piping, the
effective pumping speed is always less than the rated inlet speed of the pump and also less than
the conductance of the most restrictive component (at times considerably less).
Therefore, in order to achieve the desired pumping speed, it is not sufficient to simply select a
pump – too small a conductance can make a required speed impossible to achieve with any
pump.
Calculating Conductance
In order to select a vacuum pump,
It is important to calculate the total conductance of the system being designed. The pump can
then be selected to achieve the required pressure within the desired time. The conductance of the
vacuum piping can be calculated (or charts used) for various pressures, pipe diameters, pipe
lengths, and orifice sizes.
When calculating system conductance it is important to understand the following concepts:
1. The mass flow rate throughout the system remains constant.
2. Conductance changes during the three modes of flow through the system. Three types of
flow exist in vacuum systems: viscous or continuous flow, molecular flow and – at the
transition between these two – Knudsen flow.

Conductance for various Flow regimes

Generalized Formula
Continuum flow
πD 4 P
C=
128 μL
Mixed Flow (0.01< Kn < 0.3) or (0.01< kn < 1)
 πD 4 P 8μ
C= (1+ *√ ¿ ¿))
128 μL PD
Free molecular flow (Kn > 0.3)
D3
C= * √ (πRT /18 M )
L
Conductance in Viscous flow or Continuum flow
For long round tube,air
C = 1.38*102*d4*(P1+P2)/2l
Conductance in Molecular flow
1
C = 3.81*d3* ∗√ T / M
l
where T = temperature, M = molecular weight

Q7). Measurement of high and ultra-high vacuum?

Q8). Design of Rotary pump?

Q9). Design of Diffusion pump?
Q10). Design of Turbo molecular pump?
Q11). Design of vacuum chamber?

Q12). Leak detection techniques?

An ideal vacuum chamber should maintain forever the vacuum (pressure) reached at the moment
of its separation from the pumps. Any real chamber presents a rise in pressure after being
isolated from the pumping system. The pressure rise is produced by the gas which penetrates
through leaks, that which evolves from the walls (outgassing) and that entering by permeation.
Leak rate and detection
The leak rate (or real leak rate) is the quantity of gas (in PV units) flowing per unit time into the
system.
Leakage measurement
The leakage measurement gives the value of the total leakage, of the whole system being
measured.
Sealed unit testing
Sealed units are tested by back-pressurizing. This technique consists of three stages:
(a) The application to the external surface of the test specimen of test gas at a high pressure; the
gas is flowing in through the leaks
(b) The period between the release of the external test gas pressure and the leak test
(c) The leak test.
Halogen leak detector:
This detector uses of a red-hot platinum filament which emits positive ions. The presence of
small traces of halogen vapours (Cl, F, Br, I) increases the emission of positive ions markedly. It
is this increase in emission that is measured to indicate the presence of a leak. The halogen
detector is most effectively used as a leak detector by placing it inside the vacuum system and
probing the system with a fine jet of Freon 12 or other halogen containing gas. One feature of the
halogen leak detector which can cause difficulty is the relatively long "memory" of the detector
once it has been exposed to a surge of halogen gas.
Barrier leak detection:
A method to overcome the difficulty due to pressure fluctuations produced by outgassing is to
arrange between the gauge and the vacuum system a barrier which passes only the test gas.
Two techniques of achieving this both use hydrogen as the test gas
The charcoal-Pirani technique depends on the fact that degassed, activated charcoal cooled
with liquid nitrogen will adsorb readily atmospheric gases, but will adsorb much less hydrogen.
The palladium-barrier detector is based on the fact that in the cold state palladium is
impermeable to all gases, but when red hot it is highly permeable to hydrogen. The detector head
is a hot cathode ion gauge which is evacuated, sealed-off and gettered.
Differential leak detection uses two similar gauges connected in an electrical circuit so that the
difference between their readings is registered.
Mass spectrometer leak detectors tuned to argon (or hydrogen) are also constructed, the widely
used gas is helium.
Q13). Vacuum measurement and its suitable vacuum ranges?
Q14). Design of Cryopump?
Q15). Design of Sorption pump?
Q16). Design of Root pump?