Lesson 3 - Population Ecology
Lesson 3 - Population Ecology
Population Ecology
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Learning Objectives
INTRODUCTION
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characteristics used to describe a population. For example, larger populations
may be more stable and able to persist better than smaller populations because
of the greater amount of genetic variability, and their potential to adapt to the
environment or to changes in the environment. On the other hand, a member of a
population with low population density (more spread out in the habitat), might
have more difficulty finding a mate to reproduce compared to a population of
higher density. Other characteristics of a population include dispersion – the
way individuals are spaced within the area; age structure – number of
individuals in different age groups and; sex ratio – proportion of males to
females; and growth – change in population size (increase or decrease) over
time.
1. Exponential Growth
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Each individual in the population reproduces by a certain amount (r) and as the
population gets larger, there are more individuals reproducing by that same
amount (the fixed percentage). In nature, exponential growth only occurs if there
are no external limits.
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Figure 9.1. The “J” shaped curve of exponential growth for a hypothetical population of
bacteria. The population starts out with 100 individuals and after 11 hours there are over
24,000 individuals. As time goes on and the population size increases, the rate of
increase also increases (each step up becomes bigger). In this figure “r” is positive.
This type of growth can be represented using a mathematical function
known as the exponential growth model:
G=rxN
In this equation:
- G is the population growth rate; it is a measure of the number of
individuals added per time interval time.
- r is the per capita rate of increase (the average contribution of each
member in a population to population growth; per capita means “per
person”).
- N is the population size, the number of individuals in the population at
a particular time.
Per capita rate of increase (r)
In exponential growth, the population growth rate (G) depends on
population size (N) and the per capita rate of increase (r). In this model r does
not change (fixed percentage) and change in population growth rate, G, is due to
change in population size, N. As new individuals are added to the population,
each of the new additions contribute to population growth at the same rate (r) as
the individuals already in the population.
r = (birth rate + immigration rate) – (death rate and emigration rate)
- If r is positive (> zero), the population is increasing in size; this means
that the birth and immigration rates are greater than death and
emigration.
- If r is negative (< zero), the population is decreasing in size; this means
that the birth and immigration rates are less than death and emigration
rates.
- If r is zero, then the population growth rate (G) is zero and population
size is unchanging, a condition known as zero population growth. “r”
varies depending on the type of organism, for example a population of
bacteria would have a much higher “r” than an elephant population. In
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the exponential growth model r is multiplied by the population size, N,
so population growth rate is largely influenced by N. This means that if
two populations have the same per capita rate of increase (r), the
population with a larger N will have a larger population growth rate
than the one with a smaller N.
2. Logistic Growth
Exponential growth cannot continue forever because resources (food,
water, shelter) will become limited. Exponential growth may occur in
environments where there are few individuals and plentiful resources, but soon or
later, the population gets large enough that individuals run out of vital resources
such as food or living space, slowing the growth rate. When resources are
limited, populations exhibit logistic growth. In logistic growth a population grows
nearly exponentially at first when the population is small and resources are
plentiful but growth rate slows down as the population size nears limit of the
environment and resources begin to be in short supply and finally stabilizes (zero
population growth rate) at the maximum population size that can be supported by
the environment (carrying capacity). This results in a characteristic S-shaped
growth curve (Figure 9.2). The mathematical function or logistic growth model is
represented by the following equation:
N
G=rN 1− ( k )
where,
K is the carrying capacity – the maximum population size that a
particular environment can sustain (“carry”). Notice that this model is
similar to the exponential growth model except for the addition of the
carrying capacity.
In the exponential growth model, population growth rate was mainly
dependent on N so that each new individual added to the population contributed
equally to its growth as those individuals previously in the population because
per capita rate of increase is fixed. In the logistic growth model, individuals’
contribution to population growth rate depends on the amount of resources
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available (K). As the number of individuals (N) in a population increases, fewer
resources are available to each individual. As resources diminish, each
individual on average, produces fewer offspring than when resources are
plentiful, causing the birth rate of the population to decrease.
Figure 9.2. Shows logistic growth of a hypothetical bacteria population. The population
starts out with 10 individuals and then reaches the carrying capacity of the habitat which
is 500 individuals.
Factors Limiting Population Growth
Recall previously that we defined density as the number of individuals per
unit area. In nature, a population that is introduced to a new environment or is
rebounding from a catastrophic decline in numbers may grow exponentially for a
while because density is low and resources are not limiting. Eventually, one or
more environmental factors will limit its population growth rate as the population
size approaches the carrying capacity and density increases.
The population growth rate will be limited by various factors in the
environment. For example, birth rates may decrease due to limited food or death
rate increase due to rapid spread of disease as individuals encounter one
another more often. This impact on birth and death rate in turn influences the per
capita rate of increase and how the population size changes with changes in the
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environment. When birth and death rates of a population change as the density
of the population changes, the rates are said to be density-dependent and the
environmental factors that affect birth and death rates are known as density-
dependent factors. In other cases, populations are held in check by factors that
are not related to the density of the population and are called density-
independent factors and influence population size regardless of population
density. Conservation biologists want to understand both types because this
helps them manage populations and prevent extinction or overpopulation.
The density of a population can enhance or diminish the impact of density-
dependent factors. Most density-dependent factors are biological in nature
biotic), and include such things as predation, inter- and intraspecific competition
for food and mates, accumulation of waste, and diseases such as those caused
by parasites. Usually, higher population density results in higher death rates and
lower birth rates. For example, as a population increases in size food becomes
scarcer and some individuals will die from starvation meaning that the death rate
from starvation increases as population size increases. Also as food becomes
scarcer, birth rates decrease due to fewer available resources for the mother
meaning that the birth rate decreases as population size increases. For density-
dependent factors, there is a feedback loop between population density and the
density-dependent factor.
Density-independent birth rates and death rates do NOT depend on
population size; these factors are independent of, or not influenced by,
population density. Many factors influence population size regardless of the
population density, including weather extremes, natural disasters (earthquakes,
hurricanes, tornadoes, tsunamis, etc.), pollution and other physical/abiotic
factors.
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Name: ________________________________________ Date: ___________
Course/Year/Section: ____________________________ Score: __________
ACTIVITY 9.1
Population Ecology
Analyze and solve the following.
1. If a population is experiencing exponential growth, what happens to N, r and
G over time (increase, decrease or stay the same)?
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b. Which N level results in the highest population growth rate and why?
5. A chipmunk population is experiencing exponential growth with a population
growth rate of 265 individuals/year, and a per capita rate of increase of 0.15.
How many chipmunks are currently in this population?
6. Scientists discovered a new species of frog and were able to estimate its
population at 755 individuals. At the end of the year, 105 frogs were added to
this population. Assuming the population is undergoing exponential growth,
what is the per capita rate of increase?
8. A wildlife ranch currently has a population of polar bears whose death rate is
0.05 and birth rate is 0.12 per year. This particular ranch is isolated from other
suitable habitats so there’s no immigration into or emigration from this
population. This population is experiencing logistic growth and currently has
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550 bears. If the population growth rate for the year was 36 bears, what is
the carrying capacity of the preserve?
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