Chemistry: IB

These count as one ions.

Compounds Ions Charge

CO3 (Carbonate) 2-

SO4 (Sulphate) 2-

NO3 (Nitrate) 1-

NH4 (Ammonium) +1

HCO3 (Hydrogen 1-
carbonate)

CH3COO 1-
(ethanoate)

OH (Hydroxide) 1-

PO4 (phosphate) 3-

HSO4 (hydrogen -1
sulfate)

All compounds have a 0 charge

When writing out formulas, keep in mind that all compounds have a total valency of 0.

Nano= 10^-9

Micro= 10^-6

Stoichiometric relationships
Atoms of different elements combine to form compounds, which have different properties from elements.

Mixtures: contain more than one element/compound that are not chemically bonded, maintaining their individual
properties.

S: Solid
L: liquid
G: Gas
Aq: Aqueous (dissolved)

Solid -> Gas (Sublimation)

The mole
 Chemistry: IB
Number of atoms within 12 grams of Carbon 12. (6 ×1 023 ) (multiply moles by this number to find the number of
particles)

Moles=Mass/ Molar mass(g /mol)

Number of moles= number of particles/avogadro’s constant

Molar Mass=Mass of one mole of a substance

Empirical formula: The simplest formula of a substance. (simplest ratio of elements present in the substance.)
Molecular formula: actual number of atoms or amount of elements in one mole of a compound/substance (is aa
multiple of the empirical formula)

If a compound has a molar mass of 88, and it is found to contain 54.5% Carbon, 9.1% Hydrogen and 36.4% Oxygen, treat
the percentages like they are the mass of the element. Then find the number of moles.

54.5/12= 4.54= Number of moles in Carbon

9.1/1=number of moles in Hydrogen
36.4/15= 2.275=Number of moles in Oxygen

Divide all the moles by the smallest mole value (2.275 in this case)

Carbon= 4.54/2.275= 1.99 (round to 2)

Hydrogen= 9.1 / 2.275 = 4
Oxygen= 2.275/ 2.275= 1
Therefore, C2H4O is the empirical formula . Find the molar mass of this formula (44) , and see how many times this
molar mass can be placed into the actual molar mass of 88. As the answer is 2, this can be doubled.

Ionic equations: Only consists of elements which participate in the reaction. When an ionic compound is dissolved in
water, the individual elements split up into the two different ions.

To find the amount of O2 atoms in 0.5 moles of CO2

1. Find the amount of CO2 molecule in 0.5 moles

(0.5* avogadro’s number) = 3*`10^23
2. Within one CO2 molecule, there are two oxygen atoms, and one mole of CO2 produces two moles of oxygen. As
such, the amount of CO2 molecules need to be multiplied by 2 in order to find the amount of O2 atoms.
(3* 10^23 * 2) = 6* 10^23

Total mass of desire products

Atom economy:
Mass of products
In a chemical reaction, one of the reactants will be completely consumed. This is called the Limiting reactant. As
such, as soon as the limiting reactant runs out, the reaction will stop. Therefore, ratio between limiting reactant
and product should be the same.

Percentage yield:

- Theoretical yield: maximum possible yield that can be obtained

- Actual yield: the yield obtained in reality
- % yield = Experimental yield/theoretical yield *100
 Chemistry: IB
Standard solution: solution of known concentration
( Moles of a chemical)
Molar concentration(mol/d m3)= (amount of a substance dissolved in 1 dm^3 of a solvent)
Volume
- A known amount of the unknown solution is placed into the flask
- A burette is used to add the standard solution until the reaction is complete
- Indicator may be used to show when the reaction has taken place.

Gas Laws
Moles of gas ×22.7 = Volume of gas (L) (STP)
Therefore, this can be used to predict the ratios between the components of an equation. (the ratio between the
volume is same as the ratio within the actual molecular equation)

STP: Standard temperature and pressure (273 K or 0 celsius, and a pressure of 100 KPa, or 1 ATM)

Ideal gas equation: P(pressure in Pa)* V ( Volume in M3) = n( Number of moles) R( 8.31J/k/mol) T (Temperature in K )

If pressure is in Kpa, use Dm3

Combined gas law: at a fixed amount of gas, ( PV/T r)emains constant.

Ideal gas:

- No volume (mass of individual particles is negligible)

- No attraction (no force of attraction between individuals particles)
- No directions (particles move in random directions
- No loss of energy in collisions (perfectly elastic collision)

Real gases: gases will deviate the most at high pressure and low temperature.

- High pressure: forces of attraction are no longer negligible, volume of particles become significant
- Low temperature: particles slow down, and so attractive force between particles become more prominent.

At constant temperature (PV=a constant ): as the volume decreases the concentration of the particles increases,
resulting in more collisions with the container walls. The increase in pressure is inversely proportional to the volume. As
such, in a place where temperature is constant, when pressure increases, volume decreases.

At constant volume (P/T =constant ): Increasing the temperature increases the average kinetic energy so the force with
which the particles collide with the container walls increases. As such, in a place where volume is constant , when
temperature increases, so does pressure.

At constant pressure (V/T = a constant ): At higher temperature the particles have a greater average velocity due to
higher energy, therefore individual particles will collide with the container walls with greater force. To keep the
pressure constant there must be fewer collisions per unit area so the volume of the gas must increase. As such, when
volume increases, the temperature decreases in order to keep the pressure constant.

Atomic Structure
 Chemistry: IB
Element: Chemical substance which only contains one type of atom

Heterogeneous: a mixture consisting of components in different states (blood)

Homogeneous: a mixture consisting of components in the same state.

The mass number: Protons+Neutrons

Atomic Number: Number of protons
RAM: The average weighted mass of all the naturally occurring isotopes of the
elements relative to one twelfth the mass of Carbon 12.

Isotopes: Atoms of the same element that contain the same number of protons but
have a different number of neutrons. (Chemical properties are not different as
chemical properties are determined by electrons. )differ by physical properties

Particle Charge Mass

Electron -1 0
Proton +1 1

Neutrons 0 1
Atoms contain a positively charged dense nucleus composed of protons and neutrons.

Mass spectrometer
A device used to find the relative atomic mass of an element, through finding
the proportion to which particular isotopes are present.

1. Vaporisation. The element needs to be a gas in order to pass into the machine.
2. Ionisation. Atoms are ionized with a constant stream of high energy electrons (All particles that placed into the
mass spectrometer that are detected have a 1+ charge. )

M ⇒ M¿ ¿
3. Acceleration: Movement of particle through the use of an electric field produced between electric plates.
4. Deflection: Caused by a magnetic field. Stronger charge and lower mass means greater deflection. Therefore, the
number with the smallest mass/charge ratio will be deflected the most.
5.Recording: records the different amount of deflection in order to tell the charge and the mass of the particle. (m/z)
❑
(% relative abundance of isotope )× Isotopic mass
RAM: ∑
❑
❑

The Electromagnetic spectrum

The energy of electromagnetic radiation is inversely proportional to the wavelength, meaning that the smaller the
wavelength, the greater the energy and frequency the radiation will produce, .

c= λ F
 Chemistry: IB
When energy is provided to particular elements, it only produces light in specific wavelengths. This is known as the ‘ line
spectrum’, which is non-continuous, discrete display of light on a black background.

● When an electron in its ground state is excited (by being subjected to an electrical charge), it moves to a higher
energy level.
● Afterwards it falls back down the excited state to a lower energy level, where it emits a photon, and a certain
amount of energy is emitted. This photon corresponds on the level in which the proton reaches at the end. The
higher the drop, the higher the frequency/energy.
○ Fall to n=1: UV light
○ Fall to n=2: visible light
○ Fall to n=3: Infrared light

The lines converge towards the high energy end of the spectrum (violet), proving that the shells converge at higher
energies. . This proves that electrons exist in shells as if electrons could be anywhere, the spectra would be
continuous.

Continuous spectrum: Spectrum of light with no breaks throughout its wavelength range.
Line spectrum: Discrete bands of light at given wavelengths, separated and on a black background.

Energy of wavelength (KJ) = Planck’s constant * Frequency of the radiation

As the electron is excited to higher and higher levels, it will reach a point where it will gain enough energy to leave the
atom. The wavelength at which this occurs is called the limit of convergence . Beyond the point of this, the electron is
free from the atom.

Multiply the energy from the limit of convergence by avogadro’s constant to find the ionisation energy (as the energy
only represents one particle and the ionisation energy is in terms of one mole)

Electron arrangement
If energy levels is n, each energy level can hold a maximum of 2N 2 electrons.

- Within each energy level/shell, there are different type of orbitals called sub-shells. There are four different
subshells and within one energy level there can be a maximum of 1 S orbital, 3 P orbital, 5 D Orbitals and 7 F
orbitals. There is a maximum of two electrons per orbital with opposite spin.

Orbitals: Three dimensional shape where there is a high probability that the electron will be located

● S Orbital: Spherically symmetrical orbital shape.

● P orbital: Dumbbell shaped and split into three different types, with each one extended off on a different axis.
 Chemistry: IB

Aufbau Principle: Electrons must be place into the orbitals of lower energy first

Hund’s rule: When filling subshells of the same energy level, electrons fill all the orbitals singularly before occupying
them in pairs.

Notation for shells:

1= Principal energy level (shell)
S= Type of sub-shell
2= Number of electrons
Nitrogen (7 electrons) : 1S2, 2S2, 2P3

Exceptions

3d orbitals are of slightly higher energy level than 4s orbitals, and as

such, the 4s orbitals are filled in before the 3d. As such; the s orbital of
the next energy level is always filled before the d orbital of the current
energy level.

- In the case of transition metals, it is usual to simplify the

electron configuration by using the nearest noble gas.
- Two electrons in the same orbitals have opposite values of its
spin. Therefore an orbital that is full is more reactive, while a
single orbital is more stable.

For copper and chromium, an electron is borrowed from the filled 4s

orbital to the 3d orbital. When
there is the possibility of the d sub level becoming half full or completely full, the electrons choose to fill/half fill
the 3d level over keeping a full 4s. this is because it is more stable in that structure, and there is less potential
energy in these structures.

Ionization energy:
Energy needed to remove one mole of electrons from one mole of atoms in the gaseous state.

1. Moving down groups, the radii increases in size. Shielding occurs, which is when inner orbitals repel against
the outer orbitals, making them easier to remove electrons (lower ionization energy) .Increased distance also
means this is easier. .
2. Moving across a period, as electrons are being added to the same energy level, the nuclear charge increases,
thus pulling the electrons closer to the nucleus. This results in a higher ionization energy .
 Chemistry: IB
3. If groups subgroups did not exist,
then ionisation energy would be
roughly the same

● Orbitals are more stable when they

are empty, full, or half empty, as the
electron repulsion balances out.
Removing electron is therefore
easier if it leaves behind a stable
configuration.
● The dips are created by the creation
of new subshells, which would result
in a greater distance between the
‘new electron’ and the nucleus and
increase in shielding as a result of the fact that there are more inner electrons. This outweighs the effect of the
increasing nuclear charge. E.g.: energy level change from helium (1P2) to lithium ( 1P2, 2S1)
● In addition, dips are also created when the first paired electron is made in an orbital, as it experiences
repulsion (shielding) from the electron in the same sub-orbital it is in, meaning that it is easier to remove them.
E.G. nitrogen (1S2, 2S2, 2P3), to Oxygen (1S2, 2S2, 2P4)

These irregularities around certain elements give evidence for sub-levels. These dips in energy point to the fact that
some particles may take more energy than others.

Successive ionisation energies

For any element, electrons get harder to
remove the more electrons are removed.
This is because as more electrons are
removed, the pull of the protons on the
remaining electrons becomes greater, as the
pull of the nucleus is on less electrons.

● Sodium has an electron

configuration of (1S2, 2S2, 2P6, 3S1)
● The large jump that occurs between
removing the first electron and the
second electron is due to the fact
that the second shell is closer to the
nucleus,
●
Energy of wavelength=Planck ' s constant × Frequency
and therefore require more energy. This fact can thus be used to deduce group.
● There is also a slightly larger increase in ionization energies between the 7th and the 8th electron, as electrons
need to be removed from the 2S orbital .
● Large jumps take place when electrons are being removed from a new sub-shell , and larger jumps when
electrons are being removed from a new main energy level . (Increases also take place when easier to remove
paired electrons are removed after unpaired electrons. )
 Chemistry: IB
● Therefore, we can use the first large increase in ionisation energy as an indication of the group (amount of
outer electrons) of an element. −¿ ¿
2+ ¿+ e ¿
● Second ionisation energy: X +¿ ⇒ X ¿

Finding ionisation energy from emission spectra: The amount of energy to remove an electron (exciting an electron
from its initial level to n= infinity ) is the same as the amount of energy produced if an electron from n= infinity, falls
back to its initial level. Energy of wavelength=Planck ' s constant ×(Speed of light /Wavelength)8g

The repeating pattern of physical and chemical properties showed by the different periods
Groups: Vertical columns in the periodic table (shows the number of electrons in outer energy level/valence )
Periods: Horizontal rows in the periodic table (shows the number of occupied energy level that is occupied by
electrons). Similar chemical and physical properties.

The most outmost electron of an atom determines the “block” it belongs to.
E.g: Lithium is 1S2, 2S1, so it is in the S block.

The octet rule: Atoms tend to lose electrons or gain electrons in order to acquire a noble gas core electron
configuration.

Trends
Ionic radius
Both anions and cations increase in size down the group, while period size will fluctuate depending on whether or not
an atom is an anion or a cation

Anions: When an extra electron is added, it results in greater repulsion between the valence electrons , making the
structure bigger. The greater the negative charge, the larger the ion. Across a period it decreases because the proton
number increases, which pulls the electrons inward.

Cation: When an electron is removed, there is a smaller structure, due to the fact that the pull of the nucleus acts on a
smaller number of electrons, and there are less shielding (repulsion) from inner-most electrons. Also due to reduction
in number of electrons by one (valence electrons more strongly attracted) . The greater the positive charge, the
smaller the ion. Across a period, the ions contain the same number of electrons (iso-electric), but the proton number
increases, thus becoming smaller.

Atomic radius
Half the distance between the nuclei of two bonded atoms of the same element.

Going down groups: Atomic radius increases in size, due to the shielding that the various shells undergo against each
other, and also how the electrons are being added to new energy levels which are further away from the nucleus.

Going across periods: atomic radius decreases in size because of how the electrons are only being added to the same
energy level, and there is an increasing nuclear charge, pulling the electrons closer.

Electron affinity
Electron affinity: The energy released when 1 mol of electrons is attached to 1 mol of neutral atoms or molecules in the
gas phase.

X (g)+ e−¿ ⇒ X
−¿(g) ¿
¿

The more negative this value, the more the atom wants to accept the electron.
 Chemistry: IB
● Halogens have the lowest electron affinity, as when they receive the extra electron, they will gain a full noble
gas electron structure.
● Nitrogen has a positive affinity. This is because if an electron is added to it, it will be placed in a p orbital, where
another electron is already present. This will repel and energy will be needed.
● Successive electron affinities will result in positive charges. It will take energy to add electrons to an already
negative anion.
● Noble gases will have positive electron affinity values, demonstrating that it is not stable as it will result in an
endothermic reaction.
● Generally, across a period, electron affinity becomes more negative. Down a group, electron affinity becomes
more positive.

Electronegativity:
Relative attraction that an atom has for the shared pair of electron within a covalent bond . Measure on the pauling
scale, from 1 to 4. Mirrors the first ionization energies.

● Going down the group: electronegative strength gets weaker, as the atomic radii increases in size, and
shielding increases.
● Going across the period: electronegative strength gets stronger, due to a decrease in atomic radii, and an
increase in the nuclear charge, which steadily increases.

Melting points:
Melting points depend both on the structure of the element, and the type of electron bonds holding them together.

Giant covalent Bonds:

● Giant covalent bonds have the strongest structure, while a greater amount of valence electrons will result in a
stronger attraction between the elements.

Metallic Bond:

● A metallic bond is the electrostatic attraction of positive ions to delocalized electrons , and thus as we go
across a period, due to increased valency charge, there is a stronger positive charge, allowing for stronger
attraction.
● Going down a group, the shells cancel out the attraction forces of the positive ions through shielding ,
weakening attraction.
● Therefore, when we go down the alkali metals group, melting point decreases.

Diatomic molecule
● Melting points increase down a group, due to how an increase in electrons mean a stronger attraction, and a
stronger induced dipole which results in a greater attraction.

Monoatomic molecule : extremely weak forces of attraction between one another., so have a very low melting
point

Metallic and Nonmetallic

- Metallic properties decrease across
a period, and increase down a
group.
- Metals are good conductors,
malleable, ductile and lustre (shiny)
 Chemistry: IB
- Metals are good reducing agents, being able to lose their electrons easily due to low nuclear charge.
- Non-metals are good oxidizing agents, gaining electrons due to the strong nuclear charge.

Alkali metals:
Reactive metals stored in liquid paraffin.

● Going down the group: they become more reactive, as it requires less energy to remove its outer electrons
due to increased shield.
● Good reducing agents, as they can readily provide its electron. (gets oxidized)
● Produces a basic oxide.
● Going down a group, the melting point decreases due to the larger ions having a weaker attraction within the
lattice.

2 Li❑2 +2 H ❑2 O⇒ 2 LiOH (basic)+ H ❑2

Lithium Reacts slowly and floats in water

Sodium Reacts vigorously. Heat is evolved, and sodium moves

rapidly on top of the water

Potassium Ignites the hydrogen, producing lilac flame

Rubidium/Caesium Explosively with water.

Halogens:
Seven valence electrons, reacts by attracting electrons, and is thus an effective oxidizing agent.

● Reactivity decreases as we go down the group due to the outer shell being in higher energy level, and thus
further from the nucleus, making it more difficult for the nuclear charge to pull an electron.
● it is non metallic, and so will produce acidic oxide.
● Electrons can be easily polarized (lots of electrons to allow london dispersion forces, which requires more
energy)
● Diatomic molecules

F 2+2 KBr ⇒ 2 KF+ Br ❑2

The more reactive halogens can displace electrons from the less reactive halogens, gaining extra electrons and
becoming a new compound. (As can be seen above)

2 Li+ F ❑2 ⇒2 LiF

Alkali metals and halogens cn react together to form an ionic alkali metal halide salt.

Test for halide ions: acidified Silver nitrate solution.

It will react with the halide ion to form a precipitate of silver halide, and it’s color can be used to determine which
element it is. Once this silver halide reacts with light, it turns back into silver.

● Chlorine: Produce white precipitate. (atom is greenish-yellow)

● Bromide: Cream precipitate (atom is red-brown)
 Chemistry: IB
● Iodide: Yellow precipitate (atom is brown)

Precipitation reaction: A reaction where a anion and a cation form in an aqueous solution to form an insoluble ionic
compound.

Reactions
Metals form basic oxides, while non-metals form acidic oxides.

Metalloid: possesses some of the properties of a metal and some of a non metal.

- Aluminium is a3 metal but it’s oxide is amphoteric, which means that i can either be basic or acidic depending
on whether it is reacting with an acid or a base.

Transition metals:
Transition metal: an element that possess an incomplete d sub level in one or more of it’s oxidation states.

- In scandium, there are no d electrons in it’s common ion 3+, and as such it is not a transition metal.
- Zinc is also not a transition metal as it contains a full d sub level in all its oxidation state.
- For all atoms, electrons are taken off the s orbital before the d orbital, despite the opposite taking place when
electrons are added

Traits of a Transition metal:

- Variable oxidation state (different oxidation state). (+2)
○ All transition metals can form the (+2), while some of them have a +3 and a +4 ion.
○ This is because the 4s and 3d have similar energy levels, so electrons can be taken off either one. (4s
emptied before 3d) All the electrons experience strong shielding as they enter an inner-shell orbital.
This accounts for a low rate of increase amongst the first ionisation energy of the transition elements.
○ When they combine with oxygen to form oxyanions, they can gain oxidation states greater than 2+
● Catalytic substances
○ These powdered substances can adsorp (stick substances to it’s surface), and thus ensure reaction by
putting reactant in closer proximity.
○ These substances lower the activation energy, making it easier to react.
○ Examples include Iron in the haber process, Vanadium oxide, nickel
● Magnetic properties
○ Ferromagnetic: Iron, cobalt and nickel atoms . A permanent magnet. All of the unpaired electrons align
parallel to each other in a domain irrespective of a magnetic field (all the domains are in the same
direction, and thus are attracted to a magnetic field)
 Chemistry: IB
○ Paramagnetism: Magnetism due to unpaired orbitals. These unpaired electrons can line up with a
magnetic field, and produce a magnetic field. This is because the negative force isn’t canceled out by
spins. When an electric or magnetic field is applied to the metal, they become weakly magnetic as their
domains line up within the atom. The more unpaired electrons, the stronger the paramagnetic force.
○ Diamagnetism: Magnetism due to a full shell. Repulsion to a magnetic field.
○ When a ligand approaches a transition metal, the d orbital will split, with a lower half occupying
three orbitals, and a upper half with two orbitals. How much this orbital will split is based on the
position of a substance in the spectrochemical series. If there is a weaker substance, the d orbital will
split by a smaller amount. This means that the electrons are simply split in half, occupying both halves
of the d orbital, creating a paramagnetic force. Ligands high in the series will cause a larger splitting,
only the lower d orbitals will be occupied, as electrons initially in the higher half of the shells will fall
down as it is unstable for them, forming electron pairs with the lower half of the d orbital . The lower
shell ends up getting fully filled, thus meaning it is diamagnetic.
● Colored compounds
○
○ Ligand splits into two levels.
○ When a light is shone on a transition metal ion, it will promote electrons from the lower half of the d
orbital into the higher level of the d, (after it has split when it bonds with a ligand) . It absorbs the light
, and reaches a higher level . The difference in energy level corresponds to the visible light. The light
that is not absorbed is the complementary color. For example, if red light is absorbed , then the
complementary color green is given off. Different ligands cause different amount of splitting, hence
different complexes have different colours. Completely filled d subshells are colorless.
○ LIgands modify the difference in energy between the d orbitals, which is called the “ligand-field
splitting parameter”. The bigger the difference, the bigger the energy required to promote the
electron, and the bigger the energy absorbed to promote the electron between the two havles of the
d . Therefore, a smaller distance between the halves result in a lower energy red light being absorbed.
Electron does not fall back donw.
● Forms complex ions

These properties mean that a transition metal can rapidly decrease the concentration of oxidizing agents (multiple
oxidation states allow multiple redox reactions, and catalytic properties makes these qualities faster)

Complex: Transition metal ion which is bonded, via coordinate bonding, to ligands.
Coordinate bonding: when a pair of electrons are donated by the same atom or ion.
LIgands: An anion or neutral species that can donate an electron pair to a central transition metal atom/ion, forming a
coordinate bond. Ligands donate lone pairs into vacant orbitals.
Coordination number: Number of electron pairs bonded to the metal ion.

This happens because transition metals act as lewis acids, attracting electron rich substances.

- A common ligand is water, and most transition metals exact as hexahydrate complex ions (six water molecules
for every transition one atom of metal), as this is the physical maximum that can be placed.
- However, some complexes have four ligands, and these form Tetrahedral structures. This is the same for most
ligands, and the molecule is octahedral in shape.

Afterwards, six water molecules donates a pair of it’s electrons, bonding and filling the shells with 12 electrons (six
orbitals). Where these electrons are placed is determined by the element and the ligand. A charged ligand will cancel
out the charge of the transition metal ion. (E.G, a complex with an Iron III centre and six ammonia ions will form a 3-
charge)

- The ligands will fill the empty outer shells of an atom with a pair of electrons; and it will not fill up the singly
filled electron shells.
 Chemistry: IB
- Ligands can be displaced by other ligands.

Polydentate Ligands
One lone pair per molecule donated to transition metal ion: Monodentate”
Two pair per molecule donated to transition metal: Bidentate
Some ligands contain more than one non-bonding pair and can form two or more coordinate bonds to the metal ions

Donates two pairs of lone electrons. Three surround one transition metal to form a
total of six coordination bonds.

Oxalate. (2- charge) Donates two pair of lone electrons. Three surround one transition
metal to form a total of six coordination bond.

EDTA. A hexadentate ligand, which forms six coordinate bonds with one metal.

Splitting of the D Orbitals:

Degenerate: Electrons that are of equal amount of energy

LIgands move towards the transition metal, and if there is a non orbital located on one of the axis, it will repel the
D x ❑x❑ − y❑ and the d z❑ causing the five orbitals to split. The difference in energy level corresponds to the
2 2 2

wavelength of visible light, and thus, the degree of splitting. Energy will be absorbed, allowing the electron to
move upwards. Different factors will change the color of the light. These factors include:

● changing the transition metal (which changes the proton number), as the attraction the electrons will
experience will be different.
 Chemistry: IB
● Changing the oxidation state will affect the splitting as the number of electrons in the level is different, as the
attraction the electrons will experience will be different.
● Different ligands will affect the extent of splitting, as some will have a greater number of electrons, causing a
greater repulsion.
● The stereochemistry or the three dimensional structure of the ligand.

● To see the light produced, we can look across the color wheel.
● When looking at a graph of absorbance,we look at the “hills”
to find the color spectrum which is most absorbed, and then
we find the complementary color to see the light which is
emitted.

Bonding
Ionic bonding
The electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions. When the sum of the valency of the two ions within the
ionic compound is equal to zero.

● The difference between the electronegativity values need to be greater than about 1.8 for ionic bonding to
occur. (High electronegativity)
● The ionic bond is the sum of all the electrostatic attractions within said lattice, and as such, they tend to have
a high melting point.
● Many are soluble in water as the hydration energy of the ions provide the energy to overcome the lattice.
● Solid ions are unable to conduct electricity due to how they are held in fixed positions, while molten ions are
able to as the ions are free to move, and there are mobile ions which can conduct charge.

Ionic liquids are efficient solvents (they are good at dissolving) :

● The cation must be large and asymmetrical and the anion must have delocalized charge in order to help either
oxidize or reduce certain substances.

Covalent compound
Covalent compounds: A type of bonding where atoms share electrons in order to attain a noble gas configuration.
Occurs (generally) between non-metals.
 Chemistry: IB
● Covalent compounds are generally weak if they are molecular (due to weak
intermolecular bonds) . As such, these have low melting points.
● While they are stronger in Giant Molecular Structures like Diamond or
graphite which consists of many bonds holding the structure together, thus
leading to a high melting point. Also includes silicon dioxide (SiO4)
● Atoms in a covalent bond will have a small difference between their
electronegativity. Electronegativity difference< 1.8

Types of bonds:
● For example, two fluorine atoms share one electron with each other in order
to ensure that they both have 8 electrons in their outer shell. This is called a single bond. (two shared electrons
= double bond etc. )
● In terms of bond strength: single bond<double bond <triple bond
● Bond length has the opposite trend to bond strength. The shorter the bond length, the greater the strength.
This is due to how the more electrons are shared the stronger the bond is, which means a shorter bond length
as atoms are pulled together.

Bond Polarity
In the case of two identical atoms, or atoms in which the electronegative values are very similar, there is an equal
sharing of identical atoms, which is called a pure covalent or nonpolar bond.

● However if there are two different elements, this is not the case. For
example in the case of hydrogen fluoride (HF). There is a “tug of war”
for the electron pair. Fluorine has a much greater attraction than
hydrogen, and this leads to a polar covalent bond , where the fluorine
gains a partial negative charge (denoted by δ-) , while the hydrogen
gains a partial positive charge (δ+). This can be denoted by a vector
arrow called a dipole moment. The arrow head represents the negative
end. The greater the difference in electronegativities the more polar the
bond.
● Some covalent structures may contain polar bonds , but if they are arranged symmetrically, these dipoles cancel
each other out. The atoms with a higher electronegativity will attract electrons, from atoms with a lower
electronegativity, causing one end of the molecule to have a partial negative end, and another end to have a
partial positive end.
Chemistry: IB

Lewis structure
A diagram of a compound depicting all the outer electrons, even those that are not
involved in a chemical bond. Uses dot and cross with clear differentiation.

Octet rule: tendency for atoms to gain a valence shell of 8 electrons. (However, some
atoms like Be and B can break this rule, and form stable atoms without 8 valence
electrons)

Dimers: A chemical structure formed from two similar or more sub-units . Examples
include Aluminium chloride. This particle is covalent due to how Aluminium is small and
highly charged, and is able to share it’s electrons with chlorine rather than having it’s
electrons taken off it.
VSEPR Theory:
● VSEPR states that because electrons are negative, pair of electrons
arrange themselves around the central atom so that they are as far apart
from each other as possible. (double and triple bonds are all facing the
same direction, they count as one bond.)
● non-bonding pairs of electrons exhibit greater repulsion due to the fact
that the electrons are more tightly concentrated. As a result, between a
non-bonding pair and a bonded atom, the angle will be greater than the
angle between two bonded atoms. Ergo, between two non-bonding
pairs, there is a large angle .( non-bonding pairs are drawn with two dots).
The greater the amount of the non-bonding pairs, the smaller the angle
made between the other bonds.
● For bond angles 5 and 6 electron domains, the octet needs to be expanded and this can only happen if there
are available d orbitals which can be used, and if the electron shell is too high up then it is not possible
 Chemistry: IB

(E denotes empty domain, while X denotes a filled electron)

Resonance structures:
Occurs when there are two possible positions for the electrons, structure that cannot be denoted by one lewis structure..
Some elements have the same arrangement of atoms, but possess two possible lewis structures, ( two locations for double
or triple bond) for example, Benzine seen below:

The two structures represent resonance forms, the two extreme forms of the electron structure, while the structure on the
right represents the resonance hybrid, or the true structure of the structure. The delocalized electrons are denoted by the
dotted line. These bonds have a length of ‘1.5’, and are of the same length. These bonds are easier to break than double
bonds, but harder than single bonds. These delocalized electrons only take place in atomic structures which are symmetrical.

- This structure occurs because it is more energetically stable for the charge to be dissociated between both bonds,
than to yet one side be more charged than the other. This gives an equal bond strength, and allows for a lower
potential energy.
- Delocalization: electrons that are shared between atoms in a molecule/ion as opposed to being localized between a
pair of atoms. Pi bond extends over two molecules.
 Chemistry: IB

Nitrate, carbonate, ethanoate, benzene and ozone has a resonance structure.

Allotropes:
When an element exists in different crystalline formations. Carbon is known for it’s allotropes:

(all of them are held together by london dispersion forces and covalent forces)

● Diamond:
- Carbon atom is covalently bonded to four other carbon atoms, because of this, diamond is exceptionally
hard.
- All of these electrons are localized, meaning that it is impossible for diamond to conduct e lectricity.
- Giant macromolecular structure/tetrahedral structure. (SP3,109.5 degree bond angle.)
● Graphite:
- Carbon atom has a very strong bond to three other carbon atoms. Bonded together in a hexagonal layer.
Although the covalent bonds are really strong within the layers. Layers are held together by weak
intermolecular force, known as london forces.
- Because the layers can slide over each other, graphite can be used as a lubricant.
- Delocalized electrons also exists within graphite, meaning it can conduct electricity. (SP2, 120 degrees,
hexagonal , trigonal planar)
● Graphene:
- Transparent sheet of one atom thick graphite . It can be utilized to make nano tubes or spheres, and can be
used as conductors or semiconductors. (Sp2, hexagonal, 120 degrees)
● Fullrene:
- Geodesic spherical structure made out of hexagons and pentagons. An un-bonded electron exists in a p
orbital, allowing it to conduct electricity. (sp2 and sp3, bond angles between 109 and 120)

Other giant molecular structures:

Silicone dioxide: (SO2)

● Each SI bonded to four other oxygen atoms, with two silicones bonded to one oxygen.
● Giant covalent structure with 109.5 degrees
 Chemistry: IB
Intermolecular forces: (bear in mind these refers to forces between molecules,
and not within molecules with covalent bonding, which are strong)

Instantaneous induced dipole (type of London dispersion force)

- The weakest form of molecule attraction. Electrons constantly change positions, and due to random chance, at a
given time, a particular region will have a higher density of electrons than another.
- This results in a temporary instantaneous dipole, and this result in the atom gaining a very small charge due to
this congregatio.
- When another atom approaches this atom, the nucleus of the first atom will be attracted to the region of
higher electrons in the other atom. At the same time, the region of higher electron density will repel each
other. This will result in a temporary charge and attraction between the two molecules.

This temporary attraction will cause the electron clouds to be “squashed”, as the positive and negative dipole ends will
become closer together, while two areas of similar charge will be pushed furthest apart as possible.

- In larger molecules, the electrons within the outer shell are not held as tightly to the nucleus, and as such, the
atoms can be polarized easily (they are easily influenced by an electric field)
- Larger molecules have more electrons, and thus, a greater force produced by a denser concentration, and the
attraction is working between a larger number of molecules.
- The nuclear force of these atoms are also stronger, meaning a greater attraction.

Polarized: Polar separation of negative and positive charges.

Dipole-Dipole attractions (type of London dispersion force)

An attraction that exists between all molecules with a permanent dipole moment. There is an attraction between the
positive end of one permanent dipole, and the negative end of another permanent dipole on an adjacent molecule.
These are stronger than london forces, and as such molecules with these have a higher melting point.

Hydrogen bonding:
Special type of bonding that occurs within an HF, OH, or NH bond.

- As water contains polar bonds, the electrons of hydrogen are “pulled” closer to the Oxygen atom within water.
- This pull is so extreme that the hydrogen atom practically becomes a proton. This electronegative hydrogen
atom m attracts a nonbonding pair of electrons from another water molecule’s Oxygen electronegative
atom,creating a very strong bond that results in a much stronger dipole-dipole attraction. As a result of this,
water has a greater boiling point than other group 16 hydrides.

Physical properties
- When a liquid turns into a gas, the attractive forces between the particles are completely broken. When solid
melts, the crystal structure is completely broken down. Therefore, the stronger the bonds, the higher the
boiling point, and the less volatile the substance.
- The nature of the structure also affects boiling point. Giant covalent>Ionic>Covalent. Giant covalent are strong
because of the amount of bonds that need to be broken.
 Chemistry: IB
- They are also determined by impurities, and impurities weaken the structure and lower the melting point.

Solubility: Like tends to dissolve like. Polar substances tend to dissolve in polar solvents, such as water, wheras non-
polar substances tend to dissolve in non-polar solvents.

- A substance has to contain an OH bond to be dissolved in water, as the hydrogen bond within the water
molecules reacts with the hydrogen bonds in the compound and dismantles it.

Metals and alloys

A metallic bond is the electrostatic attraction between a lattice of positive ions to delocalized electrons ,

- Going across a period, there will be a higher boiling point due to a stronger nuclear/ionic charge and a
decrease in radius(1+ for group 1, and 2+ for group 2). (The greater electron deficiency will mean that the
nucleus will exert a stronger force onto the delocalized electrons, and will also mean a smaller ionic radius)
- These particles will also have a smaller ionic radius, meaning that the electrons will experience a stronger
attraction to the nucleus. The smaller the ion formed, the stronger the metallic bond, so going down groups,
the melting point will decrease due to shielding and a larger radius.
● HIgher groups also are better conductors, due to denser electrons which transmit current.

Malleability
● Metals are malleable because the closely packed layer of ions can slide past one-another, and when pressure is
applied and will not break as the electrostatic bonds keep them together. This force is described as non-
directional, as they act in every direction about the cation and do not have a defined direction. It can be
hammered in thin sheets.

Alloys:
● The addition of another metal to a metallic element. This alters it’s properties as the added metals are likely to
have a different radius, and have a different charge.
● Adding an extra metal can result in metals having lower melting points, as there is an addition of impurities.
● Alloys are generally less malleable, as the added impurities disturb the lattice. This makes alloys harder than
the pure metals that they are derived from. Because the metal ions are not similar, they cannot easily slide past
each other and break, making them stronger.

Sigma and Pi bonds

When Atomic orbitals overlap head on with each other , they form a sigma
bond, which is considered a normal covalent bond. It is when two atomic
orbitals from different atoms overlap along a line drawn through the two
nuclei. Bear in mind that these two do not have to be s electrons.

A pi bond is a bond formed from the sideways overlap of atomic orbitals

(P) . The overlap between the p electrons occur above and below the
internuclear axis.
 Chemistry: IB

When a double covalent bond form, it is impossible for 2 sigma bonds to form, and as such, there is a parallel
overlapping of nonbonded electrons in the p orbitals.(right)

Forming a bond that is above and below the line. When there is a triple bond, there is 1 sigma and 2 pi bonds , with
one above and below the sigma, and another parallel to the line through the nucleus. (left)

Formal charge
A method to deduce the preferred structure of an atom when there are more than one possibilty for electron
distribution. The preferred structure is the one in which the individual atoms have the lowest possible charge,
which is calculated with the following equation:

(Number of valence electron, not including an extra electron added on in the case of an ion)- (Number of
nonbonding electrons)- ½ (number of Bonding electrons including electrons originating from other electrons,
refers to electrons shared)

For example, in CO2

- The first lewis structure is therefore the correct one and the one is formed, as this is the one where each atom
has the lowest possible charge.
- When there is a stronger electronegative atom within a molecule, this atom will be assigned with the
negative formal charge.
 Chemistry: IB

Oxygen and Ozone

The strong double bonds in oxygen are broken by high
energy UV light from the sun to form atoms. These
oxygen atoms are called radicals, and they are high
energy atoms with an unpaired electron. One oxygen
atom can then react with another oxygen molecule to
form ozone.
The weaker bonds in ozone then require UV light of less
energy to break them. When they are broken, the ozone
breaks back down to an oxygen molecule and an oxygen
radical. This radical then reacts with another ozone molecule to form two oxygen molecules.
Overall, the rate of production of ozone is equal to the rate of destruction. This process, where there is a wide
range of UV light absorbed, is called a steady state. Human pollutant such as CFCs (Chloroflouro Carbon) and
oxides of nitrogen disrupt this process,and destroys

CFCS
- When UV light shines onto CFCS, it breaks the bonds between the C-Cl molecules. This produces a Cl radical
These radicals then break down the ozone molecules and create more radicals.

- Nitrogen oxides (1 or 2) also catalytically decompose oxygen by a radical mechanism. Essentially, oxygen
radicals are created by the breakdown of NO2 in UV light.
- NO ❑2 → NO +O.
 Chemistry: IB
- These radicals then react with ozone
- O .+ O❑3 →2 O❑2
- The nitrogen oxide can also react with ozone, to generate more of the catalyst
- NO+O❑3 → NO ❑2+O❑2

The bond enthalpy for the double oxygen bond is given as 498 KJ/Mol. The wavelength of light that can corresponds to
break this enthalpy is:
Energy (J) = PLanck’s constant* (Speed of light/wavelength)

Hybridisation: the merging of different electron shells to form a structure with lower energy
levels.
SP3
In methane, there are four equal C-H bonds pointing towards the corners of a tetrahedron with bond angles of 109.5.
There are two unpaired electrons in this structure, and the P orbitals are 90 degrees (due to their dumb bell shaped) ,
and will not give bond angles of 109.5, when they overlap with the s orbitals.

When carbon bonds to methane, one of it’s 2s electrons is promoted to a 2P orbital as this is a more stable structure .
Afterwards, the 2s and the 2p combine with each other to form four new hybrid orbitals, as this structure is lower in
energy and also more stable. These new orbitals arrange themselves to be as mutually repulsive as possible
(tetrahedrally).

- This hybrid is made because it is lower in energy than the 2p orbital, so it is more energetically favorable.,
allowing for maximum repulsion between the orbitals. It does this to overlap with the domains of the other
atoms.

SP❑2
A 2s electron is promoted into the 2p orbital shell. The 2s orbital shell then hybridizes with two of the 2p orbitals to
form a SP❑2. These have an angle of 120 degrees between them. They form three sigma bonds. There is an extra
electron in the 2p orbital which overlaps to form one pi bond above and below the plane. (ethene)
 Chemistry: IB

SP
SP hybridization occurs when the 2s orbital hybridizes, with just one one of the 2p orbitals to form two new linear sp
hybrid orbitals. THe remaining two p orbitals within the carbon then overlap to form two Pi bonds. (ethyne)

(The bonds look like half a P bond)

- Non-bonding electron pairs is considered one of the components. For example, in the case of ammonis,
where there are three bonds, and there is one nonbonding pair, it is considered a SP3 hybridized atom due
to how it it has a tetrahedral shape and there are four electron domains.

As such it can be deduced that:

Tetrahedral shape: Sp3

Trigonal planar: Sp2
Linear: SP

Energetics
In a chemical reaction, energy is required to break the bonds of
the reactants, and energy is given out when new bonds are formed in
the products.

- If the bonds in the products are stronger and more stable than
the bonds in the reactants, then it is said to be exothermic.
- Energy of the reactants are given away as heat. (negative
enthalpy change)
- Energy is given off
 Chemistry: IB

If the bonds in the reactants are stronger and more stable

than the bonds in the products , then it is said to be endothermic.

- Heat is absorbed from the surroundings in order to create a

substance with greater enthalpy. (positive enthalpy
change)
- Energy is absorbed. (Water to steam)

Enthalpy is the internal energy stored within the reactants. Only change in
enthalpy can be measured. It is measured under standard conditions of 100
KPA at a temperature of 298 K, and it is used to calculate the energy change for every joules of energy every moles
of a substance releases/absorbs within the reaction.

Δ H =Enthalpy of products−Enthalpy of reactants

Heat: a measure of the total energy in a given amount of substance, and therefore depends on the amount of the
substance.

E.G: in two beakers of water with temperatures of 50 degrees, one with 100 ml and the other with 50, the beaker with
100 ml has twice the amount of heat energy within it.

Temperature: the average kinetic energy of the substance, but is independent of the amount of substance present, and
is independent of the amount of substance present.

The specific heat capacity of water is: 4.18 Kj/kgK

Extrapolation
- The temperature can also be derived from a graph through extrapolating the data, and through drawing a linear
curve across the flat sections of the data which contain a constant gradient .
- This line should be drawn until the point in which the extra chemical is added. The difference between the
extrapolated line and the initial actual added temperature at this point is the change in temperature.

Calculations of Enthalpy changes

Heat energy ( KJ )=Mass of the system(KG )∗Specific heat capacity∗Temperature chan≥¿
- For aqueous solutions, assume density is equal to the density of water (1g=1cm3), and that specific heat
capacity is equal to that of water (4.18Kj/KG K)

(Because enthalpy is measured in KJ/Mol, In order to find the enthalpy change, we need to work out the number of
moles involved in the reaction which produces the heat change in water, and divide the total heat energy by the
moles present)

- Assume the density and specific heat capacity of aqueous solutions are equal to those of water.
 Chemistry: IB
Hess’ law
The enthalpy change for a reaction depends on the difference between the
enthalpy of the products and the enthalpy of the reactants, independent of
the route taken.

- Going the opposite way, the enthalpy change has a different sign
(positive changed to minus)
- When there are more than one arrow pointing to a specific
reactant, then they are both to be added together.

Enthalpies:
Remember to write out the equation beforehand, to ensure one mole is used/produced.

Standard enthalpy of combustion: (H with small c) The enthalpy change when one mole of a substance is completely
combusted in standard conditions of 298 K and 100 Kpa pressure. (Difference in enthalpy when chemical is reacted
with one mole of oxygen)

- Calorimetry: Technique used to measure enthalpy change of combustion. Combustion of a substance is used to
heat another substance of known specific heat capacity.
- Error 1: heat loss; energy from the system can be leaked
- Error 2: Incomplete combustion: not sufficient oxygen will mean that some of the substance burns and
gives out less heat.

Enthalpy of formation: (H with small f) the enthalpy change when one mole of the compound is formed from it’s
elements in it’s standard state. (in standard conditions), enthalpy of decomposition is the opposite.

- Enthalpy of formation of an element in its standard state is zero.

An alternate method is:

(THis equation can also be used with enthalpy of combustion)

Bond Enthalpies
Enthalpy change can be calculated directly from bond enthalpies. The bond enthalpy is defined as the enthalpy
change in the process,

X--Y (G) → X(G)+Y(G)

In order to break this, energy needed to be put in to break bonds. As such, the enthalpy change was positive.
This is defined as the energy to break one mole of a bond in a gaseous molecule averaged over similar compounds.
Enthalpy change=reactant ; s bond enthalpy− products bond enthalpies
In the reactants, energy is absorbed to break bonds (energy values has positive values as energy is being put in ). On
the other hand, in the products, energy is given off to form bonds, resulting in a negative value.
 Chemistry: IB
- However, this value is not the same as the experimental value of enthalpy of combustion. This is because bond
enthalpies are derived from finding the average from a wide range of compounds., while formation enthalpy
refers to specific compounds.
- Bond enthalpy fails to account for intermolecular forces within liquids.
- This only works if both products and reactants are in the gaseous state. If there was a liquid product, then
more heat would be needed as enthalpy change of vaporization of liquids would also needed to be included.

Born-Haber cycle
Ionisation enthalpy (Delta H): The enthalpy change when one mole of gaseous atom loses one electron per atom to
produce gaseous 1+ ions. (Positive enthalpy for both first and second change)

Electron affinity (Delta HEA): The enthalpy change when one mol of a gaseous atom gains one electron per atom to
produce gaseous 1- atom (

- Negative enthalpy change at first, due to attraction to the attractive forces of the nucleus
- positive enthalpy change for second due to negative particle being added to anion.

Enthalpy of atomisation (Delta H a): Enthalpy change when one mole of a gaseous atom (single atom/no diatomic) is
formed from an element in its standard state under standard conditions. For diatomic molecules, this value is half
the bond enthalpy value, as this bond enthalpy refers to splitting 1 mole of the compound. (Positive enthalpy change)

½ Cl 2(g)--> Cl (g)
Enthalpy change is ½* +242 = 121 Kj/mol

(may not always be the case)

Lattice enthalpy (Delta H l): Relates either to the endothermic process of turning a mole of a crystalline ionic solid
into it’s 1 mole of both of it’s gaseous ions.

As the ion gets smaller, the attraction between the ions are stronger, thus meaning a greater lattice enthalpy. Due to
more energy needed to break the bonds.

● As the charge on the respective ions increase, there will also be a greater lattice enthalpy. (greater
charge)
● When a substance dissolves, it is essentially attracting and forming a bond with a water atom, and as
such, a more negative hydration energy is found when there is a stronger ion)

(Sometimes, the experimental value might be greater than the theoretical value because some chemicals are also
covalent, which will result in greater attraction and thus, greater lattice enthalpy. The theoretical value assumes
perfect ionic.)

Hydration enthalpy (Delta H Hyd) : Enthalpy change when one mole of gaseous ions is dissolved in sufficient solution
to give an infinitely dilute solution.
−¿¿

NaCl(s)⇒ N a+¿+C l ¿

- The smaller and more highly charged the ion (has a greater effect than size) , the greater the energy released
upon hydration becomes.
 Chemistry: IB
- Involves the formation of ion-dipole forces between ions and water molecules. (negative enthalpy change).

Enthalpy of solution: (Delta H sol) Enthalpy change when one mole of an ionic solid dissolves in an amount of water
so that the dissolved ions are well separated and do not interact with each other (infinite dilution) (negative enthalpy
change) measured under standard condition.

- It can be calculated through the reverse of the lattice enthalpy (bonds are broken in the process) + hydration
enthalpy of the individual ions.

Enthalpy change of neutralization: enthalpy change associated with the formation of one mole of water molecules
when an acid reacts with an alkali under standard conditions.

- Determine standard enthalpy change, divided by number of moles of water formed.

lattice dissociation enthalpy (Delta H dis): Enthalpy change when one mole of ionic bonds is broken to into it’s
respective gaseous ions (mentioned above) : (Positive enthalpy change)

The cycles involve the formation of an ionic compound from the reaction of a metal with a non-metal. They are used to
calculate lattice enthalpies, which cannot be measured directly. Essentially, it is a hess cycle.

Perfect ionic model: A substance with no covalent bonds.

(disregard the signs, and basically use hess’ law to find the
total lattice enthalpy . Up is positive and down is negative,
and find an alternate path )

When drawing a born haber, put the final substance at the

bottom, and the constituent elements of the compound on
the level right above.

(six six coordination: Six negative ions for one positive ion)

Entropy
Distribution of available energy among the particles in a system. Systems tend towards an increase in entropy.
(disorder of a system) . ( The greater the positive entropy, the more disordered and the more energy a system has).
(J/Kmol) Delta S. Can be directly measured, unlike enthalpy.

- Dissolving a substance, and breaking down the bonds in a substance increases the entropy.
- Changing state of a substance, where the distance between the particles increases.
- When a substance releases a gas, it results in a high entropy change, as there is a greater disorder of gases
compared to solid/liquids.
 Chemistry: IB
- An increase in the number of particles: If some of the reactant particles split up into two or three product
particles, than there is an increase in disorder.

Standard entropy: the entropy of one mole of a substance under standard conditions.

Absolute entropy change: The entropy change per mole that results from heating the substance from 0k to the
standard temperature of 298 K. Can be directly found.

- Standard enthalpy change can be calculated through the difference between the entropy of the products and
the entropy of the reactants.

Entropy values( j /kmol)=Entropy of products( j/ kmol)−Entropy of reactants( j/kmol).

(multiply the entropy values by the amount of moles taking place in the reaction)

Spontaneity
A system is spontaneous if it causes a system to move from a less stable state to a more stable state without any
outside influence. Negative gibbs free energy value means spontaneity. All involve an increase in disorder.
Spontaneity is measured as the gibbs free energy charge.

ΔG(kj/mol)=Change∈enthalpy (kj /mol)−Temperature( K )∗¿(divide entropy value by 1000)

(Kj/Mol)

- Greater entropy makes reactions more likely to be spontaneous as greater disorder leads to more uniform
distribution within the system.
- A decrease in enthalpy makes reactions more likely to be spontaneous.
- Gibbs free energy is maximised at equilibrium.

Gibbs energy change of formation : The free energy change when one mol of a compound is formed from it’s element
in it’s standard state.

Enthalpy Change Entropy change Gibbs free energy change Spontaneity

Endothermic (+) More disordered (+) Depends on Temperature Spontaneous if it takes

place at a higher
temperature, where
T*entropy change is
greater than the change in
enthalpy.

Endothermic (+) More ordered (-) Always (+) Never spontaneous at any
temperature

Exothermic (-) More disordered (+) Always (-) Always spontaneous at all
temperatures

Exothermic (-) More ordered (-) Depends on temperature Spontaneous only at low
temperature when
 Chemistry: IB
T*Entropy change is less
than change in enthalpy.

Kinetics
Rate of reaction: Increase in the concentration of one of the products per unit time or the decrease in the
concentration of one of the reactants per time

- mol /d m3 S (is the gradient for a volume/time graph)

Activation energy: minimum energy required to start the reaction.

● This change in concentration can be measured using any property that differs
between the reactants and the products. (mass/volume change) , PH
change, electrical conductivity and colour.
● (steepest gradient is at the initial point of the reaction)
● A plateau on the graph usually means the reaction has stopped.
● All the curves will end and finish at the same point, as this regardless of the
factors affecting the reaction, there is the same amount of moles, meaning
that the same amount of product is produced.
● Initial rate of reaction can be found by drawing a tangent to the curve at
time=0 on a concentration/time graph .

A single stage exothermic reaction is present on the right. If there are two stages, the reaction will take the form of
‘two humps’, with a plateau forming for the intermediates.

Collision theory:
For a reaction to occur, there must be a collision between two particles:

● They must collide with the appropriate geometry or orientation so that the reactive parts of the particles come
into contact with each other.
● They must collide with sufficient energy to bring about the reaction. This is known as the activation energy.

Maxwell-Boltzmann Distribution
Moving particles in a gas or liquid do not travel at the
same velocity. As such, the kinetic energy of each
particle can be shown on the distribution curve.

● As temperature increases, the area under the

graph remains the same, as this is the total
number of particles in the substance.
● However, the graph broadens, and moves
towards the right/flattens out, as there is a
higher average kinetic energy/velocity of each
particle , thus broadening the curve with more
particles at higher temperatures.
 Chemistry: IB
● (the graph also extends to infinity, never reaching zero)
● More particles will have energy exceeding activation energy.

Rate of reaction can be found through drawing a tangent on a particular point of a time/reaction graph.

Factors which affect reaction (does not affect amount of products formed)
If these changes yield a greater rate of reaction, the gradient will become more steep for conc/time graph, but it will
always end at the same point, as same amount will be produced.

● Temperature: Average kinetic energy of a particle( directly proportional)

○ As the temperature increases, the particles will move faster so there will be more collisions per
second. The main reason why an increase in temperature increases the rate, is that more of the
colliding particles will possess the necessary activation energy.
○ Amount of collisions increase
● Surface area: In a solid substance only the particles on the surface can come into contact with a surrounding
reactant. If a solid is in a powdered form then the surface area increases dramatically. (greater chance of
collision)
● Concentration: The more concentrated the reactants the more collisions there will be per second per unit
volume. (this explains why the rate of reaction gets slower as the reaction proceeds). If this is the limiting
reactant, then changing this factor will also change the amount of product produced. A greater concentration
will lead to a greater amount of product.

Over time the rate of chemical reactions

decreases over time. At the start of a reaction
there are a lot of reactant particles per cm3, so
that the frequency of collisions causing
reactions is high. However, as the reactants get
used up, the frequency of unreacted particles
colliding decreases over time.

● Catalysts: Catalysts increase the rate of reaction without themselves being chemically changed. They bring
together the reactive parts of the reactant particles into close contact. They provide an alternative pathway for
the reaction with a lower activation energy which therefore mean a larger number of particles are able to react.
● (catalysts’ surface area can also affect the speed of reaction)

- Volume does not affect the rate of reaction, and so, altering it will not mean faster rates, rather simply more of the
product.
 Chemistry: IB

Rate expression and order of reaction

Rate of reaction will be found to be proportional to the concentration of A raised to some power, and B raised to
some power. Furthermore, catalysts can potentially be included if they alter the speed of the reaction.

Rate expression can be seen below. It can

rate(mol d m−3 s−1 )=k [ A (mol d m−3 )]❑x [ B]❑ y

A and B respectively refer to the concentration of the reactants
K is known as the rate constant
X is known as the order of the reaction with respect to A
Y is known as the order of the reaction with respect to B
These convey how sensitive the reaction is to a change in concentrations.
Overall order of the reaction= X+Y

(square brackets- concentration)

Order of reactions:
Order: the power the concentration of a substance is raised to. (can be fractional)
Unit of rate constant depends on overall order of reaction.
First order: Rate= K[A] K=(s)
Second order: Rate= k[ A ]2 or K[A][B] (increasing concentration from 1 to 2 result in a 4 times rate)K= (
dm❑3 mol ❑−1 S❑−1 ¿
Third order: Rate= K [A]❑2[B]= k =dm❑6 mol ❑−2 S❑−1 or vice versa

(Bottom graph’s gradients represents the

different rates. E.G: For zero order, at a
high concentration, the gradient is the
same as it is when it is at a low
concentration, thus meaning that rate is
not affected)

For second order: graph rate against

concentration squared and a linear
relationship can be found.

Rate expression can be derived from the

concentration of different substances over
time.
 Chemistry: IB
Rate determining step:
The sequence of reactant steps outlining the pathway from reactants to the formation of products is called the reaction
mechanism. Any individual step within the main reaction mechanism is known as the elementary reaction. This is
classified by it’s molecularity, which is the number of molecules or atoms involved as reactants. When all of the
elementary reaction’s reactants are added up, and when all of the elementa

For every reaction, the products of the steps are added up, they are equivalent to the total reactants/products of
the reaction as a whole. ( Intermediates between the reaction can be cancelled out, and repeated substances on both
sides can also be removed.)

Every mechanism has an activation energy, with the highest activation energy belonging to the rate determining
step.

Molecularity(how many chemicals are involved in a single step)

Unimolecular: Single molecule involved in an elementary step
Bimolecular: Two molecules or atoms involved in collision
Termolecular:Three molecules or atoms involved in collision (However it is unlikely for 3+ molecules to collide and
react with the sufficient energy and in the correct orientation. )

When a chemical reacts, it initially gives an activated complex, a substance where the chemicals cannot be individually
isolated, but consist of reacting particles and bonds in the process of being broken and/or formed. This is known as the
transition state, and are the top of the activation energy peaks.

- The overall rate of the reaction will depend on the slowest step within the reaction, and this is therefore known
as the Rate determining step.
- As such, because of this property, the rate expression would contain the reactants from the RDS, as this is
what determines the speed (two of the same reactants will mean a squared reactant value) . K[H^2] is not
the same as K[H]^2
- .Intermediates in the reaction are chemicals which are produced in one step and then used up in another,
and are not in the original reactants. They cannot be part of the reaction mechanism
- Catalysts involved in the reaction are also involved in the RDS.

NO ❑2 → NO +O
O+ NO❑2❑ → O❑2+ NO (rate determining step)

Therefore, the rate expression is k[O][ NO ❑2❑] . However, the rate expression cannot include intermediates. Tracing,
the oxygen back, we can see that it’s concentration is based off of [ NO ❑2❑] ‘s concentration, thus meaning that the
total rate reaction is k[ NO ❑2❑] [ NO ❑2❑] or k [ NO ❑2❑] ❑2. Bear in mind that a rate expression must include all the
steps leading up to and in the RDS..

However, for a reaction

2 NO❑2 → NO+O (RDS)

The rate expression would also be ¿, due to how there is two moles of the product.

Arrhenius equation
The rate constant for a reaction is constant if the temperature remains constant. As the temperature increases, the
reactants possess more energy, and the rate constant increases. It can be given by the Arrhenius equation.

K= A∗e❑(−Ea/ RT )
 Chemistry: IB
EA = Activation energy (always positive, change from neg)
K= Rate constant
R= Gas constant (8.31J/mol*K )
A= Frequency factor. (frequency of collisions with the correct orientation for the reaction to occur)
T= Temperature (in kelvin . If the bottom of the graph is not in kelvin, the equation still needs to be expressed that
way (multiply it by powers of ten) )

−EA
lnK = + lnA
RT
In this form, a straight line graph can be plotted between between LnK and 1/T. The gradient will be equal to the -Ea/R
, while extrapolating the data to find they intercept, one will be able to find Ln A.

The activation energy can also be found through two rate constants and two
temperature.

T= (temperature in kelvin)

Equilibrium
When there is a crystal in a supersaturated solution in equilibrium, although the solution and equilibrium will not
change, the shape of the crystal might change as it is formed and then re-formed.

Equilibrium can be reached through cooling water and heating ice, together with each other.
Pure solids and gases have a concentration

● Most chemical reactions do not go to completion. Once products are formed, the reverse reaction can take
place to reform the reactants.
● Eventually, the forward and reverse reaction occur at the same rate as each other, thus meaning that the
concentration of the reactants and products will eventually become constant.
● This is known as the dynamic equilibrium (dynamic- continue to react)
● Closed system: one in which neither matter nor energy can be lost or gained from the system. No
reactants/products can escape.
● Homogenous: products and reactants are in the same phase.

This can also take place when physical change takes place. Equilibrium will be reached in a closed flask with water
when the rate of vaporization of water will be equal to the rate of condensation of the water. (Physical equilibrium)

● (liquid) → (Gas) (Physical change above is endothermic, and vice versa)

● When pressure on a liquid increases so does boiling point. This is because gases have more moles and a greater
volume, and as such it will favor the water with less moles.
● Rate always remains constant in a closed system. At equilibrium, the final concentrations of the product may
be different, but the rate will always be the same.
● Temperature is the only thing that will affect the final vapor pressure, which is related to the rate of
evaporation.
 Chemistry: IB

Once equilibrium is reached (dotted line), the composition of the mixture remains constant and is independent of the
starting materials. This is when the gradient is equal to 0

Rate of reaction can be calculated through the gradient of one of these graphs. Average is just the total
concentration divided by the time.

Reaction quotient/Equilibrium constant

At any particular point in time the reaction quotient is (it is affected by the temperature)

As the reaction proceeds, the reaction quotient will change until the point of
equilibrium is reached. At that point the concentrations of A, B, C, D remain constant,
and the reaction quotient is known as the equilibrium constant K at this point.
C

- The distance of this quotient from the equilibrium constant can be used to
gauge in which direction the reaction has proceeded.

(Remember reverse reaction is there reciprocal)

Magnitude of the equilibrium constant
Magnitude of the constant can be used to determine the position of equilibrium. This is because the numerator
represents the concentration of the product, and the denominator is the concentration reactants. This can be used to
compare the amount of product and reactant produced:

● When the reaction goes nearly to completion (more products than reactants) , the constant will be very large.
● If the reaction hardly proceeds (more reactants than products), the constant will be very small.
● THe values for the constant lies between 10❑−2and 100, then both reactants and products will be present in
the system in noticeable amounts.

Position of equilibrium: Amount of reactants and products (remains the same when catalyst is used)

La Chatelier’s principle
When a change occurs, the value for the equilibrium constant will try to remain constant. If a system at equilibrium is
subjected to a small change, the equilibrium tends to shift as to minimize the effect of the change. Minimize the stress
placed onto a system.
A+ B → C+ D
Change in concentration (no change in KC) :
When concentrations of C is reduced, the final equilibrium will ‘ move’ to the right, in the sense that more product
 Chemistry: IB
will be produced, thus meaning that the constant remains the same. Vice versa, if A is reduced, the reaction will move
to the left, and less of C+D will be produced.

This is because the concentration of each product/reactant will affect the rate. For example, a greater concentration of
A will lead to a faster rate, meaning more of C and D.

Change in pressure (no change in KC) :

When there is an overall volume change in gaseous reactions, then increasing the pressure will move the equilibrium to
the side with less volume. This shift reduces the total number of molecules on the ‘ side’ with the more molecules, so
that the same equilibrium constant will be established. In a reaction, the reaction will favor the ‘ side’ which has less
gaseous moles if pressure is increased. Vice versa for decrease in pressure.

- Initially, when the pressure increases, the side with the most moles will look more prominent because of this
increase in density ( a darker color) . However, after the pressure increase, it will then quickly shift to the side
with the least moles. If both sides have the same amount of moles,no change occurs.

Change in temperature (change in KC) :

In exothermic reactions heat is a product. So taking heat away will move the equilibrium to the right, so more products
are formed. Opposite is true for endothermic.

Temperature will also affect the equilibrium constant. A change in temperature will affect the rate at which the
forward reaction proceeds compared to the reverse reaction, (due to their different activation energy) thus meaning
that different concentrations will be present for the equilibrium constant. Depending on the enthalpy, the KC will
change in order to ‘balance’ the equation out. This is because heat is a product, and so if more is added, the system
will try to move in a manner to minimize this heat.

- Endothermic reactions absorb heat, and it is why it is preferred if temp increases, as more energy can be
absorbed.

Adding a catalyst:
A catalyst will increase the rate at which the equilibrium constant takes place, speeding up both forward and reverse
reactions, not affecting the value for KC. (heterogeneous catalysts are catalysts which different in state to the
reactants of a chemical equation)

Equilibrium calculations
When doing an equilibrium calculation,

Initial amount is given,

H2 I❑2 2HI

Initial amount (mol) 1.6 1 0

Equilibrium amount : 1.6-x 1-x 2x (every one mol lost from

reactants, two mols gained.
)

Equilibrium concentration (1.6-x)/ V (1-x)/ V 2x/V

(divided by size of
container
 Chemistry: IB

(bear in mind that even in a situation where one side is missing one substance, the reaction will always move towards
fulfilling that one missing substance. For example:

A+B → C+D

If there are no moles of C at the start, but there is 1 mole of D, the end result will mean that A and B decrease by one
mole, and C and D increase by 1, meaning D will increase.

The position of equilibrium corresponds to a maximum value of entropy and a minimum in the value of the Gibbs
free energy.

● At equilibrium the Gibbs free energy is zero, and entropy is maximised.

● If Gibbs free energy is negative, the forward reaction is favored, and the equilibrium lies to the right.
● Gibbs free energy is positive, reverse reaction is favored, and equilibrium lies to the left.

Relationship between Gibbs free energy and constant can be found through :

Δ G=−RTlnK
K= Equilibrium constant
G= change in Gibbs free energy change (j/mol)

Haber process
- Higher pressure, low temperature.
- However, a compromise is made, as maintaining a high pressure is expensive.
- Temperature is also kept relatively high as if it is low it would slow down the rate, reasonable yield in
reasonable time.
- Higher temperature is used as so it can increase the rate at which equilibrium can be reached.
 Chemistry: IB

Acids and Bases

+¿
Bronsted-Lowry acid: Proton Donor H ❑ ¿
+¿
Bronsted-Lowry base: Proton acceptor H ❑ ¿
Bronsted lowry reactions involve hydrogens w
Conjugate acid-base pair: a pair of species that differs by a single proton. (the base receives a proton and becomes the
conjugate acid, while the acid loses a proton to become the conjugate base) conjugate is an adjective. What is
considered conjugate depends on what is considered the acid/base.

Reaction requires equal moles of protons/electrons produced.

+ ¿(conjugate acid)¿

CH ❑3 COOH (acid)+ H ❑2 O(base )⇒ CH ❑3 CO O−¿(conjugate base)+ H ❑ O ❑ 3 ¿

Amphoteric: Species that behaves as both an acid and a base (Aluminium hydroxide). Reacts with both acid and a base.

Amphiprotic: species that is able to donate and accept protons. (all of them are amphoteric)

- Must contain at least one hydrogen

- Must contain a lone pair to accept a proton.
- H ❑❑ CO ❑3 Hydrogen can be either added or removed.

Acids should be written so that the hydrogen that is lost is obvious CH ❑3 COOH rather than ¿

Acid base reactions

Reactions always produce a salt, where a metal ion replaces the hydrogen ion. The metal has to be higher than
hydrogen in the activity series.

Metal +Acid → Salt + Hydrogen

Acid + Base → Salt + water
Acid + Metal Hydroxide/Oxide (OH) -> Salt + Water
Acid + Metal hydrogen Carbonate (CO3) → Salt + Carbon Dioxide + Water
(alkali) Metal + Water→ Metal Hydroxide + Hydrogen

Alkali: soluble base which are obtained when metal hydroxides dissolve in water, or when bases react with
water.

Ammonia solution (alkali) reaction:

Ammonia+acid -> salt
 Chemistry: IB
NH ❑3 + HCl ⇒ NH ❑4 Cl (how it’s written)

1) NH ❑3 (aq)+ H ❑2 O⇒ NH ❑4 OH (aq)
2) NH ❑4 OH + HCl⇒ NH ❑4 Cl+ H ❑2 O

The two steps is the true mechanism of neutralisation.

pH scale
pH is defined as the negative log of base 10 of hydrogen concentration

pH=−log ❑10 ¿

1 0− pH =H +¿ ¿
pOH =−log ❑10 ¿

- Goes from 0 to 14. (1 ×1 0−14 )is equivalent ¿ pH 14

- A change in pH represents a tenfold change in hydrogen concentration.
- If there is 10 ml of a solution and 900 ml of water is added, the pH will change by one unit
- If the concentration of either an acid or a base is too low, the pH is neutral

Pure water is slightly dissociated.

−¿( aq)¿

H ❑2 O ⇔ H +¿(aq)+O H ¿

K ❑w =¿ (undissociated acid remains constant so there is no need to include this)

As the dissociation of water into ions is endothermic, increasing water temperature will move the equilibrium
towards RHS. Both hydrogen and hydroxide will always be equal in pure water

( pK ❑w ) 14=¿

This can thus be used to calculate the pH of a solution given the concentration of hydroxide ions.
Neutral: equal concentration of both hydroxide and hydrogen ions.

Strong and weak Acids/Bases

Strong: completely dissociated into ions
( HCl , H ❑2 SO❑4 , HNO❑3 /NaOH , KOH ( group 1∨two hydroxide))). Concentration of acid is the same
as the concentration of hydrogen ions.

- Strong acid is a good proton donor, and is a weak conjugate base. This is because the strong acid will
dissociate completely, and the conjugate base will have no tendency to re-form the acid.
- Strong base is a good proton acceptor, and has a weak conjugate acid. Base has a tendency to ionise
completely, meaning it does not have a tendency to donate a proton to reform the base.

Weak: partially dissociated into ions, and the equation is drawn with a reversible arrow
(CH ❑3 COOH , H ❑2 CO ❑3 / N H 3 , Amines)
Concentrated: a high number of moles of solute per litre
Corrosive: Chemically reactive
 Chemistry: IB
Monoprotic: acids which produce one mole of hydrogen ions per mole
Diprotic: acids which produce two moles of hydrogen ions per mole

Acid strength is proportional to the dissociation factor. The greater the dissociation of molecules into the
conjugate base and hydrogen, the stronger the acid. Low pH does not mean strong acid, and simply means a
high concentration of hydrogen.

Experimental techniques to determine acid base strengths

1. pH measurement: a stronger base will have a higher pH than a weak base, and a strong acid will have
a lower pH than a weak acid at the same concentration.
2. Conductivity: higher concentration of electrical ions mean stronger solutions have higher conductivity.
3. Concentration: rate of reaction of strong acids with different chemicals occurs at a faster rate.
Stronger acids will also react more vigorously.

Pollution
Acid deposition: Process by which acid forming pollutants are deposited on the Earth’s surface

Acid rain
Rainwater is naturally acidic because of the presence of dissolved carbon dioxide gas present in the
atmosphere, which forms the weak acid carbonic acid.

CO ❑2 + H ❑2 O ⇔ H ❑2 CO ❑❑3

Nitrogen oxides can be produced in combustion (coal, gas, oil fuelled power stations)

N ❑2+ O❑2 ⇒ 2 NO

,Sulfur oxides can be formed from various natural processes, including the burning of sulfur containing fuels.

S+O❑2 ⇒ SO❑2

Effect on the environment

- Displaces metal ions from soil, and prevents the growth/development of plants
- Elevated acid levels in lakes and rivers, affecting the pH sensitive ecosystem.
- Causes the poisoning of fish, eventually resulting in the uptake of poison and damage to human health
- Irritates mucous membrane causing respiratory illness (asthma) .

Reducing sulfur emissions

Precombustion methods

- Physical cleaning or mineral beneficiation (crushing coal)

- Heating crude oil fractions with hydrogen to convert sulfur to H ❑2 S (desulfurisation)

Post Combustion methods:

- Passing the exhaust gases from the furnace through a vessel where the SO2 can react with alkali (CaO)
- Using catalytic converters
 Chemistry: IB
Lewis acids and Bases
Bases are substances which can donate a pair of electrons, while acids accept a pair of electrons. A coordinate
covalent bond is formed when these two substances react. A lewis acid/base reaction must include the
exchange of a pair of electrons.

- Lewis acids: BF❑3 , AlCl ❑3 . Transition metals in water can act as acids, as they can form a dative
covalent bond with water.
- Space to accept a pair of electrons in it’s valence shell
- Lewis base: NH ❑3 any molecules that can form a coordinate bond (Ligand)
- Contains a lone pair of electrons

All transition metals ions react with ligands as lewis acid and lewis bases.
Electrophiles act as lewis bases. Nucleophile act as lewis acid.

Weak Acids and Bases and pKa

Weak acids/bases only partially dissociate in water.
−¿¿

HA ⇔ H +¿+ A ¿

K ❑a=¿

pKa=−log❑10 [ K ❑a ]

If pKA is small, then it is a strong acid, (large Ka, which means high level of dissociation).
If pKa is large, then it is a weak acid (small Ka, which means low level of dissociation)
−¿¿

B+ H ❑2 O ⇒B H +¿+O H ¿

K ❑b=¿ ¿

Acid and base calculations

Weak/strong acid

HA H +¿¿ A−¿¿

Initial A 0 0

Equilibrium concentration (A-X) X X

X2
K ❑a=
( A−X )

However, in situations where the acid is weak, it can be assumed that the equilibrium concentration of the
undissociated ions is the same as the initial concentration, as X is an extremely small value.
X2
K ❑a=
A

Weak/strong base
¿
H
B+ H ❑2 O ⇔ B H +¿+O
❑ ¿¿
 Chemistry: IB
B B H + ¿¿ OH −¿¿

Initial B 0 0

Equilibrium concentration (B-X) X X

X2
K ❑b=
( B−X )

However, in situations where the base is weak, it can be assumed that the equilibrium concentration of the
undissociated ions is the same as the initial concentration, as X is an extremely small value.
X2
K ❑b=
B

Calculations of aqueous solution

Pure water is slightly dissociated.
−¿( aq)¿

H ❑2 O ⇔ H +¿(aq)+O H ¿

K ❑w =¿

- No need to include water’s concentration in kw value due to how only a small amount remains
undissociated

As the dissociation of water into ions is endothermic, increasing water temperature will move the equilibrium
towards RHS. Both hydrogen and hydroxide will always be equal in pure water

( pK ❑w ) 14=¿

This can thus be used to calculate the pH of a solution given the concentration of hydroxide ions.
Neutral: equal concentration of both hydroxide and hydrogen ions.

Within an aqueous solution;

K ❑a × K ❑b=¿ ¿ ¿

K ❑w =K ❑a × K ❑b =1× 10−14

PK ❑a+ PK ❑b=14

The acid dissociation can be compared to the base dissociation constant of the conjugate base of the acid within the
solution. The total concentration of both acid and base will remain a constant.

Buffer solutions
Solutions which resist changes in pH when small amounts of acid or base are added. Equal amount of acid and
conjugate base is the most effective at maintaining pH .

Acidic buffers:
- Prepared by mixing weak acid and salt of that weak acid. (Ethanoic acid/ Sodium ethanoate)
 Chemistry: IB
- Weak acid barely dissociates, resulting in whole acid molecules
- Salt completely dissociates forming dissolved ions
- Made through excess weak acid and strong base.

The follow equilibrium should be set up within the buffer

+¿ ¿

CH ❑3 COOH ⇔ CH ❑3 COO❑−¿+ H ❑ ¿

Producing the completely soluble conjugate base (the salt) can be done through reacting a strong base with the weak
acid:

NaOH +¿CH ❑3 COOH ⇒ CH ❑3 COONa + H ❑2 O

As equal amounts of salt and acid are needed, the amount of sodium hydroxide should be half of the ethanoate acid.
That way, there will be equimolar values of both chemicals.

When reacting with an acid:

+ ¿⇒ CH❑3 COOH ¿

CH ❑3 COO❑−¿+H ¿

Shifts to the left so pH remains the same

Weaker acid is produced, so substance become sless acidic

When reacting with a base

−¿¿

CH ❑3 COOH + O H −¿ ⇒ H ❑ O +CH❑ COO 2 3 ¿

Shifts to the right so pH remains the same.

Weaker base is produced , so substance becomes less basic.

The addition of a substance tilts the reaction in one direction, minimising the effect.

Basic buffers
Basic buffers consists of a weak base, and the salt of that weak base.

- Can be made through combining strong acid with excess weak base in order to have a high concentration of
dissociated ions, and undissociated base.
- LIkewise, the amount of HCL should be half of the ammonia in order to maintain equal concentrations of salt
and acid.

The completely soluble salt is supplied through the following reaction:

NH ❑3 + HCl ⇒ NH ❑4 Cl

After this reaction, the following equilibrium is set up

−¿¿

NH ❑3 + H ❑2 O ⇔ NH ❑4 ❑+¿+O H ¿

Reaction of a basic buffer with an acid:

+ ¿¿

H +¿+NH ❑ ⇒ NH ❑ ¿
3 4
(most acid will be removed, but some hydrogen will be removed as ammonium is acidic)

Can also be removed via reaction with hydroxide.

 Chemistry: IB
Reaction of a basic buffer with an alkali:
+ ¿⇒ NH ❑3 + H ❑2 O ¿

O H −¿+NH ❑ 4 ¿

Salt hydrolysis
Salts made up of both weak acids and weak base in addition to strong acid and strong base will be completely neutral.

- For weak acids and strong base: the strong Conjugate base will combine with the hydrogen ions from water,
to form undissociated ethanoic acid, leaving excess hydroxide ions. This makes the solution basic.
+ ¿¿

C H 3 COONa→C H 3 CO O−¿+ N a ¿

As conjugate base of weak acid is strong, large quantities of dissociated ion will want to transfer back to it’s
undissociated form.
+ ¿⇔ C H3 COOH ¿

C H 3 CO O−¿+ H ¿

This conjugate base will absorb high quantities of the acid’s hydrogen ions, increasing pH.

- For Strong Acids and weak base: the strong conjugate acid will react with the hydroxide ions from water to
form, undissociated base and water , leaving excess hydrogen ions in the solution. This makes the solution
acidic.
−¿¿

N H 4 Cl ⇒ N H 4+¿+C l ¿

As conjugate acid of weak base is strong, large quantities of hydroxide ions, can be absorbed or react with this
chemical. This will leave behind hydrogen ions, thus making the overall pH decrease.
❑
−¿⇒ H 2 O+ N H3 ¿

N H 4+¿+O H ¿

Titration curve and indicators

Acid-Base titrations are used for determining the concentration of one solution by reacting it with another that we
know of.

Equivalence point: point at which equivalent moles of acid and

base have been added.
Buffer region: represents the region where small addition of acid
or base result in little or no change in pH.

Strong Acid and Strong Base

- Strong Acid gives initial pH reading of around 1
- Strong base gives initial pH reading of around 14

Gradual rise in pH as the titration approaches the equivalence

point, as greater quantities of the acid is neutralized.

Sharp rise in pH occurs at equivalence point, where base is added

to a neutral solution.

Gradual increase occurs due to the fact no more acid needs to be neutralized.
 Chemistry: IB
Increasing concentration (for the addition of base to acid) : lower initial pH, steeper inflexion, and higher final pH.
Equivalence pH will still be 7.

Weak acid and strong base

Initial pH: around 3 (can be calculated using the kA
value)
Initial rise: steep rise due to strong base being added to a
weak acid

CH ❑3 COOH + NaOH ⇒ NaCH ❑3 COO+ H ❑2 O

The continuous addition of base means the strong
conjugate base sodium ethanoate is formed.

This forms a buffer with the weak acid; where the base
reacts with the undissociated acid rather than removing
hydrogen ions. (see acid buffer) . This accounts for the flat
portion of the graph (buffer zone)

Equivalence point: at the equivalence point, the sodium ethanoate will react with some water molecules, as a base,
causing the pH at this point to be basic.
−¿¿

CH ❑3 CO O −¿+ H ❑ O ⇒CH ❑ COOH +O H

2 3 ¿

Half equivalence point: when the half of the moles of weak acid has been neutralized by sodium hydroxide. Half the
moles of CH ❑3 COOH has been converted to CH ❑3 COONa.

[CH ❑3 COOH ]=¿

PKa= pH
When a strong acid and a weak base is reacted, the buffer zone forms above the equivalence point instead as a basic
buffer is formed.

Weak base- strong acid

Initial pH: around 11
Initial fall: as the weak base begins to get neutralized, the
ammonium ion is created, forming a buffer with the strong
acid. Buffer zone created as acid ammonia ions remove
hydrogen ions.
+ ¿¿

NH ❑3 + H +¿ ⇒ NH ❑ 4 ¿

Equivalence point: Ammonium ion is formed, which forms a

strong conjugate acid, dissociating into ammonia and
hydrogen ions. This creates an acidic equivalence point.
+¿¿

NH ❑4+¿⇔ NH ❑ + H
3 ¿

Weak acid- Weak base

Initial pH: same as given above, with small change in pH.
 Chemistry: IB
● Equivalence point: if acid or bases are roughly the same strength, will result in pH 7
● No remaining acid or base means that the curve flattens out, and ends at a relatively neutral pH.
● Conductivity is higher at the point of inflexion.

Indicator
A weak acid that is a different colours to the undissociated form.
+¿¿

HIn(aq)⇔ H +¿+ I n ¿

K ❑¿ =¿
When half the acid is dissociated, and the concentrations of ¿then a new colour will come up. This endpoint will
therefore mean:

- K ❑¿ =¿.
- pK ❑¿=end pH

Mechanism (Methyl orange)

+¿(orange )¿

HIn(aq)(¿) ⇔ H +¿+ I n ¿

Adding acid: when acid added, this shifts the equilibrium to the left (according to le chatelier’s theory)
Adding base: when hydroxide is added, the OH- reacts with the hydrogen ions, shifting the reaction to the right.
 Chemistry: IB

Redox
Oxidation: Addition of oxygen to a substance, or the loss of electrons and where oxidation state decreases.

● Oxidising agents: The substance in the reactant that readily accept electrons (gets reduced) , usually non-
metal
● However, the ‘ loss of electrons’ may imply that the chemical is an ionic product, which is not necessarily the
case.

Reduction: Loss of oxygen or gain of electron and where oxidation state increases:

● Reducing agent: The substance in the reactant that readily donates electrons (gets oxidized), Hydrogen loss,
usually metal.

Agent: Substances within the reactants.

Redox reaction: Reactions which involve both reduction and oxidation.

Oxidation states
‘ The apparent charge’ of the atom in a free molecule, element or an ion.

1. Elements have oxidation number of 0

2. Ionic compounds have a sum oxidation state equal to the charge.
3. For covalent compounds; it can be assumed that the most electronegative element forms the anion.
(Determined based on the group the atom belongs to).
4. Compounds will have a oxidative sum of 0.
5. Oxygen always has a charge of -2, except for H 2 O❑2, where it’s charge is -1.
6. Hydrogen always forms a charge of +1, except for metal hydrides , where it’s charge is -1

Varying oxidation state

When elements show more than one oxidation state, the oxidation number is represented using roman numerals.
Multiple oxidation states exists for transition metals and many main groups non-metals.
 Chemistry: IB
When there is a shift in an equilibrium reaction, and the side with the oxidized/reduced product increases, that
makes the agents more effective. E.G, if a shift causes more oxidized products to be formed, that makes the reducing
agent stronger.

Half equations
The addition of two half equations should make the full equations, including all coefficients.
−¿Half equation( oxidation) ¿

2 Mg(s) →2 Mg❑2+ ¿+ 4 e❑ ¿

2−¿ Half equation(reduction) ¿

O❑2+ 4 e ❑−¿→ 2 O❑ ¿

2 Mg+O2 →2 MgO

Balancing half equations

1. Balance all atoms (except H and O )
2. Add H ❑2 O to side which is deficient in oxygen
+¿¿
3. Add H to side deficient in hydrogen
4. Add electrons in order to conserve charge . (check charge for entire molecules, as well as oxidation state. So a
+¿¿
molecule with 4 H would mean a charge of 4+)
5. Ensure conservation of atoms, and remove redundant particles

Combining half equations: Electrons gained are equal to the electrons lost. Multiply both oxidation and reduction
sides so they have an equal amount of electrons.

- Change in oxidation state will be equal to the number of electrons involved in the half equation.

Activity series:
The metal species which will most readily lose electrons is considered the most reactive.

- More reactive metals will be able to reduce less reactive metals. The more reactive the metal, the stronger
the oxidizing agent.
- Metals higher than hydrogen will react with acid

The non-metal species which most readily gains electrons is considered the most reactive.

- More reactive non metals will be able to oxidize less reactive non-metal. The more reactive the non-metal, the
stronger the reducing agent

Winkler method:
Biological oxygen demand: Measure of the dissolved oxygen required by microorganisms to decompose the organic
matter in water biologically over a set time period.

Polluted water with a high BOD will not be able to sustain life.

1. A sample of water is saturated with a known volume of oxygen.

2. A volume of that sample is incubated at a fixed temperature for five days while microorganisms in the water
oxidize the organic material.
3. Excess manganese II salt is then added to the sample. Under alkaline conditions the Manganese II ions are
oxidized to manganese (IV) oxide by the remaining oxygen.
 Chemistry: IB
−¿+O❑2 →2 MnO❑2 +2 H ❑2 O ¿

2 Mn❑2+¿+4 OH ❑ ¿

4. Under acidic conditions, potassium iodine is added, which is quickly oxidized by the manganese IV oxide to form
iodide .
2+¿ +I ❑ +2 H ❑ O¿
2❑ 2
+ ¿⇒ Mn❑

MnO❑2 +2 I ❑−¿+4 H ❑
¿
¿

5. Iodine is then released, and is titrated against sodium thiosulfate solution:

−¿
2−¿+2 I ❑❑ ¿

I ❑2❑+2 S ❑2 O❑3 ❑2−¿ →S ❑ O ❑ ❑ 4 6 ¿¿

Therefore, we `can see that the amount of thiosulfate is related to the amount of oxygen by a 4:1 ratio. It is
measured in the units PPM, which is mg/d m 3

● BOD <5 is considered relatively unpolluted

Voltaic cells
Voltaic cell: The linking of two half cells to allow spontaneous chemical reactions to take place, which will create a
potential difference.
Half cell: a metal in contact with an aqueous solution of its own ions.
Standard cell potential: the EMF produced when two half cells are connected under standard conditions

- It produces a movement of electrons from the anode to the cathode.

Standard hydrogen electrode: The standard with which cell electrode potentials are compared to:

- (An inert platinum electrode in contact with 1 molar solutions. Aqueous hydrogen ions within solution , 100
KPa, 298 K hydrogen gas)

Standard electrode potential E❑o: The potential voltage of the other voltaic half cell with 1 molar of aqueous
solution, 298 K and at 100 KPA pressure relative to SHE.

-The more positive, , the greater the chance of the metal will be reduced. The more positive the
more spontaneous.
- Negative electron potential: oxidation of the metal is favored and is higher than hydrogen in the
reactivity series.
- The more negative the greater the chance of the metal being oxidized

Proccess
When a redox reaction is feasible, there will be a transfer of electrons (spontaneous) . A chemical with a greater
electrode potential is more electrophilic, while chemicals with a lower electrode potential are electro-phobic.
Electrophilic element will therefore be comparatively more positive, while electrophobic element will be
comparatively more negative (hence the charges)

- Cathode: electrode which undergoes

reduction
- Anode: electrode which undergoes oxidation
 Chemistry: IB

Naturally, the electrons will flow from the electrophobic half cell to the electrophilic half cell, meaning that the
electrons flow from negative to positive.

In this case, zinc is higher in the reactivity series, meaning it is more electrophobic, and thus, acting as the anode as it
undergoes oxidation. Whilst copper will receive the electrons as it is more electrophilic, acting as the cathode as it
undergoes reduction.

1. This causes the zinc to decompose into the aqueous salt. Electrons are released in the process, meaning that
the electrode of the electrode becomes negative.
Zn(s )→ Zn❑2+¿ −¿¿
❑ + 2 e❑ ¿
2. The electrons produced from the zinc then combines with copper ion within the solution to produce neutral
copper. This “pull” of electrons causes a positive charge to be created due to how this side is more
electrophilic. (ions move towards electrode)
−¿→ Cu¿

Cu❑2+¿(s)+2 e❑ ¿

Salt bridge: made out of unreactive Sodium nitrate

1. Completes the circuit: allows the flow of negative ions, which exist in excess at the positive half cell (due to the
singular uptake of positive ions) , into the negative half cell, where to allow the continuous dissociation into
positive ions, the pre-existing cations need to be neutralized.
2. There cannot be an overall positive or negative charge in the aqueous solutions of the anode and cathode
respectively; as this will prevent the reaction from being spontaneous.

Calculating the electrode potential voltage

1. The standard electrode potentials are found, and the sign of the more negative standard electrode potential is
changed and added to the other electrode potential.
2. The more positive the electrode potential voltage; the increased likelihood that the reaction will occur.

This is because the standard electrode potential shows the voltage that will occur upon the reduction of the metal.
(No need to multiply values, as the values are constants)

Gibbs free energy

ΔGO =−n( moles of electrons transferred ) F (faraday constant )E 0 (electropotential difference¿¿ ❑) ¿
It can thus be derived that a positive electrode potential difference allows for a spontaneous reaction.

Electrolysis
Non-spontaneous redox reactions where the reaction occurs due to the provision of energy from an external source.
Electrolyte: substance which does not conduct electricity when solid, but does conduct electricity when molten or in
aqueous solution.
 Chemistry: IB
An ionic substance is dissolved into water, breaking down into it’s respective aqueous ions.

- Positive ions ( Cation) move towards the cathode (negative) , and is

therefore, by definition, reduced as it forms an atom.
−¿⇒ Na¿

N a+¿+e ¿

- Negative ions (anion) move towards the anode (positive) , and is

therefore, oxidized, as it forms an atom.
❑ −¿¿

C l −¿ ⇒C l +e ¿

Electron flow from anode to cathode.

Factors affecting discharge of ions

1. Electrochemical series: The lower in the electrochemical series, the more readily the metal ions will gain
electrons (in aqueous sodium hydroxide, hydrogen will be evolved rather than sodium, due to how it is lower in
the series).
a. Inversely, the higher in the electrochemical series, the more readily the non-metal ion will lose
electrons.
2. Concentration: If one of the ions is more concentrated than another ion, then it may be preferentially
discharged. (Oxygen will be usually chosen over halogens due to electrochemical series, but if the solution is
concentrated, halogen is emitted instead)
3. Nature of the electrodes

Factors affecting quantity of product

1. Number of electrons flowing through the system.
- If the current is doubled , there will be twice the amount of electrons passing through the system,
therefore forming twice the amount of product.
- Likewise if the time is doubled.

Charge=Current ×Time
2. The charge of the ion
- To form one mole of lead during the electrolysis of molten Lead (II) bromide, two electrons are required to
reduce every lead ion as compared to only one electron being obtained from the oxidation of bromine.
- The ratio in moles between lead and bromine will be 1:2.
- If two cells are connected in series, knowing that the amount of electrons produced=electrons lost, the ration
between the quantity of both products produced can be calculated.

1 mol of electrons produce 96,500 Coulombs (the faraday constant) (96500 Coulombs /1 mol) .

Electroplating
Occurs where the anode is made up of the plating metal, the cathode is a third substance and the
electrolyte is a solution of the plating metal.

If copper electrodes are used to electrolyse copper sulphate solutions, positive copper ions from
the solution will be attracted to the negative cathode, coating it. At the anode, the copper
 Chemistry: IB
electrode is oxidized (electrons removed) , dissolving into the electrolyte in order to maintain the same concentration.
−¿¿

Cu❑❑( s)⇒ Cu❑2+¿(aq)+2 e ¿

(anode)
−¿⇒ Cu¿
2+¿(aq)+2 e ¿
Cu❑ (cathode)
 Chemistry: IB

Organic Chemistry
Homologous series: a group of molecules with the same general formulae, similar chemical properties and gradual
increase in physical properties (molecules differing by CH2) .

General organic rules

Structural formulae: formula written out the way in which atoms are bonded to each other (with bonds between
carbon drawn (the general way in which atoms are drawn)

- Condensed structural formulae: The position of the atoms but omits the bonds
- Structural formula: the position of the atoms including the bonds are shown

Functional group: the reactive part of an organic molecule that dictates its chemical properties.

Chain: The main chain is defined as the longest line of carbon that are consecutively connected to each other in one
long line.

Saturated compounds: compounds which contain only single bonds

Trends
Solubility
If there is a long carbon chain, solubility decreases, as this is non-polar . However, functional groups are polar, and as
such, can dissolve within water. The larger the portion of a molecule is made up of its functional group, the more
soluble it is.

- This means that ketones, alcohols, aldehydes and carboxylic acids with little carbons are polar. The more
carbon is added, the less polar these molecules become.
- Alkanes and alkenes are soluble in non-water solvents, due to the presence of non-polar chemicals.
- Substances must contain oxygen for it to be dissolved in water.

Boiling point
The greater the chain length, the higher the boiling point. This is due to the larger surface area of the molecules,
leading to larger Van Der Waals forces.

Straight chain molecules also exhibit higher boiling points. This is because straight chain molecules can stack closer to
each other, allowing a stronger bond, while within branched molecules, this cannot happen. Greater the molecular
mass, the higher the boiling point due to an increase in london dispersion forces. (stated in bonding)

Polar molecules also exhibit higher boiling points, with the highest boiling points experienced when there are hydrogen
bonds present.

Alkanes:Saturated (all carbon atoms are singly bonded with hydrogen) (-ane)
- Low reactivity and undergoes free radical substitution

Formulae C n H ❑2 n+2

Alkenes: Unsaturated (Carbon molecules have a double/triple bond) (-ene)

- Formulae C n H ❑2 n
- When describing, a number needs to be put in the molecule name to demonstrate the amount of carbon atoms
the double bond is from the edge of the molecules
 Chemistry: IB
- More reactive than alkanes and undergo substitution.

Alkynes: Unsaturated (contains a triple Carbon bond) (-yne)

- Formulae C n H ❑n+1
- When describing, a number needs to be put in the molecule name to demonstrate the amount of carbon atoms
the double or triple bond is from the edge of the molecule. E.G (pent-2-yne)

When carbons are attached to oxygen, there will be a dipole moment.

Names
1) Name the longest chain: (longest path of carbons that can be drawn)

Meth, Eth, Prop, but, pent, Hexa-, Sept- , Hept, Non, Dec

- Furthermore, in the case of alkenes and alkynes, if there are more than one double or triple bond, this needs to
be denoted (E.G, two double bonds is for a five carbon alkene would be pent-diene), with the corresponding
numbers used to denote the position of the double/triple bonds.

2) Look at the substituent groups (groups shorter than main group), and name these groups before mentioning the
main group.

- Number groups using the lowest combination of individual numbers (count from one side which minimizes the
numbers) (e.g 2-methyl butane)
- If there are more than one side chains, re-arrange it based on alphabetical order
- Add prefix if there are more than one of the same substituent group (Di, tri, Tetra: describes the number of
side chains connected to the main chain)

3) Name functional group, and it’s distance from the edge of the molecule. Put a number after the initial longest chain
prefix, to denote this location. E.G, a OH group on the third carbon of a five carbon molecule would be called pent-3-ol
(put hyphens before or after a number)

- Priority should be put onto minimising the number of the functional group when compared to the substituent
group.
- If there are more than one functional groups, add the respective prefix (di, tri, tetra- etc.)

Type of molecules
These chemicals can be described differently depending on the amount of bonded hydrogens attached to the Carbon
( or nitrogen atom in the case of amines) atom bonded to the functional group :

1) Primary: Functional group is attached to a carbon which is itself bonded to only one carbon
2) Secondary: Functional group is attached to a carbon which is itself bonded to only two carbons
3) Tertiary: Functional group is attached to a carbon which is itself bonded to three carbons.

Class of hydrocarbons (number the atom the group is attached to is numbered

first, followed by any side chains. )
If a question asks for a ‘functional group’ the respective atoms can be circled, and then the ‘class’ of
hydrocarbons can be named.
DASH Is put after number
 Chemistry: IB
Alkyl: An alkane which lacks one hydrogen (-yl suffix) (some organic chemicals are connected without any special
functional group. ( R Group)

Alkenyl: An alkene which lacks one hydrogen (-yl suffix)

Halogenoalkane: When a halogen is attached to a carbon atom within an alkane instead of a hydrogen (Bromo- , Chlro-,
Iodo- prefix)

- Number placed in front of the suffix to denote the location the specific carbon the halogen has bonded to.
- If there are more than one halogen, it should be named depending on alphabetical order.

Alcohol: functional group: hydroxyl, (OH) (ol suffix)

- Number used to describe position of functional group.

Ether: two alkyls attached to each other via an oxygen atom. Alkyl represented with an
R (R-O-R) (-oxy-)

- In a molecule which consists of Ethane-O-Methane, the name will be meth-

oxy-ethane (smaller carbon chain comes first)

Aldehyde: Has to have the structure below: (CHO) (-Al suffix) (carbonyl center)

- Prefix based on the total amount of carbons in the total organic molecule.
- No need for number as it is always located at the end of the molecule
- E.G: Methane as R , has two carbons, which mean this is an ethanal

Ketone: Oxygen and two hydrocarbons attached to one carbon (-an-(number) one suffix) (carbonyl
group)

- Based on total amount of carbons within the molecule

- Number added based on the shortest number of carbons the Oxygens is bonded from.

Carboxylic acid: R-COOH. (-oic acid suffix) (carboxyl group)

- total carbons in molecule used for selecting prefix

- Fixed position at the end of the molecule

Ester: RCOO (-oate) (ester group)

-- Shorter molecule comes first, with longer r group coming second (all carbons including extra
carbon attached to oxygen is considered)
- FIrst name is used for the group that comes from the alcohol, while second part of nae is used
for group from acid. E.G: Ethanol + methanoic acid = Ethyl methanoate
 Chemistry: IB
Amine: ( H 2 N ¿ Amino functional group- Prefix

- If it is expressed as a substituent chain, it has the prefix ‘ amino’ . THe NItrogen atom is used in a similar way to
the carbon

Amide: (carboxamide functional group)

- Prefix named after total carbons within molecule. E.G, 3 carbon molecules would be
propanamide.

Phenyl group: (phenyl functional group)

- Benzene suffix
- Named after specific molecule bonded to benzene ring.
- The presence of OH is known as ‘ phenol’

Nitrile:

-Nitrile suffix, total carbons within the molecule

Benzene
- Benzene was believed to consist of three double bonds, which was known as the kekule structure.

- Hexagonal, 1.5 Bond order, 120 degrees SP2 structure.

However, this was refuted through experimentation, and it was established that benzene contained a resonance hybrid
structure with a delocalized pi electron.

1. Inter Carbon bonding length is the same

2. With the double bond model, there is a much lower enthalpy change than expected. This difference can be
attributed to the fact that benzene actually is a resonance structure rather than containing three separate
double bonds.
 Chemistry: IB
3. The existence of one isomer instead of two for ‘1,2’ disubstituted benzene compounds’ , suggests that the
double bond model is false.
4. If benzene had three normal double bonds it would be expected to readily undergo addition reaction. However
this is false, and it will instead readily undergo substitution. This is because if a benzene undergoes addition, it
will remove the stabilizing electron, making the final product not stable.

Each ‘corner’ of the benzene is given a number,

and this number is assigned based on the ‘corner’ a specific functional group is bonded to. Consequently, if another
molecule is bonded two corners away from the original side, the numbers 1,3 (maximum it can go up to is 1,4 as 1,5
would be the same as 1,3)

Structural Isomers
- Two organic molecules can have the same molecular formula
but have different arrangements of atoms, known as ‘
isomers’
- Two types are branched and straight chain.
- Branched= involves side chains
- Straight= no side chains.

Addition reaction

Alkenes are typically very reactive, and as such, this means that extra molecules are able to bond to these specific
carbons.

- The products are considered saturated, while the reactants are unsaturated.

Bromination: Pure bromine is a red liquid, but when it reacts with an alkene, it becomes a colorless solution. As such,
this is a typical test used to test for alkenes. (heat)
Hydration: Steam can undergo an addition reaction with ethene, which provides a ‘OH’ group to the molecule, making
it an alcohol. (Sulfuric acid catalyst)
Hydrogenation: addition of hydrogen molecule to saturate a molecule. Used in the production of margarine from
vegetable oil, allowing it to become a solid in room temperature. (nickel catalyst)
 Chemistry: IB

Addition polymerisation (formed when there are double bonds present)

Under certain conditions, two types of the same ‘ monomer’ (a repeating unit) can combine and form a huge polymer
chain containing a large number of carbon atoms ( a polymer) . Heat and pressure is applied to cause this
polymerisation.

- The precursors to ‘Monomer’ units typically consist of a double bond. After heat and pressure is applied, this
double bond is broken, with the middle of the carbon consisting of a row of carbons bonded via single bonds.

(non stick-material)

Combustion
Complete combustion of a hydrocarbon will produce water and Carbon dioxide. (Strong interatomic bonds result in a
very exothermic reaction. )

Incomplete combustion of a hydrocarbon will produce water and Carbon monoxide or carbon

Oxidation of alcohols
Alcohols can be oxidized by warming it with an acidified solution of potassium dichromate (VI) K ❑2 Cr 2 O 7 . Orange
dichromate turns from orange to green upon heating. Used in breathalyzer.

Primary alcohols (alcohols in which the OH functional group is attached to a carbon with two hydrogens)

-
 Chemistry: IB
The aldehyde has a lower boiling point due to the lack of hydrogen bonding. This means that the aldehyde can be
collected via distillation. By heating up a solution, the substance that most readily evaporates will be the first one
which condenses in a cooling tube. (Hot and acidic conditions)
In order to collect the carboxylic acid, the solution needs to be kept as a reflux, in which the gaseous chemical is not
permitted to escape. This will result in the gas moving up the tube, and then repeatedly passed through a container,
allowing for the extended heating of a substance, forming the final acidic form given enough time.
Secondary alcohols (alcohols in which the OH functional group is attached to a carbon with one hydrogen

Tertiary alcohol: Dichromate ion cannot remove hydrogen, as there are no hydrogen atoms attached directly to the
Carbon atom.

UV-Substitution reaction
Alkanes can react with any halogen in the presence of UV
light in order to form hydrogen-halogen and a substituted
alkane. This is known as a substitution reaction. This
chlorine molecule can replace all the hydrogens within the
methane molecule.
- These chlorinated methanes have a high amount of electrons, accounting for a higher melting point and van
der Waals force

Heterolytic: A type of fission in which both atoms will possess opposing charges due to uneven electron distribution
(one cation, and one anion)
Homolytic : Type of fission allowing atoms to possess the same charge due to even electron distribution. .

1. Initiation: Initially the chlorine bond will be broken by UV light in a process known as homolytic fission, in
which one electron from the covalent bond will go towards each chlorine , causing it to be a free radical
(reactive chemical with unpaired electron that does not have a full shell)
2. Propagation: Start with a radical, and end with a radical that is never hydrogen. (many of them possible). The
halogen will substitute a hydrogen atom.
- Chlorine radical reacts with methane to form methyl radical and HCL
C H 4 .+Cl ∙−¿ C H 3 ∙+ HCl
- Methyl radical reacts with chlorine atom to form chloro-methyl and chlorine radical etc
C H 3 ∙+Cl2 →C H 3 Cl+Cl ∙.

3. Termination:occurs when two radicals react together to create a non-radical molecule. Doesn’t have to be final step.

Cl ∙+Cl ∙→Cl 2 , C H 3 ∙+Cl ∙→C H 3 Cl , C H 3 ∙+C H 3 ∙-> C 2 H ❑6

Substitution reactions of halogenoalkane

The bond between the halogen and carbon is polar due to the variation in the electronegativity of the two atoms.
Reagents that have a nonbonding pair of electrons and are attracted to the electron deficient carbon are called
nucleophile (substances which is attracted to the nucleus). The chemical bonds to the carbon atom and break the
chlorine carbon bond.
 Chemistry: IB

Altering the nucleophile will result in different

chemicals.
Sodium hydroxide: Forms alcohols
Cyanide: Forms nitrile as Carbon acts as the
nucleophile.
Ammonia: forms amine

Substitution reactions of benzene

Benzene undergoes substitution. Benzene has a high electron-density so it reacts with electrophiles (electron-
deficient ionic species that react with electron rich /dense molecules)

- Halogen carrier (aluminium chloride) makes the chlorine molecule produce a positive chlorine ion, which
substitutes the hydrogen atom surrounding the benzene ring.

Condensation reaction between alcohol and a carboxylic acid

Alcohols can undergo a nucleophilic substitution with carboxylic acid in a process called esterification, with a sulfuric
acid catalyst. This is an example of a condensation reaction where a small molecule is eliminated in order to form an
ester. This reaction occurs in the presence of a small amount of sulfuric acid. (this is an equilibrium reaction, if the
chemical is heated too much the reactants are favored)

FIrst name is used for the group that comes from the alcohol, while second part of nae is used for group from acid.
O group comes from alcohol, while carbonyl group comes from the carboxylic acid.

Esters have a fruity smell and are used as natural/artificial flavoring within food. Many drugs also contain an ester
group.

Nucleophilic substitution
Curly arrows means a pair of electrons, while a one sided arrow represents a singular electron.

Primary halogenoalkane substitution (Sn2)

Rate=K [ Halogenoalkane ][nucleophile ]
Known as bimolecular nucleophilic substitution.

- Two molecules
involved in one
singular step.
 Chemistry: IB

-
- The halogen pulls an electron pair from the carbon, resulting in a dipole moment, while the hydroxide attacks
the nucleus from behind
- Transition state (bracket used for transition state) : Hydroxide ion and bromine both temporarily bond onto
the same molecule.
- Inversion: The hydroxide ion causes an inversion of the atom as a result of the charge, that is, the molecule
that is closest to the substituted nucleophilic is now the furthest. (stereospecific)

Tertiary halogenoalkanes (involves two steps) (SN1)

Rate: K[Halogenoalkane] (unimolecular nucleophilic substitution)

- Two step mechanism which involves one molecule.

- Heterolytic fission (one electron from the bond goes to each atom) of the C-Halogen bond is the rate
determining step. (molecularity of 1). Bromine separates itself from the halogenoalkane.
a. This is because the carbon atoms surrounding the cation carbon is supplied with electrons from the
surrounding alkyl groups, making it stable, allowing molecules with alkyl groups to undergo the SN1
reaction rather than the Sn2.
b. The space which the alkyl atoms take up also restrict movement, and make it difficult for a transition
state to be formed.
- The halogen-less carbon cation bonds with the nucleophile, forming the new substance.

Secondary halogenoalkanes: It can either proceed by either SN1 or SN2 pathways or a combination of both.
Solvents
Protic solvents, polar solvents preferred for an SN1 mechanism. Protic solvents (water or ethanol): are chemicals
which have a hydrogen atom joined to nitrogen or oxygen and participates in hydrogen bonding.

- Favour the SN1 equation as they support the breakdown of halogenoalkanes into carbocations and halide
ions. Protic solvents give protons to the leaving group, stabilizing the charged molecules
- Strong nucleophile not necessarily needed, as it already bonds to a positive carbocation.

Non Protic, nonpolar substances favored for an SN2 mechanism. (Acetone)

- Typically a SN2 reaction requires a strong nucleophile as it is bonding to something which is not positive (unlike
in the case of SN1). Having a protic solvent will result in a nucleophile being surrounded by positive hydrogen
ions, reducing its ability to carry out the reaction.
 Chemistry: IB
Factors affecting the rate of nucleophilic substitution
- Concentration of substituents
- Nature of the nucleophile: Anions are typically more reactive, making them more effective nucleophiles than
neutral atoms due to a higher electron density, however this only affects the rate of SN2.
- The nature of the halogen: weaker bonds between halogen and carbon allows for a faster reaction as they can
break easily. (E.G; iodoalkanes react faster than bromoalkanes)
- The nature of the halogenoalkane: tertiary halogenoalkanes react faster than secondary halogenoalkanes,
which react faster than primary halogenoalkane. SN1 route is faster than the SN2 due to the transition state,
which has a high activation energy. (SN1>Sn2)

Electrophilic addition
Hydrogen-Halogen molecules are known as electrophiles as they are attracted to electrons.

1. Double bonds within alkenes have a region of high electron density. Hydrogen- halogens are a polar molecule
due to the difference in electronegativity (hydrogen as a positive polar moment)
2. The polar positive hydrogen is attracted to the double bond, causing the halogen hydrogen bond to break.
3. Thus, a lone halogen ion is formed, the hydrogen bonds to the carbon, and the other carbon is left as a
carbocation , which eventually attracts the other halogen-anion.

Addition also takes place when bromine adds to ethene in a non-polar solvent.

Bromine itself is non-polar, but as it approaches the double bond, an induced dipole is formed by the electron cloud,
causing the double bond to break, and resulting in a similar mechanism to the one described above.

When bromine water is reacted, after the first bromine is attached to the carbon, the remaining positive carbon is
then bonded to a hydroxide molecule from the water (as this is more electronegativity) . As such, 2-bromoethanol is
formed rather than 1,2, dibromoethane

Two halogens as a nucleophile

When reacting with ICL, as iodine is the weaker nucleophile, electrons will be transferred towards chlorine. Iodine will
thus bond with carbon first, and leaving behind a negatively charged chlorine.

Markovnikov’s rule
 Chemistry: IB
When hydrogen halides add to asymmetric alkenes, two products are possible. The rule states that the hydrogen ion
will bond to the carbon atom that already contains the most hydrogen

- When hydrogen ions react with propene, two different carbocations ( a hydrocarbon with a positively charged
carbon) are formed as the intermediate.
- After the double bond is broken, In order to stabilize the positively charged carbon, the alkyl groups (Carbon
atoms) push electrons towards this central carbon atom in order to stabilize this positive charge. This is the
positive inductive effect.
- As such, this effect is the greatest with tertiary carbocations (which have three alkyl groups), and this means
that this will be the one that is produced most often.

This means that a secondary carbocation will be the major intermediary product (as it is more stable with two bonded
carbons be connected to the positive carbon) , while a primary carbocation will be the minor intermediary product
(with only one carbon supplying it electrons) .

Nitration of Benzene
Benzene reacts with a mixture of concentrated nitric acid and concentrated sulfuric acid to give nitrobenzene and
water. This reaction takes place at 50 degrees, as any temperature above this will cause further nitration
(dinitrobenzene)

The sulfuric acid acts as a catalyst. It protonated the nitric acid, (which acts as a base) which then is able to break down
into water and nitric acid.
−¿¿

HN O 3 + H ❑2 SO❑4 ⇔ H ❑2 NO ❑3 ❑+¿+HSO ❑ ❑ 4 ¿

+ ¿¿

H ❑2 NO ❑3+¿ ⇒ H ❑ O+ NO❑ ❑
2 2 ¿

The nitryl cation is attracted to the delocalized pi bond and attaches to one of the carbon atoms. This partially breaks
the delocalized pi bond, causing the positive charge to be distributed over the remains of the pi bond.

The intermediate then loses a proton as the hydrogen donates an electron. This reforms the inner ring, and results in
the hydrogen recombining with the hydrogen sulfate ion to produce the sulfuric acid.
 Chemistry: IB
Reducing carbonyl compounds
- LiAlH ❑4 is a good reducing agent, providing a source of hydrogen anions, acting as a reducing agent, and
involving itself in nucleophilic addition reaction, bonding with the electron deficient carbon within a carbonyl
group. Needs to be put in aprotic solvents (ether) , as it reacts with water/protons, whilst also being acidified.
- Sodium borohydride NaBH ❑4 (weaker reducing agent) can be used in protic solvents (such as water or
ethanol), but is ineffectual at reducing carboxylic acid. It needs acid to work

Hydrogen itself can also be used, however, it needs be in the presence of nickel or platinum catalyst.

Reduction of nitrobenzene
1. Tin and concentrated hydrochloric acid is added to nitrobenzene under reflux. A phenylammonium ion is
formed and zinc is oxidized to zinc (II) (water is produced)

Stereoisomerism
Structural Isomers are compounds that are composed of the same elements and in the same structure, but differ in
the arrangement of the atoms (changing it’s properties).

Stereoisomerism refers to isomers which share the same structural formula but differ in spatial arrangement. There
are two types of stereoisomerism:

- conformational isomers, which interconvert by rotation around a sigma bond,

- configurational isomers, which interconvert by breaking and reforming a bond. This can be further split into
configurational (cis- trans/EZ) and optical isomerism.
 Chemistry: IB
CIS-Trans isomerism:
- Applies when there are two identical groups attached to the double bond.
These bonds happen when rotation about a bond is restricted/prevented . A cis molecule is one in which the
substituents are on the same side while a trans molecule is one in which the substituents are on the opposite.

Because a double bond needs to have two p orbitals on the same plane as one another, this means rotating the bond
would cause the bond to break, thus meaning that no rotation is possible.

Cis and trans can also take place within cyclic molecules, with cis consisting of two atoms being on the same side of a
molecule while trans refers to two atoms being on opposing sides.

- Here there must be at least two carbon atoms with two different grounds attached.

E/Z isomerism
Cis/trans for molecules that don’t contain the same functional group. Molecules are given a ‘priority’ , a feature based
upon the ‘Cahn-ingold-Prelog (CIP) rules’ . The higher the atomic number of the attached atom, the higher the priority.

1. Compare the groups/atoms on the RHS/LHS of a molecule. Choose the atom bonded to the carbon double
bond which has the highest atomic number and label it as having higher ‘priority’.
a. If the attached atom is the same, keep on going through the chemicals attached to the carbon atoms
until a difference is spotted. Once a difference is found, the ‘difference’ which has a higher atomic
number is considered the one with priority.
b. Double bonded atoms count as two groups attached to an atom, so when considering the above rule, a
double bonded structure (O,O) will be given priority over a substance which only is attached to a single
bond to oxygen.
2. After this, if the two atoms/groups lie on the same side of the double bond, (perpendicular plane) it is a Z
isomer, and if the two atoms/groups lie on the opposite side, it is a E isomer.
 Chemistry: IB
- Due to interactions between the functional groups, some cis molecules undergo intramolecular hydrogen
bonding .

Optical isomerism
A feature shown by compounds with a chiral carbon atom (a carbon atom with four different groups bonded to it).

- Molecules with a chiral center will exhibit optical isomerism in which two forms of the same compound are
mirror images of each other.
- The two mirror image isomers are known as enantiomers. This includes butan-2-ol,lactic acid, and all amino
acids except glycine.

Enantiomers rotate the plane of oscillation of plane-polarized light. This is light which has already passed through a
polarizer and is only oscillating in one plane. One enantiomer will rotate the plane of light in one direction, and it’s
counterpart will do so in the other direction.

- Identical physical and chemical

- If two enantiomers are present in equal amounts the two rotations cancel each other out and the plane of
polarisation is not changed. Such a substance is called ‘ Racemic’

Optical isomerism and cycloalkanes

Occurs in cyclic ring compounds:

- There is a chiral center in this cyclic compound. By moving clockwise and

anticlockwise from the carbon, we find a different sequence of atoms in the
ring. This thus means that it is a chiral centre.
- This will not display optical isomerism if there is a plane of symmetry through
the molecule.
 Chemistry: IB

Diastereomers: when two isomers are not mirror images of one another. Occurs with different configurations around
the chiral carbon. These have different physical and chemical properties.

Measurements, data processing and analysis

IHD (index of hydrogen deficiency)

A method which allows chemists to determine the degree of unsaturation: the number of carbon-carbon double bonds,
and/or rings a molecule contains.

1. Determine the number of hydrogens within an alkane with the same number of carbons as the compound
being considered
2. Count the amount of hydrogens in the compound being considered.
3. Find the difference and multiply it by half.
- IHD=0.5 b (original amount of hydrogens−( H ∈molecule−x ∈molecule+ N ∈molecule))
- X is a halogen

Divide the difference in the amount of hydrogens by 2 to give the IHD

Double bond +1

Triple bond +1

Ring +1

Aromatic ring +4

Infrared spectroscopy
Infrared light can increase the vibrational energy between the bonds of a molecule due to absorption. The frequency of
this vibration depends on:

- the strength of the bond (more multiple bonds will vibrate at higher frequency)
- The mass of the atom. (lighter atoms will vibrate at higher frequencies)
- Type of vibration: stretching vibrates more than bending

This can be used to directly identify the compound, as each type of bond absorbs at a specific wavelength.

When absorbing energy:

- The bonds vibrate and bond angles change

- Bond length changes
- Polarity of the bond changes as bond angle change.
- Change in dipole moment is needed in order to record absorption (note)

This can be useful in identifying the functional group, and the molecule itself.

- Dips in the graph represent absorption, indicating a presence of a particular bond.

- The x axis of the graph represents ‘wave number’ or the amount of wavelengths per centimeter (cm^-1)
- Higher wavenumber correlates with higher frequency.
 Chemistry: IB
- Transmittance is the opposite of absorption.

Bond absorption bands below 1500 cm are less reliable indicators of specific bonds, and instead reflect vibrations of
the entire molecule. This is therefore known as the ‘fingerprint region’ acting as a unique identifier for a molecule.

Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR)

A proton either spins in a clockwise or an anticlockwise direction, generating a magnetic field.

- When a magnetic field is applied, the nuclei of hydrogen atoms either lines up parallel to the magnetic field or
against it (anti-parallel)
- The hydrogen atoms aligned with the field has a lower energy orientation, while the hydrogen atom aligned
against the field has a higher energy orientation.

By providing an amount of energy equivalent to the gap between these two states, the hydrogen atom is said to have
undergone ‘ spin resonance’ , moving into the higher energy state. In this case, energy is provided via low energy radio
waves. Analysing the energy needed for spin resonance can thus be used to determine the neighboring chemicals.

The amount of different peaks corresponds to the amount of ‘chemical

environments’ within a molecule. (Hydrogens are considered part of the same
environment if they are bonded to the same carbon)

- Chemical environment affects the response to the magnetic field as the other
electrons in a compound can shield the hydrogen. The greater the shielding
the lower the frequency required for resonance to occur. If there are two
different chemical environments there will be two peaks.
- H atoms are chemically equivalent if they are joined to the same
carbon atom.
Two identical
- X axis is the ‘ chemical shift’ in ppm, which takes into account the
chemical environment the protons are in.
environments
mean only one
peak is - TMS (tetramethylsilane) provides a measure of
created zero, because it it has a single peak in the HNMR
spectrum. (non-toxic, absorbs upfield away from most
other protons, and volatile so it can be easily removed) The
extent to which other hydrogen atoms differ from the TMS
signal position is called the chemical shift
- The area under a point in the graph corresponds to the
number of hydrogen atoms in a particular environment,
this can be seen through the integral trace. If the Height
of one peak is three times greater than the other one,
there are three times as many protons in that
environment

Spin-Spin coupling (occurs only in High resolution HNMR)

Never with the hydrogens on the same atom. If there is one proton adjacent to a methyl group then the proton will
either line up with or against the magnetic field. The proton itself will emit a charge, and thus, the methyl proton will
either experience a stronger shielding effect if lined up against the field, and a weaker shielding effect if lined up with
the field. This will mean that the possibilities will result in the peak splitting.
 Chemistry: IB
- In the case that there are two adjacent protons;
- Both protons are aligned, both protons are against the field, and one is aligned and one is against (two
combinations of these)
- This is known as the splitting pattern (amount of peaks) h
- This means that there will be three possibilities of configuration for the atom. Resulting in a split of 3,
with one higher peak.
- Total peaks can be found by (N+1), where N represents the amount of adjacent protons to the
particular chemical environment.

Mass spectroscopy
Used for measuring the mass of atoms:

- The molecular ion is formed by ionisation of a gaseous atom.

−¿ ¿

M ⇒ M +¿+e ¿
-
- (bear in mind isotopes have to be taken into account, and the m/z value may not be the same as the RAM)
- Write down these ions with a positive sign
- The highest molecular mass should be the ‘ parent peak’

Acceleration, deflection and detection are then used to carry out to determine the m/z for the ion.

Occasionally however, larger molecules fragment, and certain groups are also deflected by external magnetic field,
when then show up as peaks on the deflector. By looking at the location of the peak, it is possible to determine which
functional groups a molecule has. These can be identified by finding the difference of these points from the ‘parent
peak’ which is the molecular mass of the original molecule.

- The more abundant a certain molecule, the higher the peak.

- There can be molecules where there are two methyl groups lost, and thus this should be taken into
consideration (mr-15*2) rather than (Mr-15)

X-Ray Crystallography
When x ray is shone onto a crystal, different layers will diffract the x-rays. If the x ray is first defracted on the layer
above, and then defracted by the layer of atoms below; (and both refracted rays are in phase) that means that the
distance between these two layers is equal to a whole number of wavelengths. Then the x rays will remain in phase
when it escapes the crystal. How much these two waves are in phase can be determined by the following equation:

n λ=2 dsinθ
Where theta is equivalent to the angle between the ray and the surface of the crystal, and d is the distance between
the layers of the lattice. N is the number of wavelengths (representing the layer to which the light is refracted, so if the
light is refracted on the first layer this is 1) , and λ is the wavelength of the particular light.
 Chemistry: IB

Biochemistry
Chemical reactions that occur in living organisms are known as metabolism.

Catabolism: Breakdown of organic matter to produce energy

- Oxidation of glucose to carbon dioxide, and the reduction of oxygen to form water.

Respiration ( above) : Complex molecules are broken down to provide energy. (Exothermic)

Anabolism: synthesis of larger molecules using energy

- Water is oxidized to form oxygen, and carbon dioxide is reduced to form glucose.

Photosynthesis: Converting carbon dioxide into biomass (endothermic)

Chemical reactions involved in metabolism are organized into metabolic pathways. Each step is catalysed by an
enzyme, and occurs in a controlled aqueous environment.

Condensation/Hydrolysis

● Condensation: reaction between two smaller molecules to form one larger molecule, with the production of an
extra small molecule like water. Each molecule must possess at least two reactive functional groups to
condense and form a polymer.
● Hydrolysis: Breakdown of a biological polymer into its constituent smaller molecules . Requires the presence of
enzyme, water and acidic/basic conditions. Requires heat
● At the end of each new polymer, there are two reactive groups, meaning further condensation reactions can
take place.

Proteins:
 Chemistry: IB
● Amino acids contain both an amine functional group and a carboxylic acid functional group. If they are both
attached to the same carbon atom, they are known as 2-amino acids/alpha-amino acids.
● All amino acids are chiral
● L amino acid commonly found in nature.
● Glycin: Amino acid that is not optically active, and contains two hydrogens, so it cannot exist as a enantiomer

Red group is known as a peptide bond.

- 20 different types of amino acid.
- In a reaction between cysteine and alanine, it can produce either Cys-Ala or Ala-Cys

Functions:
- Hormones: Insulin (helping body absorb glucose)
- Structure: collagen (strengthening tendons)
- Enzyme: amylase (breaking down glucose)

Polypeptides
● Proteins are made up of chains of 2-amino acids. These amino acids bond together forming polypeptides, in
which the amino acids are bonded to each other by a peptide bond (a bond holding two different amino acids
together, containing a nitrogen and a carbon) . Water is also produced
● The order to which the amino acids are connected in remains constant and is known as the primary structure.
● The manner in which the chain of amino acids fold on top of itself is known as the secondary structure. This is
determined by backbone interactions, namely, hydrogen bonds.
○ Alpha helix: Coiled amino acid, with hydrogen bonds holding different layers
together
○ Beta sheet: Zig-zags chains which are held
together by hydrogen bonding between the
different lines.

The tertiary structure describes the overall folding of the chains

by interaction between distant amino acids to give the protein it’s
three-dimensional shape. This is affected by: hydrogen bonds,
London dispersion forces, ionic attractions (polar groups) and peptide bonds.

● Also affected by disulfide bridges. (Between two cystine) A type of amino acids with a ‘ thiol’ group, acting as
as part of it’s side chain. When sulfur ion is oxidized, hydrogen is removed, the two sulfurs reacts and a covalent
bond is formed between them.
● Interior of cell has anti-oxidants, generating a reducing environment , meaning disulfide bridges are exterior.

Quaternary structure: Structure involving multiple-poly peptides (long peptide chains) Each individual peptide is called
a ‘unit’. Two polypeptides are called dimers, three are called trimer etc.

● Haemoglobin involves the interaction of 2 alpha helix and 2 beta pleated sheets.
 Chemistry: IB
● Collagen, haemoglobin, hormones.
● Fibrous proteins (collagen) have little or no tertiary structure, and form long parallel poly-peptide chains.
Fibrous proteins cross-link, forming long fibres/sheets such a as keratin and hair.

Paper chromatography:
Concentrated acid is added to amino acids. Different amino acids have different solubilities, depending on the content
of the R group. (length of the carbon chain and function of the functional group), whether the NH2/COOH group is
ionized.

- Amino acid sample is placed near the bottom of a piece of chromatographic paper. The paper is soaked with a
fluid called eluent, which then rises.
- Due to the different solubility of the amino acids, they will all rise at different rates. The paper is then sprayed
with an organic dye, which will show the acids at varying heights. (ninhydrine)

Distance travelled by sample

=Retention factor
Distancetravelled by solvent
- This chromatography can then be turned sidewise if the point at which the amino acids reach are equal. , and
a new solvent is applied to the amino acid to see the point to which these substances reach.

Electrophoresis
Amino acids contain a basic group , which will accept protons, as well as an acidic group which gives out protons , and
therefore can exist as both acids and base. For every amino acid, there is a unique point at which it exists as a
zwitterion (a molecule which has both positive and negative charges). Isoelectric point: pH in which a zwitterion is
neutral.

- When PH is below isoelectric point, there are excess hydrogen ions. This will mean that the positive H+ will
react with the CO2, making the molecule a positive or basic molecule.
- When PH is above isoelectric point, there are a lot of excess hydroxide anions. This will mean that this
substance will be de-protonated, and water will be formed, making the overall molecule negative or acidic.
There is therefore a unique point for every acid where the substance will exist as a zwitterion.
- This allows the amino acid to exhibit buffering properties, as when acid is added, it can absorb it and form an
anion, and if a base is added, it can form a cation.

PAGE
The electrophoresis is carried out on a medium called ‘ polyacrylamide gel’. Therefore, the process is called PAGE
(polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis). (compared with known an unknown amino acids)

- The sample is placed in the centre of the gel, and a potential difference is applied across it with two different
electrodes. Depending on the PH of the buffer the chemical is placed in , the different amino acids will move
 Chemistry: IB
at different rates towards the positive and negative electrode. The point at which it stops moving is the
isoelectric point due to how the charges are balanced. (ninhydrin is sprayed in order to preserve the distances)

Enzymes
Enzymes: Biological catalysts for specific reactions

- Enzymes are particular to a specific reaction, and are able to increase the rate of reaction by 1 08
- Enzymes provide an alternative pathway for the reaction, so that more of the substrate (reactant particles) will
possess the necessary minimum activation energy.
- The part of an enzyme that reacts with the substrate is known as the active site. (A groove where the
substrate will bind)
- Enzymes are specific to certain reactions, work within narrow pH/temperature range

Induced fit: alter it’s shape to fit the substrate.

- Substrate attaches to the active site due to intermolecular attraction after the tertiary structure is altered.
- Product is then released, and bonds are broken.

Enzyme kinetics
A low substrate concentrations, the rate of enzyme catalysed reaction is proportional to the concentration of the
substrate. However, there is a limit to this rate. This is because there are no longer enough active sites present for the
substrate to bind to.

The amount of substrate for half V max, is known as the mikaele-menten constant.

Effect of environmental factors on enzymes

- Increasing temperature will initially increase rate of enzyme catalysed reactions. However, above a
temperature of around 40 celsius, enzymes become denatured, as the weak bonds holding the tertiary
structure breaks down.
- At different pH values, the charges on the amino acid affect bonds, breaking down the tertiary structure and
making the enzymes ineffective.
 Chemistry: IB
- Heavy metals can poison enzymes by reacting with SH groups, replacing the hydrogen atom with a heavy metal
atom, so that the tertiary structure is altered

Inhibition
Substances that slow down the rate of enzyme catalysed reactions.

- Competitive inhibitors resemble the substrate in shape, but

cannot react. They slow down the reaction because they can
occupy an active site.
- As the substrate concentration increase, the effect of
competitive inhibitors lessen, as the chance of
substrate bonding to the enzyme increases. (v max
remains the same, but Km changes.)
- Non competitive inhibitors bind to the enzyme but away
from the active site. They bind at the allosteric site, causing
the enzyme to change it’s shape so that the substrate cannot
bind. (V max changes, while Km stays the same)
- With non-competitive inhibitors, increasing the substrate concentration has no effect, and the enzyme
shape still remains altered. As such, there is a capped-maximum rate lower than the original
substance.

Lipids
Role of lipids
- Energy storage: as they contain proportionally less oxygen, they release more energy when oxidized. They are
more reduced than carbohydrates.
- Insulation and protection of organs: fats are stored in adipose tissue, which provides insulation and protection
- Steroid hormones: progesterone, estrogen.
- Transport of lipid soluble vitamins.
- Cell membranes: structural component of cell membranes

Fats and oils (triglycerides)

Triglycerides: Formed from the condensation of propane-1,2,3-triol (gyclerol) Propan-1,2,3-triol, with long chains of
carboxylic acid (fatty acids). They contain more energy than glucose as they are less oxidized. This is a tri-esterification
reaction which produces 3 water molecule.
 Chemistry: IB
- Fats are solid triglyceride, (butter, lard and tallow), while oils are liquid at room temperature. The difference is
that fats contain saturated carboxylic acid. Oils contain at least one C=C double bond, and are said to be
unsaturated.
- Monounsaturated: One double bond
- Polyunsaturated: more than one double bond
- Saturated: no double bonds.

Phospholipids
An integral part of cell membrane. Contains a Glycerol, linked by esterification to two fatty acids, and a phosphate
group, which is itself condensed to a nitrogen containing alcohol. This leaves a non-polar fatty acid group, and a polar
alcohol. This is an emulsifier, and allows non-polar and polar substances to disperse and mix. (phosphatidylcholine).
Alcohol and phosphate. (hydrophilic and hydrpohobic)

Cholesterol
Four ring ‘steroid’ structure (testosterone) . Is transported all around the
body by lipoproteins. Any chemical with steroid structure can thus mimic
testosterone, and increase body mass. Chemical drugs can :

- Help patients with reduced body mass

- Decrease fertility (for men)
- Deeper voice (for women)
- Used for performance enhancing purposes

Hormone: Chemical messengers that regulate growth.

- Low density lipoproteins: ( 18-25 nanometers).Transports cholesterol to the arteries, where it lines the walls of
the arteries leading to cardiovascular disease. Originates from saturated fats.
- High density lipoproteins: ( 8-11 nanometer). Transports cholesterol from the arteries and back to the liver.
Originates from unsaturated fats. Contains more protein> fats.

Fatty acid: A long carboxylic acid with a long Carbon chain.

Steric and linoleic acid both contain the same number of carbon atoms and have a similar molar mass. However,
because linoleic acid has two double bonds, it has a lower melting point.

- The regular tetrahedral arrangement of saturated fatty acids mean that the surface area between molecules is
greater, and thus, the London dispersion forces is stronger and the boiling point is higher
 Chemistry: IB
- However, a double bond produces a ‘kink’ in the chain, and because they are packed so closely, the london
dispersion forces between the molecules become weaker, resulting in lower melting points.

Hydrogenation
Oils naturally contain only cis-unsaturated fatty acids. They are generally healthy than saturated fats as they increase
HDL.

- Unsaturated fats can be hydrogenated to saturated fats with a higher melting point by adding hydrogen. (nickel
catalyst and heat). This makes the food last longer by preventing rancidity. However, it also increases the
chance of acquiring deadly diseases.

- Partial hydrogenation can occur, and the trans isomer may be formed. Trans unsaturated fatty acids are
present in fast foods such as french fries, and increase the formation of HDL

Hydrolysis and Rancidity

Fats and oils are hydrolysed in the body by enzymes (in acidic conditions) known as lipases, to glycerol and fatty
acids. These are then broken down by a series of redox reactions to produce carbon dioxide, water and energy. This
process is known as hydrolytic rancidity.

- Because they are essentially long chain hydrocarbons , fatty acids are in a less oxidized form than
carbohydrates, thus producing more energy.
- Takes place at a faster rate in the presence of water, heat or lipase.

Oxidative rancidity is typically due to the addition of oxygen (oxidation) across the C=C bond. The process proceeds
by a free radical mechanism catalysed by light in the presence of enzymes. Light and oxygen therefore increases the
rate of reactions.

Iodine number
Iodine will react with unsaturated fat in an addition reaction, turning the colored iodine (purple) into a colorless
solution. To determine the number of moles of double bonds, this method can be used as a mole of iodine will be
needed to add to a mole of double bonds.
 Chemistry: IB
Iodine number: mass of iodine ( I ❑2 ¿ added to 100 grams of fat

Carbohydrates:
Role of carbohydrates

- Provides energy: Glucose

- Stores energy: Glycogen
- Component of nucleic acid: ribose/deoxyribose

Monosaccharides have the empirical formula C ❑x (H ❑2 O)❑Y .

- They also contain a carbonyl group, and at least two -OH groups.
- If the carbonyl group is an aldehyde, they are known as an aldose, while if the carbonyl group is a ketone, they
are known as a ketose.
- Monosaccharides can exist as either a “straight chain” or a “Ring structure”
- Can bond together to form either disaccharides or polysaccharides.
- D and L isomers refer to configurations of the chiral carbon atom furthest from the aldehyde/ketone group. D
form occurs in nature.

Several carbon atoms are chiral,

(2,3,4,5). This gives rise to optical
isomerism.

- Alpha and beta glucose act as enantiomers, with alpha

having a hydroxyl group existing below the plane, while
Beta has one existing above.

Disaccharides
Monosaccharides can undergo
condensation reactions to form
disaccharide.This disaccharide has a
C-O-C, which is known as a glycosidic
link, and is an ether bond.
 Chemistry: IB

In sucrose, the link is between the C-1 atom of alpha glucose and the C-2 atom of fructose.
In maltose, the link is formed from two alpha glucose molecules condensing to form a 1,4 glycosidic bond)
In lactose, the link is between the C-1 atom of galactose to c-4 atom of alpha glucose. (1,4 gyclosidic bond)

Starch
Starch can exists in either water soluble amylose, or insoluble amylopectin. The former is a straight chain polymer of
glucose units with a 1,4 glycosidic bond, while the latter is a branched structure with both 1,4 and 1,6 glycosidic bond.
(alpha glucose)

Cellulose is a polymer of d-glucose which contains 1,4 linkages (straight chain) .it provides the structure to the cell
walls of green plants. As humans do not have the enzymes cellulase, they are unable to digest cellulose or other
polysaccharides.

- Formed from beta glucose.

- Long straight, unbranched chains.

Vitamins
Vitamins are micronutrients, which are substances required in very small accounts. They mainly function as a co-factor
of enzyme.

Vitamins can be classified as fat soluble, or water soluble. Fat soluble vitamins have long, nonpolar hydrocarbon
chains/rings. (Include vitamins A,D,E,F and K), which accumulates in fatty tissues, however an excess of these vitamins
can be dangerous.
 Chemistry: IB
Water soluble vitamins contain hydrogen attached directly to electronegative oxygen or nitrogen atoms that can
hydrogen bond with water molecules. They do not accumulate so a regular uptake is required. (Vitamin C)

- Vitamin containing C=C and -OH double bonds are readily oxidized, and keeping food refrigerated slows down
this process.

Vitamin A: Retinol
Vitamin A is fat soluble, but not water soluble due to the long nonpolar hydrocarbon chain. Not broken down easily
when cooking, and aids night vision. (carrots and spinaches)

Vitamin D (calciferol)
A large hydrocarbon with one -OH group, and is fat soluble. It is required for calcium-phosphate uptake. It prevents
bone softening and malformation, known as ricket. (Found in sunlight and oily fish)

Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid)

Due to the large number of polar OH bonds, vitamin C is soluble, so is not maintained for long. Deficiency of this vitamin
leads to scurvy, which leads to swollen legs, rotten gums and bloody lesions.

Solutions to malnutrition:
- Eating food high in deficient nutrients.
- Eating genetically modified food which contain deficient nutrients
- Supplement nutrients

Nucleic acid
DNA: deoxyribonucleic acid
RNA: ribonucleic acid
RNA: single strand

- Nucleic acids are made up of phosphate group and

sugar, which is Deoxyribose in DNA and Ribose in RNA.
Contains one of the four nitrogen-containing bases,
Adenine, guanine, cytosine, or thymine. In RNA, one of the bases is uracil (rather than thymine)

DNA
- Polynucleotide units are wrapped into a helical shape with
about nucleotide units per turn. Formed from condensation
reactions.
- Sugar phosphate backbone.
- The helix is held together by hydrogen bonds between the
nitrogen bases. This stability is due to the base stacking
interaction between the hydrophobic and hydrophilic
components of the nitrogenous base and the phosphate
group respectively.
- Hydrophilic group ensure DNA can dissolve within body.
(similarly non-polar substances mean chemicals can dissolve
within fats)
- Two points of hydrogen bonding for (T and A)
- While three points of hydrogen bonding for (G and C)
 Chemistry: IB
- Covalently bonded phosphate connected to sugar, via phospho-diester bond.

The genetic code

- When cells divide, the genetic information has to be
replicated intact. Genetic information is stored in
chromosomes, found within the nucleus of the cell.
- DNA is compacted by forming DNA-Protein
complexes with histones, which are positively
charged proteins that bond tightly to the
negatively charged phosphate group.

Replication

- DNA will start to partly unzip as hydrogen bonds

between the bases break. Sugar base units will be picked up from the aqueous solution to form a
complementary new strand. Thus, the new strand will be identical to the original.

Transcription

- Information is passed from the DNA to the MRNA by an unzipping process, and a complementary copy of the
DNA’s bases, which is the MRNA , is produced by a protein.
- This MRNA is then used to direct protein synthesis. Each three sequences of bases are known as a ‘ codon’,
and represents one amino acids. A protein bonds to each codon, forming a polypeptide chain. The triplet
code allows 64 permutations, put some of the combinations are redundant.

Genetically modified foods

Process of selecting a single gene for a single characteristics and transferring that sequence of DNA from one organism
to the other. GM food can be substantially different from conventional food. Includes the ‘Flavrsavr tomato’, the gene
has inhibited to produce a tomato with a fuller taste and a longer shell life.

Benefits of GM food:
- Plants can be made more resistant to disease, herbicides and insect attacks.
- GM foods can increase resistance to disease, productivity and feed efficiency to give higher yields of milk and
eggs.
- Anti-cancer substances and increases amounts of vitamins leading to a reduction in exposure to less healthy
fats.

Problems with GM food:

- May cause disease such as antibiotic resistant-genes that could be passed onto microorganism.
- Alter the balance of ecosystem.
- May escape to contaminate certain crops with unknown effects.

Biological pigments
Colored compounds produced by metabolism.
 Chemistry: IB
Organic compounds contain unsaturated compounds (such as C=C) can absorb light in the ultraviolet or the visible
spectrum. These are known as chromophores, and the energy of absorption is affected by the other groups attached to
the chromophores.

- Chromophores usually absorb in the UV spectrum, however if there are extensive conjugation (alternate single
and double bonds) involving electron delocalisation, then less energy is required to excite the electron, and
absorption can occur in the visible spectrum.
- Electrons in the bond are excited to an empty orbital at a higher energy, absorbing light.
- Biological pigments are colored compounds produced by metabolism.

Anthocyanins

Aromatic (Benzene) , water soluble pigments found in plants, and contain the flavonoid
C ❑ C ❑ C❑ . The more extensive the conjugation, the lower the energy of the light
6 3 6

absorbed. Includes: Blueberries, vegetables and flowers.

In acidic solutions, it forms a positive ion resulting in less conjugation than compared to
a substance in an alkaline condition.

- This means that in acidic condition, the energy absorbed will be at a higher
wavelength, and red/lower wavelengths will be given off.
- In alkali conditions, the energy absorbed will be at a lower wavelength, and so
blue/higher wavelengths will be given off.
- Color depends on metal ions present and pH
- OH groups means that these pigments are sensitive to pH change, and polar.
- Used in acid base titration.

Cartenoids
Lipid soluble pigments, which are involved in harvesting light in photosynthesis. Conjugation is mainly due to long
alternating hydrocarbon chain. Found in Tomatoes.

- Derived from a polyene chain consisting of forty carbon chain.

- Includes: Alpha/beta carotene, Vitamin A. Can react with oxidizing free radicals.
- Chemical is susceptible to oxidation. Can be catalysed by light, metals and hydroperoxides. Results in the
change of colour, loss of activity, and is the cause of bad smells.

Chlorophyll and Haem

Porphyrin compounds: chelates of metals with large nitrogen-containing ligands.

- All carbons are sp2 hybridized. A structure can thus be seen with an extensive
pi conjugation.
- non -bonding electrons on the nitrogen allow it to form coordinate bonds
with metal ions.

Chlorophyll
 Chemistry: IB
- Contains a magnesium ion bonded to the porphyrin.
- Function is to absorb light energy and undergo redox reaction to donate an electron through a series of
intermediates in an electron transport chain.
- Absorbs violet and red light, and so green is the colour that is reflected.

Haemoglobin
Contains porphyrin group bound to an Iron II core (this also occurs in
myoglobin) . This porphyrin is surrounded by a long protein chain within the
red blood cells. A haemoglobin consists of four of these units. Iron is used
because it has multiple oxidation states and can form a complex.

-
When oxygen forms a coordinate covalent bond, it causes the COOH
side chain of a histidine residue to be pulled towards the ring.
- This brings about a conformational change in the other haem sites, so
that it is easier for a second oxygen molecule to bind. Becomes
progressively easier until the last oxygen molecule.
- Each time oxygen bonds, the haem groups ability to attract oxygen increases, up to maximum of four oxygen
molecules (8 oxygen atoms) bonding to a haemoglobin.

Cytochromes
Heme groups in which an iron ion interconverts between Iron II and III, facilitating electron transport during
respiration. Transition metal provides electrons to reduce oxygen, and catalyses reactions.

Factors which affect oxygen bonding:

- Carbon dioxide pressure: As carbon dioxide pressure increases, more

oxgyen is released. Inverse effect takes place when pressure is low. This
is due to diffusion, and because carbon dioxide acts as a competitive
inhibitor, resulting in higher concentrations of oxygen necessary in order
to allow for a same level of saturation.
- pH: as pH decreases, oxygen is released. As pH rises, more oxygen is
taken up.
- Temperature: as temperature increases, more oxygen is released from
the haemoglobin. As muscles heat up, increased oxygen will be
produced.
- Partial pressure: Higher pressure will be needed to fill haemoglobin.
saturation of haemoglobin with oxygen against partial pressure is
sigmoidal in shape. Due to conformational changes in the individual polypeptides.

Fetal haemoglobin: greater affinity for oxygen, so more oxygen is bound to the haemoglobin at lower partial pressure.
This allows fetal blood to take up oxygen from the mother’s blood.

- Carbon monoxide has a stronger affinity than oxygen, meaning it displaces this and can cause suffocation.
 Chemistry: IB
Paper and thin layer chromatography
- Thin layer chromatography uses a thin layer of solid, such as alumina or silica on an inert support such as glass.
- A mobile phase underneath the glass absorbs the dye/chemical, and moves up depending on it’s solubility in
that respective solvent.
- The silica can then be scraped off the glass, and the silica can be dissolved out , obtaining the pure
component.

Environmental biochemistry
Xenobiotics: Chemicals found in organisms which are not normally present or produced by the organism in abnormally
high amounts.

- The use of antibiotics in animal feed means that they pass through into the human food chain and increase the
resistance of certain strains of bacteria. Most are pollutants.
- Two common examples are dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls. (PCBS)
- Dioxins formed when polymers are combusted. Do not decompose in the environment, and when
ingested, are highly carcinogenic as it disrupts the hormones within the body and causes
cellular/genetic damage.

Biodegradability:
- Biodegradable plastics: Plastics that can be broken down by natural organisms to form carbon dioxide and
water.
- They are based on natural renewable polymers consisting of ester or glycosidic links that can be
hydrolysed/broken apart by water. (includes starch)
- Oil can be broken down through the use of certain natural enzymes.
- Enzymes in biological detergents allow for clothes to be washed at a lower temperature. Thus saving on
energy

Biomagnification: increase in the concentration of a substance in a food chain. DDT was originally used against
mosquitoes, but due to the build up of the chemical within larger birds it was banned.

Green chemistry: Approach to chemical research and engineering which seeks to minimise the production and release
of hazardous substances.

Host guest chemistry

 Chemistry: IB
Host guest complexes are made out of two or more molecules bonded together through non-covalent bonding.
Creation of synthetic chemicals which bind to guest species. These forces allow large molecules to bind specifically to
one another to form supramolecules.

- They bind to certain ‘guest’ species, allowing to become more effective at performing it’s function.
- Used to deliver drugs in humans and also to remove toxic materials from the environment.

Buffer solution
Solutions which resists changes in pH, upon the addition of a small amount of acid or base. Consists of a weak acid and
it’s salt (conjugate base)
+¿ ¿

CH ❑3 COOH ⇔ CH ❑3 COO❑−¿+ H ❑ ¿

Producing the completely soluble conjugate base (the salt) can be done through reacting a strong base with the weak
acid:

NaOH +¿CH ❑3 COOH ⇒ CH ❑3 COONa + H ❑2 O

When reacting with an acid:

+ ¿⇒ CH❑3 COOH ¿

CH ❑3 COO❑−¿+H ¿

When reacting with a base

−¿¿

CH ❑3 COOH + O H −¿ ⇒ H ❑ O +CH❑ COO 2 3 ¿

Basic buffers
Basic buffers consists of a weak base salt of the base with a strong acid.
−¿¿

NH ❑3 + H ❑2 O ⇔ NH ❑4 ❑+¿(small amount )+O H ¿

The completely soluble salt is supplied through the following reaction:

NH ❑3 + HCl ⇒ NH ❑4 Cl

Reaction of a basic buffer with an acid:

+ ¿⇒ H ❑2 O ¿

O H −¿+H ¿

Reaction of a basic buffer with an alkali:

+ ¿⇒ NH ❑3 + H ❑2 O ¿

O H −¿+NH ❑ 4 ¿

Henderson-Hasselbach equation
Shows the pH of a buffer solution at given concentrations of salt and acid

pH= pKa(of acid used )+log❑10 ¿ ¿

- The pH of the buffer will not be affected upon dilution as both the concentration of the ethanoate and acid will
be changed equally.
- The buffer will be most efficient when the moles of the acid is equal to the moles of conjugate base. At this
point, the pH will have the same value of as the pKA of the acid.
- By putting in the relevant values for the concentration the pH can be found.
 Chemistry: IB
Blood
Blood is a complex buffering system which only works in a certain pH range.
−¿¿

HHb+O❑2 ⇒ H +¿+ HbO ❑ ❑ 2 ¿

- When pH increases, the equilibrium will move to the right and the oxygen will tend to be bound more tightly
to the haemoglobin.
- If the PH decreases, the oxygen will tend to be displaced from the haemoglobin as it moves left.

Protein assay
- This method can be used to determine the concentration of protein in solution.
- Protein needs to be made into a colored compounds such as the intensity of the colour depends upon the
concentration of the protein
- This can be done through adding coomassie Brilliant Blue. the coloured complex with the dye absorbs light at a
particular wavelength (595), and so the intensity can be shown through running a spectrum of the solution.

Beer lambert law

I ❑0
log❑10 =ε Lc
I
For diluted solutions at a certain wavelength.

I ❑0❑is the intensity of the incident radiation

I is the intensity of the transmitted radiation.
ε is the molar absorption coefficient.
L is the path length of the absorbing solutions.
C is the concentration.

Most spectrometer measures log ❑10 (Io /I ) directly as absorbance. If the path length is kept the same and all the
reading are taken at wavelength then the absorbance can be seen to be directly proportional to the concentration.

Cis-trans isomerism
- Fatty acids occur naturally as Cis-isomers. However, trans isomers can be
formed from the partial hydrogenation of unsaturated fats.
- Trans-acids are straighter than their Cis-Acid counterparts, meaning they
have a higher melting point.

Vision Chemistry
- Rhodopsin in the retina consists of the
protein Opsin and a covalently bonded cofactor retinal, which is produced in
the retina from Vitamin A.
- When light falls on the retina it converts retinol from the Cis form to the trans
form. A nerve impulse is sent, changing the conformation of opsin and sending
a signal on the optic nerve to the brain.

Miscellaneous bits of information

Chemistry: IB
STP

SATP (used for calculations)

298K = Standard temp

-273= 0k

100KPA= Standard pressure

Theor

etical value may not have been obtained if gas leakage occurred. .

Measurements are a 100% accurate

Theoretical value may not be obtained if other substances also interacts with the chemicals.

FOR TITRATIONS, YOU USE THE TWO CLOSEST VALUES, AND IGNORE THE ROUGH. (Work on titration questions )