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QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

ANALYSING AND INTERPRETING

QUALITATIVE DATA

DATA
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH ANALYSING

SIX STEPS IN ANALYZING AND INTERPRETING QUALITATIVE

DATA
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PREPARE AND ORGANIZE THE DATA FOR ANALYSIS

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31 1. Organize Data
At an early stage in qualitative analysis, you organize data into file folders or computer
files. Organization of data is critical in qualitative research because of the large amount
of information gathered during a
study. The extensive data that an interview yields often surprises new researchers. For
example, a
30-minute interview will often result in about 20 pages of single-spaced transcription.
With this sizable
amount of data, the transcribing and organizing of information requires a system of
organization, which
could take several forms, such as:
 Developing a matrix or a table of sources that can be used to help organize the
material
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32 2. Transcribe Data
During qualitative data collection, you will collect text or words through interviewing
participants or by
writing fieldnotes during observations. This necessitates a need to convert these words to
a computer
document for analysis. Alternatively, you might listen to the tapes or read your fieldnotes
to begin the
process of analysis. When time is short or funds are scarce, you may be able to have only
a few interviews or a few observational notes transcribed. The most complete procedure,
however, is to have all
interviews and all observational notes transcribed. As a general rule of thumb, it takes
approximately 4
hours to transcribe 1 hour of tape (Dana Miller, personal communication, April 11, 2000).
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Here are a few more guidelines to facilitate
transcription:
• Create 2-inch margins on each side of the text document so that you can jot down
notes in the margins during data analysis.
• Leave extra space on the page between the interviewer’s comments and the
interviewee’s comments.
This enables you to distinguish clearly between speakers during data analysis.
• Highlight or mark in some way the questions asked by the interviewer. You will not
analyze your
questions, but identifying them clearly indicates where one question ends and another
begins. Often,
you will analyze all answers to a single question.
• Use complete, detailed headers that contain information about the interview or
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34 3. Analyzing by
Hand or
Computer

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35 3. Analyzing by Hand or Computer
The hand analysis of qualitative data means that researchers read the data, mark it by
hand, and divide it
into parts. Traditionally, analyzing text data involves using color coding to mark parts of the
text or cutting
and pasting text sentences onto cards. Some qualitative researchers like to hand analyze all
of their data. A
hand analysis may be preferred when you:
• Are analyzing a small database (e.g., fewer than 500 pages of transcripts or fieldnotes)
and can easily
keep track of files and locate text passages
• Are not comfortable using computers or have not learned a qualitative computer
software program
• Want to be close to the data and have a hands-on feel for it without the intrusion of a
machine

DATA
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH ANALYSING

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A computer analysis of qualitative data means that researchers use a qualitative computer
program to
facilitate the process of storing, analyzing, sorting, and representing or visualizing the
data. You might
base your decision on several factors. Use a computer program when you:
• Are analyzing a large database (e.g., more than 500 pages of transcripts or fieldnotes)
and need to
organize and keep track of extensive information
• Are adequately trained in using the program and are comfortable using computers
• Have resources to purchase a program or can locate one to use
• Need a close inspection of every word and sentence to capture specific quotes or
meanings of passages
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36 4. Use of Qualitative Computer Programs
- Procedures for Using Software Programs
 Convert a word processing file into a text file or import the word processing file
directly into the
computer program. The word processing file will be a transcribed interview, a set of
fieldnotes, or
other text, such as a scanned document.
 Select a computer program to use. This program should have the features of storing
data, organizing data, assigning labels or codes, and searching the data.
 Enter a file into the program and give it a name.
 Go through the file and mark sentences or paragraphs of ideas that pertain to what
the participant is saying in the text.
 Provide a code label for the blocked text. Continue this process of marking text and
providing code
labels for the entire text file.
 After blocking and assigning labels to text, search for all text matching each code,
and print out a file of these text passages.
 Collapse these code labels into a few broad themes, or categories, and include
evidence for each
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37 4. Use of Qualitative Computer Programs
- Basic Features of Software Programs

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38 4. Use of Qualitative Computer Programs
- Specific Programs Available
• Atlas.ti (www.atlasti.com). This Windows PC program enables you to
organize your text, graphic, audio, and visual data files, along with your
coding, memos, and findings, into a project. Further, you can code,
annotate, and compare segments of information. You can
rapidly search, retrieve, and browse all data segments and notes relevant
to an idea and,
importantly, build unique networks that allow you to connect visually
selected passages, memos, and codes in a concept map.
• HyperRESEARCH (www.researchware.com). This program is available for
both Windows PC and Mac. It is an easy-to-use qualitative software
package that enables you to code
and retrieve, build theories, and conduct analyses of your data. Now with
advanced
multimedia capabilities, HyperRESEARCH allows you to work with text,
graphics, audio,
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38 • MAXQDA (www.maxqda.com). This Windows PC program is a powerful
tool for text
analysis that you can use for grounded theory-oriented “code and
retrieve” analysis as
well as for more sophisticated text analysis. It enables you to combine
both qualitative
and quantitative procedures. The program has a simple, easy-touse
interface of four main windows showing imported texts, codes, the coded
text segments, and the text itself. A
unique feature is that you can weight the codes to give a measure of the
significance of a piece of coding. You can easily copy, merge, split, or
delete codes. Data matrices can be imported and exported between SPSS,
SAS, and other statistical packages. MAXQDA also has mixed methods
quantitative and qualitative applications.
• NVivo (www.qsrinternational.com). This software program is also for
Windows PC. It
combines efficient management of nonnumerical, unstructured data with
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QUALITATIVE RESEARCH ANALYSIS
EXPLORING AND CODING THE
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DATA
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Explore the General Sense of the Data

1 Exploring the data to obtain a general sense of the data, memoing
ideas, thinking about the organization of the data, and considering
whether we need more data. Writing memos in the margins of
fieldnotes or transcripts, or under photographs helps in this initial
Code the Data
2 process of exploring the data. These memos are short phrases, ideas,
Coding is the process of segmenting and labeling text to form
concepts, or hunches that occur.
descriptions and broad themes in the data.

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QUALITATIVE RESEARCH ANALYSIS
EXPLORING AND CODING THE
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Coding Process

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EXPLORING AND CODING THE
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Coding Illustration

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DATA
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH ANALYSIS
USING CODE TO BUILD DESCRIPTION
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THEMES
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Description
1 Description is a detailed rendering of people, places, or
events in a setting in qualitative research. Developing
detail is important, and the researcher analyzes data from
all sources (e.g., interviews, observations, documents) to
build a portrait of individuals or events.

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USING CODE TO BUILD DESCRIPTION
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THEMES
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Illustration
of
Descriptio
n

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Themes
2 Like codes, themes have labels that typically consist of no
more than
two to four words (e.g., “denial,” “campus planning”).
Through initial data analyses, you may find 30 to 50 codes. In
subsequent analyses, you
reduce these codes to five to seven major themes through
the process of eliminating redundancies.
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THEMES
45 Major theme : safety
Minor themes (or subthemes): safety of students in the
classroom; types of services

Contrary evidence is information that does not support or

confirm the themes and provides contradictory information
about a theme.

Saturation is the point where you have identified the major

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THEMES
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3 Layering and Interrelating Themes

a. Layering Themes
Layering themes builds on
the
idea of major and minor
themes but organizes the
themes into
layers from basic
elementary
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Layering and Interrelating Themes

b. Interrelating Themes
The researcher connects
the
themes to display a
chronology
or sequence of events,
such as

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DATA
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH ANALYSIS

REPRESENTING AND REPORTING FINDINGS

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11 Representing Findings
Qualitative researchers often display their findings visually.
-Create a comparison table
-Develop a hierarchical tree diagram
-Present figures
-Draw a map
-Develop a demographic table

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Reporting Findings
2 A narrative discussion is a written passage in a qualitative study in
which authors summarize, in detail, the findings from their data
analysis.
-Include dialogue that provides support for themes
-State the dialogue in the participants’ native language or in the
regional or ethnic dialect
-Use metaphors and analogies
23 -Report quotes from interview data or from observation of individuals

DATA
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH INTERPRETING

INTERPRETING FINDINGS
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Summarize Findings
1
To provide us with an overview of the findings to complement the
more detailed
results in the description and theme passages
Convey Personal Reflections
2
Because qualitative researchers believe that your personal views can
never be kept separate from interpretations, personal reflections
about the meaning of the data
are included in the research study. You base these personal
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INTERPRETING FINDINGS
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Make Comparisons to the Literature
3 Interpretation may also contain references to the literature and past
studies. This interpretation may compare qualitative findings with
reported views of a social
Offer Limitations and Suggestions for Future Research
science concept found in the literature, or it may combine personal
The qualitative researcher suggests possible limitations or weaknesses
4 views with an
of the study and makes recommendations for future research. These
educational or social science term or idea.
limitations may address
problems in data collection, unanswered questions by participants, or
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QUALITATIVE RESEARCH ANALYSIS
VALIDATING THE ACCURACY OF THE
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FINDINGS
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Triangulation
1
The process of corroborating evidence from different individuals,
types of
data, or methods of data collection in descriptions and themes in
Member Checking
2 qualitative research
A process in which the researcher asks one or more
participants in the
External Audit the accuracy of the account
study to check
3 Process in which a researcher hires or obtains the services of
an
individual outside the study to review different aspects of the
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QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

THANK YOU!!

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