“There are two mistakes one can make

along the road to truth - not going all

the way, and not starting.”
…. Buddha

5
CHAPTER

Feedback and Oscillator

Circuits
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you will know:
1. Classification of Amplifiers
2. Effects of Negative Feedback on Gain and Bandwidth
3. Gain stability with Feedback
4. Various Types of Oscillators: Phase-Shift Oscillator, FET Phase Shift Oscillator
5. Wien Bridge Oscillator, Tuned Oscillator Circuit
6. Colpitts Oscillator, Hartley Oscillator, Crystal Oscillator

Classification of Amplifiers
Amplifiers can be classify into four board categories as,
(a) Voltage amplifier
(b) Current amplifier
(c) Transconductance amplifier
(d) Transresistance amplifier
(a) Voltage Amplifier: Figure shows a thevenin’s equivalent circuit of a two-port network which
represents an amplifier. If the amplifier input resistance R i is large compared with the source
resistance R s , then Vi ≈ Vs . If the external load resistance R L is large compared with the output
resistance R o of the amplifier, then Vo ≈ AV Vi ≈ AV Vs. This amplifier provides a voltage output
proportional to the voltage input and the proportionality factor is independent of the
magnitudes of the source and load resistances. Such a circuit is called a voltage amplifier. An
ideal voltage amplifier must have infinite input resistance R i and zero output resistance R o . The
symbol Av in represents Vo /Vi, with R L = ∞ and hence represents the open-circuit voltage
amplification or gain.
Ri ≫ Rs
R R o ≪ RL
s
+
+ Ro
+ +
VS Vi Ri AV Vi RL Vo
− − (External
− Load) −

Thevenin’s Equivalent Circuit of a Voltage Amplifier

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 Feedback and Oscillator Circuits

(b) Current Amplifier: An ideal current amplifier is defined as an amplifier which provides an
output current proportional to the signal current and the proportionality factor is independent
of R s and R L . An ideal current amplifier must have zero input resistance R i and infinite output
resistance R o . In practice, the amplifier has low input resistance and high output resistance. It
drives a low – resistance load (R o ≫ R L ) and is driven by a high – resistance source (R i ≪ R s).
figure shows Norton’s equivalent circuit of a current amplifier. Note that Ai ≡ IL /Ii , with
R L = 0, representing the short circuit current amplification, or gain. If R i ≪ R s , Ii ≈ Is , and if
R o ≫ R L , IL ≈ Ai Ii ≈ Ai Is . Hence the output current is proportional to the signal current.
Ri ≪ Rs
Ii Ro ≫ RL Io = IL

Is Rs Ri A v Ii Ro RL

Norton’s Equivalent Circuits of a Current Amplifier

(c) Transconductance Amplifier: The ideal transconductance amplifier supplies an output current
which is proportional to the signal voltage, independently of the magnitudes of R s and R L . The
ideal transconductance amplifier must have an infinite input resistance R i and infinite output
resistance R o . A practical transconductance amplifier has a large input resistance (R i ≫ R s) and
hence must be driven by a low – resistance source. It presents a high output resistance
(R o ≫ R L ) and hence drives a low – resistance load. The equivalent circuit of a
transconductance amplifier is shown in below figure.
Ri ≫ Rs
Ro ≫ RL Io = IL
Rs
+
+
Vs Vi Ri Ro RL
− Gm Vi
−

A Transconductance Amplifier is Represented by a Thevenin’s Equivalent in its Input Circuit and a

Norton’s Equivalent in its Output Circuit

(d) Transresistance Amplifier: Transresistance amplifier ideally supplies an output voltage Vo in

proportion to the signal current Is independently of R s and R L . For a practical transresistance
amplifier must have R i ≪ R s and R o ≪ R L . Hence the input and output resistances are low
relative to the source and load resistances. If R s ≫ R i , Ii ≈ Is , and if R o ≪ R L , Vo ≈ R m Ii ≈ R m Is.
Note that R m ≡ Vo /Ii , with R L = ∞. In other words, R m is the open – circuit mutual or transfer
resistance.

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 Feedback and Oscillator Circuits

Ri ≪ Rs
Ii Ro ≪ RL
+
Ro
+
Is Rs Ri RL Vo
− R m Ii
−

A Transresistance Amplifier is Represented by a Norton’s Equivalent in its Input Circuit and a

Thevenin’s Equivalent in its Output Circuit

Table Ideal Amplifier Characteristics

Amplifier Type
Parameter
Voltage Current Trans-conductance Trans-resistance
R i ………………… ∞ 0 ∞ 0
R o ………………… 0 ∞ ∞ 0
Transfer characteristics … Vo = AV Vs IL = A i Is IL = Gm Vs Vo = R m Is

Feedback Amplifiers
A general feedback amplifier structure is show below

Ii I Io = IL
Comparator + Basic Amplifier + Sampling +
Signal
or Mixer Vi Forward Transfer V Network Vo RL
Source
Network − Gain A − −
External Load
If
+ Feedback
Vf Network Reverse
− Transmission β
Feedback Amplifier

Representation of any Single-Loop Feedback Connection Around a Basic Amplifier. The Transfer Gain
A May Represent 𝐀𝐕 , 𝐀𝐈 , 𝐆𝐌 , or 𝐑 𝐌

The input signal is applied to a mixer network , where it is combined with a feedback signal . The
resultant signal from the mixer is applied to the basic amplifier . The amplifier output is sampled
and applied to a feedback network. The output of feedback network is fed to the mixer. If the
feedback signal is of opposite polarity to the input signal, negative feedback results. While negative
feedback results in reduced overall gain, a number of improvements are obtained of them, begin
1. Stabilization of amplifier
2. Improved frequency response
3. Reduced noise
4. More linear operation
All these advantages are obtained at the expense of the gain Af with feedback, which is lowered in
comparison with the gain A of an amplifier without feedback.
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 Feedback and Oscillator Circuits

Feed Back Connection Types

There are four basic ways of connecting the feedback signal. Both voltage and current can be fed
back to the input either in series or parallel. Specifically there can be,
1. Voltage – series feedback (fig-a)
2. Voltage - shunt feedback (fig –b)
3. Current – series feedback (fig-c)
4. Current –shunt feedback (fig-d)
Ii

Trans- +
+ + + Is R L Vo
Voltage R L Vo Resistance
Vs Vi
Amplifier Amplifier −
− − −
− βVo +
If = βVo
+ β
Vf β
−

(a) (b)

Io = IL Ii Io = IL

+ + Trans- Current
Vs Vi Conductance RL Is Amplifier RL
− − Amplifier −

If = βVo
+
βIo = Vf β β
−

(c) (d)
Feedback-Amplifier Topologies. The Source Resistance is Considered to be Part of the Amplifier.
(a) Voltage Amplifier with Voltage-Series Feedback. (b) Transconductance Amplifier with Current-
Series Feedback. (c) Current Amplifier with Current-Shunt Feedback. (d) Transreistance Amplifier
with Voltage-Shunt Feedback

Here voltage refers to connecting the output voltage as input to the feedback network, current
refers to tapping off some output current through the feedback network. Series refers to connecting
the feedback signal in series with the input signal voltage. Shunt refers to connecting the feedback
signal in shunt with an input current source.
Series feedback connection tends to increase the input resistance, while shunt feedback connection
tends to decrease the input resistance .Voltage feedback tends to decrease the output impedance
while current feedback tends to increase the output impedance. Typically, higher input and lower
output impedances are desired for most cascade amplifiers. Both of these are provided using the
voltage –series feedback connection.
Gain Af , with the feedback is given by,
A
Af = … … . (1)
1 + βA

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 Feedback and Oscillator Circuits

If |Af | < |A|, the feedback is termed negative or degenerative. If |Af | > |A| the feedback is termed
positive, or regenerative. The product, Aβ is called loop gain, or return ratio. The difference between
unity and the loop gain is called the return difference D = 1 + Aβ. It is also called “desensitivity”.

Effects of Negative Feedback on Gain and Band Width

|A|, |Af |

|Ao |
|A|
0.707|Ao |

|Af |
|Aof |
0.707|Aof |

fLf fL fH fHf f (Log scale)

Transfer Gain is Decreased and Bandwidth is Increased for an Amplifier Using Negative Feedback

The amplifier with negative feedback has lower voltage gain (Af ) and more bandwidth (Bf) than the
amplifier without feedback (A, B). The feedback amplifier has a higher upper 3-dB frequency and
smaller lower 3-dB frequency. But, the product of gain and frequency remains the same so that the
gain band width product of the basic amplifier is the same value for the feedback amplifier.

Gain Stability with Feedback

By differentiating equation (1) with respect to A,
dAf 1 dA
| |= | |
Af |1 + βA| A
In particular if |βA| > > 1, then
dAf 1 dA
| | ≅ | || |
Af βA A
dAf
This shows that magnitude of the relative change in gain | | is reduced by the factor |βA|
Af
dA
compared to that without feedback (| |)
A

Effect of Negative Feedback on Amplifier Characteristics

Parameter Voltage Series Current Shunt Voltage Shunt Current Series
1. Output signal/ Voltage Current Voltage Current
Sampled signal
2. Input signal/ Voltage Current Current Voltage
Feedback signal
3. Basic amplifier Voltage Current Transresistance Transconductance
4. A(with out feedback) AV=Vo/Vi AI =Io/Ii Rm=Vo/Ii Gm=Io/VI
5. β Vf/Vo If / Io If / Vo Vf/Io
6. D=1+Aβ 1+AV β 1+AI β 1+Rm β 1+Gm β

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 Feedback and Oscillator Circuits

7. Af AV/D AI/D Rm/D Gm/D

8. Rif RiD Ri/D Ri/D RiD
9. Rof Ro/D Ro.D Ro/D R oD
10. fLf fL/D fL/D fL/D fL/D
11. fHf fH.D fH.D fH.D fH.D
12. BWf ≅ B. W. D ≅ B. W. D ≅ B. W. D ≅ B. W. D
13. df(distortion) d/D d/D d/D d/D
14. Noise Decrease Decrease Decrease Decrease

Summary of Feedback Amplifiers

Topology Comparison Output Signal
SL. No FB - Positive (P) Amplifier Classification Signal (Sample)
FB - Negative (N)
1. Series-Shunt (or) (N) Voltage Voltage Voltage
Voltage-Series (P) Voltage Voltage Voltage
2. Series-Series (or) (N) Voltage to current converter Voltage Current
Current-Series (P) Voltage to current converter Voltage Current
3. Shunt-Shunt (or) (N) Current to voltage converter Current Voltage
Voltage-Shunt (P) Current to voltage converter Current Voltage
4. Shunt-Series (or) (N) Current Current Current
Current-Shunt (P) Current Current Current
Note: The first word refers to input, second output. Eg. Series-Shunt - Input series, output shunt i.e.,
shunt derived and series injected.

Input Output Gain

SL. No
Impedance Impedance
1. High (increased) Low (reduced) Reduced
Low (reduced) High (increased) Increased
2. High High Reduced
Low Low Increased
3. Low Low Reduced
High High Increased
4. Low High Reduced
High Low Increased

Example: Determine the voltage gain, input and output impedance with feedback for voltage – series
feedback having A = −100, R i = 10 kΩ, and R o = 20 kΩ for feedback of (a) β = −0.1 and
(b) β = −0.5.
Solution:
A −100 −100
(a) Af = = = = −9.09
1 + βA 1 + (−0.1)(−100) 11
Zif = Zi (1 + βA) = 10 kΩ (11) = 110 kΩ
Zo 20 × 103
Zof = = = 1.82 kΩ
1 + βA 11

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 Feedback and Oscillator Circuits

A −100 −100
(b) Af = = = = −1.96
1 + βA 1 + (−0.5)(−100) 51
Zif = Zi (1 + βA) = 10 kΩ (51) = 510 kΩ
Zo 20 × 103
Zof = = = 392.16 Ω
1 + βA 51

Various Types of Oscillators

The use of positive feedback which results in an feedback amplifier having closed-loop gain |Af|
greater than 1 and satisfying the phase conditions will result in operation as an oscillator circuit .To
understand how a feedback circuit performs as an oscillator consider the feedback circuit given
below.

When the switch at the amplifier output is open, no oscillation occurs. Consider that we have a
fictitious voltage at the amplifier input(Vi). This results in an output voltage Vo= AVi after the
amplifier stage and in a voltage Vf = β(AVi ) after the feedback stage. Thus, we have a feedback
voltage Vf =βAVi, where βA is referred to as the loop gain. If the circuits of the base amplifier and
feedback network provide βA of a correct magnitude and phase, Vf can be made equal to Vi .

+ + β +
Vi A Vo = AVi Vf = βAVi
− − −
+ −
Vf = βAVi

Feedback Circuit used as Oscillator

Then, when the switch is closed and fictitious voltage V i is removed, the circuit will continue
operating since the feedback voltage is sufficient to drive the amplifier and feedback circuits
resulting in a proper input voltage to sustain the loop operation. The output waveform will still exist
after the switch closed. The condition βA = 1 is met. This is known as the Barkhausen Criterion for
oscillation.

In reality, no input signal is needed to start the oscillator going. Only the condition βA = 1 must be
satisfied for self sustained oscillation to result. In practice βA is made greater than 1 and the system
is started oscillating by amplifying noise voltage which is always present. Saturation factors in the
practical circuit provide an “average” value of βA of 1.
Another way of seeing how the feedback circuit provides operation as an oscillator is obtained by
noting the denominator in the basic feedback equation, Af = A/(1 + βA). When βA = −1 or
magnitude 1 at a phase angle of 180°, the denominator becomes 0 and the gain with feedback, Af ,
becomes infinite. Thus, an infinitesimal signal can provide a measurable output voltage and the
circuit acts as an oscillator even without an input signal.

This infinite signal is brought under control by saturation due to non-linearity. This also explains as
to why transients are dangerous & feedback system should have stability not only for the frequency
band of operation but all frequencies beyond as well.

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 Feedback and Oscillator Circuits

Barkhausen Criterion has 2 Conditions

1. The product of the magnitude of the amplifier gain A & the feedback β of the feedback network
should be not less than unity for oscillation to take place at operating frequency.
1
A≥
β
2. The phase shift between the input signal & the signal feedback after passing through the
amplifier & feedback network is precisely zero or multiple of 2π at operating frequency.
As a corollary to the above conditions it may be stated that Aβ or loop gain be made a little
(about 5%) greater than unity to allow for aging of components of amplifying & feedback
networks such as values, transistors, FETs, circuit elements.

Phase Shift Oscillators

Oscillators range from extremely low frequencies (ELF) in the range of 1 Hz to 300 Hz to extremely
high frequencies (EHF) upto 300 GHz i.e., from megametre to millimetre wave length ELF cannot be
generated by LC oscillators as the components will be bulky. So for the generation ELF & VLF, RC
phase shift oscillators are used.

There are Two Types of RC Phase Shift Oscillators

1. These with Ladder Feedback Network: CE amplifier in their normal functioning give a phase
shift of 180° between input & output voltages. So a further phase shift of 180° is introduced
between output & the feedback input by an RC ladder network. This network is designed to
have a 180° phase shift at one particular frequency only so that the phase shift decides the
frequency at oscillation.
2. Those with Bridge Feedback Network: By employing two stages of CE amplifier the output of the
second is 2π out of phase with the input of 1st stage. So that its output can be fed directly to the
input without a feedback network. This method is employed in an RC bridge network & such
oscillators are called “Wien bridge oscillators”.

Phase -Shift Oscillator(Ladder Type)

VCC

R1 Rc C
R3

C C
R R
R2 C′ Re

Transistor Phase-Shift Oscillator

Using classical network analysis, we find that

1
f =
2πRC√6

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 Feedback and Oscillator Circuits

1
At that frequency of oscillation, β = 29 and the phase shift is 180°
For the loop gain βA to be greater than unity the gain of the amplifier stage must be greater than 1/β
or 29: A > 29
The frequency given above is that at which the total phase shift is 1800 . If one measured the phase
shift per RC section , each section would not provide the same phase shift. If it were desired to
obtain exactly a 600 phase shift for each of three stages, then emitter-follower stages would be
needed for each RC section to prevent each from being loaded from the following circuit.
Analysis of the ac circuit provides the following equation for the resulting oscillator frequency:
1 1
f=
2πRC
√6 + 4 R C
R
For the loop gain to be greater than unity, the requirement on the current gain of the transistor is
found to be,
R Rc
hfe > 23 + 29 +4
Rc R

FET Phase Shift Oscillator

VDD
RD C C C
+ +

G
S
Vo R R R Vf′

Rs Cs
− −

An FET Phase Shift Oscillator

The amplifier stage is self biased with a capacitor by passed source resistor R S and a drain bias
resistor RD. The FET device parameters of interest are gm and rd. The amplifier gain is,
R D rd
A = g m R L ; Where R L =
R D + rd
It is assumed that the input impedance of the FET amplifier stage is infinite.

Example: It is desired to design a phase – shift oscillator (above Figure) using an FET having
g m = 5000 μs, rd = 40 kΩ, and a feedback circuit value of R = 10 kΩ. Select the value of C
for oscillator operation at 5 kHz and R D for A > 29 to ensure oscillator action.
Solution: Since, f = 1/2π RC√6, we can solve for C:
1 1
C= = = 1.3 nF
2πRf√6 (6.28)(10 × 10 )(5 × 103 )(2.45)
3

Say, A = 40 (this allows for some loading between R L and the feedback network input
impedance)

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 Feedback and Oscillator Circuits

|A| = g m R L
|A| 40
RL = = = 8 kΩ
g m 5000 × 10−6
R D rd
RL =
R D + rd
By putting rd = 40 kΩ and R L = 8 kΩ in this equation, R D= 10 kΩ

Wien Bridge Oscillator

R4 R3

− Vo

+
C1
Z1
R1

C2 Z2
R2

Wien Bridge Oscillation

The above figure shows a basic version of a Wien bride oscillator circuit. Resistors R1, R2 and
capacitors C1, C2 form the frequency, adjustment elements, while resistors R3 and R4 form part of the
feedback path. Neglecting the loading effects of the op-amp input and output impedances, the
analysis of the bridge circuit results in
R 3 R 1 C2
= +
R 4 R 2 C1
1
And fo =
2π√R1 C1 R 2 C2
If, in particular, the values are R1 = R2 = R and C1 = C2 = C, the resulting oscillator frequency is,
1
fo =
2πRC
R3
and =2
R4
Thus a ratio of R 3 to R 4 greater than 2 will provide sufficient loop gain for the circuit to oscillate.
RC oscillators are generally used in audio frequency ranges because of its wide tuning range.

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 Feedback and Oscillator Circuits

Example:
(a) Calculate the resonant frequency of the Wien bridge oscillator of below Figure.
(b) Suggest the RC elements to increase the frequency by two fold.

+VCC
R1 C1
+ Output
51 kΩ Op-Amp
0.001 μF
−

0.001μF
R2 C2
51 kΩ −VEE R3

300 kΩ
R4 100 kΩ

Wien Bridge Oscillator Circuit for Example

Solution:
(a) Resonant Frequency,
1 1
fo = = = 3120.7 Hz
2πRC 2π (51 × 10 )(0.001 × 10−6 )
3

(b) fo = 2(3120.7)Hz = 6241.4 Hz

1 1
Now, RC = = = 2.55 × 10−5 sec
2πfo 2π(6241.4)
Let R = 50 kΩ, then C = 510 pF

Tuned Oscillator Circuit

Tunable Oscillators
A general form of oscillator circuits

1 Maintaing 3
Device
2

Z1 Z2

Z3

Z1 , Z2 , Z3 are reactances either inductive or capacitive

So Z1 = jX1 , Z2 = jX 2 , Z3 = jX 3
For the phase shift to be zero, the j factor should vanish from
A V X1 X 2
= Aβ
j(X1 + X 2 + X 3 ) − X 2 (X1 + X 3 )

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 Feedback and Oscillator Circuits

So X1 + X 2 + X 3 = 0
−AV X1
So = = Aβ
(X1 + X 3 )

As per Barkhausen criterion, Aβ should be not than one and positive so that X1 and X 2 should be of
the same sign, either both inductive or capacitive. Since X1 and X 2 are of the same kind, X 3 should be
of the opposite kind.

Hartley oscillator X1 , X 2 =L X3 =C
Colpits oscillator X1 , X 2 =C X3 =L
Clap oscillator X1 , X 2 =C X3 = L, C series, net L
Tuned gate/Tuned drain or X1 , X 2 = Parallel tuned circuits X3 =C
TPTG oscillator net L
Piece crystal oscillator X1 , X 2 =L X 3 = C (crystal)

Practical Circuits
VCC

R1
LS LP C

M
C1

R2
CE RE

Tuned Collector Oscillator

R1 , R 2 − Bias stabilizer
C1 isolation of VCC from the secondary coil and amplitude stabilization
1
fo =
2π√LC
LP
Aloop ≥
M

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 Feedback and Oscillator Circuits

Colpitts Oscillator
VCC

RC C
R1
C ′′

R2 C′
Re

C1 C2

L
A Transistor Colpitts Oscillator

The oscillator frequency can be found to be,

1
fo =
2π√LCeq
C1 C2
Where Ceq =
C1 + C2

Hartley Oscillator
VCC

RC C
R1
C ′′

R2
Re C′

L1 L2

C
A transistor Hartley Oscillator
The inductors L1 and L2 have a mutual coupling, M, which must be taken into account in determining
the equivalent inductance for the resonant circuit. The circuit frequency of oscillation is then given
approximately by
1
fo =
2π√Leq C
with Leq = L1 + L2 + 2M
M = k√L1 L2 (k is 1 here)
x1 AV L1 AV /N1
Aloop = AV = =
x2 L2 N2

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 Feedback and Oscillator Circuits

VCC

L2 (Z2 )
C(Z3 )
10 kΩ
L1 (Z1 )

Vo

1 μF 1 kΩ
1 kΩ

(a) BJT
Cg

R FC
Rg
Z1 +VDD
L1
Z3
L2 −
Z2

C2
(b) FET Shunt Fed
Hartley Oscillator

Above figures are two Hartley oscillator circuits, (a) using a transistor and (b) a FET. In out
derivation of the general equation for oscillator, it was assumed that the input impedance of the
amplifying device is infinite. As this is not so in a transistor, it being of low input impedance, the
input impedance shunts Z1 . So FET oscillating circuits are increasingly coming to use.
Positive feedback occurs due to mutual coupling M between tapped coils, L1 and L2 which also
reverses phase.
Z1 X1 L1 + M N1
= = =
Z2 X 2 L2 + M N2
The resonant frequency
1
fo =
2π√LT CT
Where,
LT = L1 + L2 + 2M and M = k√L1 L2 (k is 1 here)
μX1 μL1 μN1
Aloop = = =
X2 L2 N2

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 Feedback and Oscillator Circuits

Where
μ = Amplification factor of FET
μ = g m . rd
g m → Mutual conductance
1⁄rd → Drain conductance
The RF choke prevents the flow of oscillation into the power supply and C2 prevents shorting of
power supply transistor circuits is series fed while FET is shunt fed.
RFC VDD

Cg +

Vo
C1 Z1 Rg
L1 Z3 −

C2 Z2

The Circuit of a Colpitts Oscillator with a Split Capacitor

The oscillating frequency

1 C1 C2
fo = where Ceq =
2π√L1 Ceq C1 + C2
μX1 μC2
Aloop = =
X2 C1
The Clapp oscillator is similar to the Colpitts oscillator and has greater stability. In this type
condenser C3 is added in series with the coil L1 . This forms a series resonant circuit adjusted for a
net L. C1 and C2 are very large capacitors compared to C3 so that C3 determines the resonant
frequency. So any variation in the input impedance does not affect the resonant frequency which is
given by
1 1
fo = where Ceq =
2π√L1 Ceq 1 1 1
C1 + C2 + C3

Crystal Oscillator
In crystal oscillator, electrical resonant circuit is replaced by mechanically vibrating circuit. The
crystal has piezo electric properties. The crystal (usually quartz) has high degree of stability so
crystal osciallator are used where greater stability is needed.
It has very high quality factor 104 to 106
Quality factor of LC is 100
Resonant frequency
Q=
Band width
Equivalent circuit of crystal

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 Feedback and Oscillator Circuits

CP

CS

Impedance

fs fp Frequency
For fs : Circuit is used in series
For fp : Circuit is used in parallel
fs

fp

1 1
fs = , fp =
2π√LCS 2π√LCeq
1 1 1
= +
Ceq CP CS
⇒ f p > fs

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 Feedback and Oscillator Circuits

Advantages
(a) Simple, it does into need any tank circuit other than crystal itself
(b) High stability
(c) High Q factor

Disadvantages
(a) It is designed for fixed frequency so, it can’t be tuned.
(b) Crystals are fragile, so can be used only for low power circuit.

Stability of Oscillators
Stability is meant for precise operation at the scheduled frequency at all time under any condition. If
the oscillator is not stable it will cause interference either to adjacent channels or to stations in
some other band by harmonics. International organizations like ITU have laid stringer conditions on
stability of operation. If interference to a frequency of operation is caused deliberately it is known as
jamming.
The three factors that affect oscillation are amplification(A), feedback factor(β) and LC network
formed by Z1 , Z2 , Z3 . The amplification depends on transistor parameters and load impedance. The
parameters depend on operating and supply voltages. Temperature variations affect all the three.
Inductance and stary capacitance of the leads, inherent capacitance of the active device also affect
the frequency of operation. Finally, aging plays its part.
In the general oscillator circuit, it was assumed that the input impedance is very high or infinite.
However, when oscillations commence and output is feed back, the impedance starts reducing.
When the bias finally adjusts itself to class C condition the input impedance varies from an infinite
value to a finite value thereby affecting Z1 which is in parallel.
Output has to be tapped off to the subsequent stages from the LC network comprising Z1 , Z2 , Z3 . It is
taken generally from Z2 or Z3 . Hence any load connection affects Z2 or Z3 by reflected impedance
such as class varying load impedance will cause frequency drift.
Having identified the cause of frequency instability, the remedies can be worked out effectively.
1. In order to avoid the oscillator working into a variable load, a buffer amplifier with high input
impedance is introduced between the oscillator and subsequent stages.
2. A high Q LC tank circuit is employed. A low Q has a broad frequency spectrum whereas high Q is
tight skirted so that even a slight change in frequency abruptly shifts the phase from −90° to
+90° rending oscillation ineffective.
3. As a result of (2), crystals are used for generation of frequency as they have high Q from 1000
to 100,000. Frequencies for a few kilohertz to a few megahertz are possible.

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 Feedback and Oscillator Circuits

Solved Examples
Example 1
Calculate the value of β in order for oscillation to occur if A = 30 the amplification with
feedback.
Solution:
For oscillation to occur 1 – Aβ ≥ 0
Aβ = 1
1
β= = 0.033
30
Amplification with feedback
A 30
A′ = = =∞
1 − Aβ 1 − 30 × 0.033
The amplification with feedback becomes infinite and it should be controlled by
non-linearity.

Example 2
A Colpitts oscillator has a coil with an inductance of 50 μH and is tuned by a capacitor of
300 pF across the amplifier input and 100 pF across the output. Find the frequency of
oscillation and the minimum gain for maintaining oscillation.
Solution:
1 C1 C2
fo = ; Ceq =
2π√LCeq C1 + C2
300 × 100
Ceq = = 75 pF
400
Here L = L3

L3

C1 C2
1
fo = = 2.59 MHz
2π√50 × 10−6 × 75 × 10−12
For maintaining oscillation Aloop ≥ 1
AVo C2
Aloop = =1
C1
C1 300
AVo = = =3
C2 100

Example 3
A Clapp oscillator has following circuit components C1 = 10000 pF, C2 = 1000 pF,
L3 = 50μH and C2 is a 5 to 150 pF variable capacitor. Find the tuning frequency range and
minimum gain for oscillation

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 Feedback and Oscillator Circuits

Solution:
The tuned circuit of a Clapp Oscillator is
C3
L3

C1 C2
1
fo =
2π√L3 Ceq
1 1 1 1
Where, = + +
Ceq C1 C2 C3
C1 C2 C3
Ceq =
C1 C2 + C2 C3 + C1 C3
1000 × 10000 × 5
Ceq = = 4.97 pF
1000 × 10000 + 5 × 10000 + 5 × 1000
It may be noted that as both C1 and C2 are made very large compared to C3 , Ceq is very
nearly equal to C3 and hence controls the frequency
1
fo =
2π√50 × 10 × 4.77 × 10−12
−6

= 10.09 × 106 Hz = 10.09 MHz

For 150 pF, Ceq = 128.76 pF
1
fo = = 1.9835 MHz
2π√50 × 10−6 × 128.76 × 10−12
The range is from 1.985 to 10.34 MHz
For oscillation Aloop ≥ 1
AVo C2
Aloop = =1
C1
C1 10000
AVo = = = 10
C2 1000
The condenser value across the input must be higher the value across the output for
oscillation.

Example 4
A Hartley oscillators uses a FET with a g m of 3ms rd = 20 kΩ. The total conductance is
20μH with a turns ratio of input side to output side of 1:10. It is tuned with a 20 pF
capacitor. Find the frequency of oscillation and the amplifier gain margin (the amount by
which the gain exceed the minimum) in decibels.
Solution:
In a Hartley oscillator
1
fo =
2π√LT C3
1
= = 7.96 MHz
2π√20 × 10 × 20 × 10−12
−6

μ = g m rd = 3 × 10−3 × 20 × 103 = 60
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 Feedback and Oscillator Circuits

For oscillation
N1 1
Aloop = μ = 60 × =6
N2 10
Excess gain = 20 log 6
= 15.56 dB
In a Hartley oscillator the number of turns on the output side should be higher than on
the input side.

Example 5
Prove that in a crystal the ratio of frequencies in series and parallel resonance is given by
1C
1+
2 C′
Solution:

C′
R

The equivalent circuit is shown above

Series resonance ω12 = 1/LC
1
Parallel resonance ω22 = LC where C, C′ are in series
eq
CC ′
Ceq =
C + C′
2
ω2 C + C ′ LC
= ×
ω12 LC × C ′ 1
C + C′
=
C′
C C
=1+ ′ =1+ ′
C C
ω2 C
= √1 + ′
ω1 C
C 1/2
= (1 + )
C′
Expanding and neglecting higher powers.
ω2 1C
=1+
ω1 2 C′
In crystals C′, the capacitance due to crystal holder is very negligible. For instance if
C = 0.04 pF and C= 2.0 pF the percentage by which parallel resonant frequency is greater
than series resonant frequency is
ω2 1 0.04
=1+ = 1 + 0.01 or one percent
ω1 2 2

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 Feedback and Oscillator Circuits

Example 6
Determine the frequency of oscillation of the circuit shown in figure.
Assume the Op – Amp to be ideal
R1 = 1 kΩ R1 = 2 kΩ

2
+ Vo

− C = 4.7 μF
1

R1 = 1 kΩ

R = 1 kΩ C = 4.7 μF

Solution:
The frequency of Oscillation of the Wein bridge Oscillator
1
fo =
2πRC
Given that R = 1 kΩ
C = 4.7 μF
1
fo =
2π × 10 × 4.7 × 10−6
3
fo = 33.8627 Hz

Example 7
1
Show that the ckt given in fig. will work as an oscillator at f = if R f = 2R 2
2π RC
R2 R1

− Vout
+

R C
b

C
R

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 Feedback and Oscillator Circuits

Solution:
Apply KCL
Z2
Vb = Vo ( )
Z1 + Z2
1
R (SC) R
Z2 = =
1
R + SC 1 + SCR
1 1 + SCR
Z1 = R + +
SC SC
R
1 + SCR R × SC
Vb = Vo [ ] = Vo [ ]
1 + SCR R (1 + SCR)2 + SCR
SC + 1 + SCR
SCR
Vb = Vf = Vo [ 2 2 2 ]
1 + S C R + 2RCS + SRC
Vf 1
=β=
Vo 1
(3 + SCR + )
SCR
Put S = jω
1
β=
1
3 + j (ωRC − ωRC)
To get sustained oscillations the imaginary part of β must
1 1
ωRC − =0 ⟹f=
ωRC 2πRC
Then
1
β=
3
Aβ = 1
Amin = 3
R1
1+ =3
R2
R1
=2
R2
⟹ R1 = 2R 2

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