GOVT TOOL ROOM AND TRAINING CENTRE

PROCESS ENGINEERING & PRODUCTIVITY

SUBJUCT CODE: DPM-IVS404

Contact Hrs. /Week: 3. Contact Hrs. /Semester: 64

Learning goals for this PROCESS ENGINEERING & PRODUCTIVITY

On completion of this subject, the trainees will be able to:

 Understand the necessity of process requirement,

 Metal cutting process and materials

 Concept of gauges

 Tooling materials for plastics

 Tooling for NC machines

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PROCESS ENGINEERING AND PRODUCTIVITY

Contact Hrs. /Week: 3. Contact Hrs /Semester: 64

SPECIFIC INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES:

1. PEOCESS ENGINEERING
- Introduction
- Initial data required for process planning
- Process Engineering records
- Terms used in process planning
- Standard time
- Machining allowance
- Selection of cutting variables
- Planning of operation sequence
- Main conditions in selecting the machining method
- Example of process sheet for turning, milling, grinding jobs

2. PROCESS OF METAL CUTTING

- Introduction
- Cutting tool materials
- Carbon tool steel
- High speed steel
- Cemented carbides
- Ceramic
- Diamonds
- UCON
- CBN
-principles of metal cutting
- Orthogonal and Oblique metal cutting
- Comparison of orthogonal and oblique cutting
- Types of chips
- Nomenclature of single point cutting tool
- Tool signature

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- Tool life and tool failure

- Factor affecting tool life
- Machinability
- Machinability index
- Cutting fluids
- Purpose of cutting fluids
- Properties of cutting fluids
- Types of cutting fluids
- Materials for multi point cutting tools
- Problems on tool life and tool failure
3. GAUGE DESIGN
- Introduction
-Types of gauge
- Snap gauge
- Plug gauge
- Ring gauge
- Receiver gauge
- Gap gauge
- Radius or fillet gauge
- Taylor’s principle
- Maximum and minimum metal limits
- Gauge allowance and tolerance
- Materials for gauges
- Simple problems on gauges
4. PLASTIC AS TOOLING MATERIALS
- Introduction
- Plastics commonly used as tooling materials
- Merits and demerits of plastic tooling
- Plastics tooling techniques
- Repair of plastic tools
- Safety Precaution of plastic tooling material

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5. TOOLING FOR NC MACHINES

- Introduction
- Spindling tooling for machining centres
- Shell mill adopter
- Collect Chucks and extensions
- End mill adaptor
- Morse taper adaptor
- Boring bars
- Tooling for NC turning machines
- Qualified tooling
- Preset tooling.

REFERENCE BOOKS:
1. Production Engineering Design by Dr. Surendrakumar & Dr. Umesh Chandra
Satya Prakashan -New Delhi

2. Tool Engineering and Design by G. R. Nagpal Khanna publishers.

3. Engineering Metrology by R.K Jain

4. Material Technology by O .P Khanna

5. Manufacturing process by Paneesh

6. Production technology volume 1 and 2 by S.K Hajra Choudhury, A.K Hajra

Choudhury.

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CONTENTS

SL.NO. UNITS NAME PAGE NO.

01 PEOCESS ENGINEERING 06 - 22

02 PROCESS OF METAL CUTTING 23 -56

03 GAUGE DESIGN 57 -76

04 PLASTIC AS TOOLING MATERIALS 77 - 96

05 TOOLING FOR NC MACHINES 97 -120

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UNIT 1- PROCESS ENGINEERING

INTRODUCTION:

Process planning is the procedure used to develop a retiled list of a manufacturing

operation is required for the production of a part or a product. It is the linkage between
product design and product manufacturing. Process planning establishes on efficient
sequence of operations select proper equipments cooling and specific their operation is such
a manner that the product will be per all requirements stipulated in the specification. At
the same time the process will be performed at minimum cost and maximum productivity.

PROCESS PLANNING:
For manufacturing a product a required process needs to be planned. Process
planning is determining the most economical method of performing on activity. Process
planning develops the broad plan if manufacturing a product or a component.
For carrying out the process planning following information or initial data's are required.
1. Quality of work to be performed
2. Detailed speciation of the product
3. Quantity of work
4. Availability of equipments tools and man power
5. Sequence of operations to be performed
6. Standard time for each operation.

STEPS INVOLVED IN PROCESS PLANNING:

1. Most economical process is selected depending upon current production commitments,
delivery date and quantity to be produced, quality standards.
2. Selection of materials right quality, shape and size of raw material.
3. Selection of jigs, fixtures and special attachment.
4. Selection of cutting tools.
5. Selection of inspection gauges.
6. Make the process layout indicating sequence of operation.
7. Documentation of process that is for operation, route sheet, etc...

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TYPE OF PROCESS PLANNING:

Basically there are two ways process plans can be generated they are
a) Manual process planning
b) Computer added process planning

REQUIREMENTS FOR PROCESS PLANNING:

A reasonably good process plan must satisfy the following requires.
1. A brief description of the job to be manufactured which easily and comprehensively
defines its service function.
2. Specifications& standard that stipulate the service function.
3. Working drawing of the job with complete specification.
4. Drawing of the blank.
5. Data on the quantity of part to be manufactured in a period.
6. Total quality of space parts required for each unit.
7. Equipments data that include the specification and capacity data for machine tools and
other available equipment, the data concerning the arrangement and loading of
equipments in the shop.
8. Conditions under which production engineering and manufacturing are to be organised
and accomplished whether a new or existing plants available equipments in the plant
Possibility of obtains new equipment etc.
9. Location of the plant.
10. Availability of man power to start the plant.
11. Data storing the work and data of deliver.

STEP INVOLVED IN PROCESS PLANING:

OR TERMS OF PROCESS PLANING OR OBJECTIVE PROCESS PLANNING:

The purpose of process planning is to determine and desirable the best process
needed to produce a part in order to accomplish these objectives the following steps may be
followed.

1. To become acquainted with the service function of the part.

2. To study and exactly analyse the manufacturing specifications and various standard.
Examples accuracy, output efficiency etc... That defines the service function.
3. To become acquainted with the annual output of product.

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4. To study and critically analyses the working drawings to see whether it's feasible in all
respect to produce the part and to reveal and correct any mistakes in the drawing.
5. To determine what parts to be manufactured and what parts to be purchased with their
complete identification and required quality.
6. To prepare a list of raw material of right quality and quantity to be purchased from
outside giving their shape and size and special property.
7. To select the most economical process for obtain the blanks and to determine the
quantities to be produced for the purpose of costing.
8. To determine the most economical process for manufacturing the parts keeping in view
the current production commitments delivery data, quality to be produce the quantity
standard.
9. To determine the best sequence of operation to be performed on each parts in a
particular process.
10. To select any accessories and equipment like jigs, fixtures, dies, gauge etc...That may be
required to give high production rate .
11. To select the machine tool that will perform the operations with required accurate.
12. To layout the equipment and work piece calculate machine loads and make necessary
correction in the process.
13. To revise the process to correct all mistakes and short coming that were discovered than
the process was realised in actual production.
14. To determine the stages of inspection procedure and limit gauge required for different
stage of manufacturing to irrespective accurate and at a faster rate.
15. To determine the set up time and standard time for each operation and fix up the rate
of payments.
16. To determine the kind of labour for successful exertion of the job.
17. To determine the estimated cost be the products to see whether or not that will complete
in the sales market.

PRODUCTION:
It is an organized activity of converting raw materials into useful products. or It is
the process of converting raw materials into finished product by the utilization of labour
material instruments machinery and available resources of an organization.
PRODUCT:
The raw materials going into convert a finished part is known as product. or A part
became finished and which will use for future and give better service is known as product.
or A part or an article is manufactured with the help of men ,material and machine and
become finished one for give a better service is known as product.

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PRODUCTION PLANNING:
Production planning involves management decision on the resources that the film
will require for its manufacturing operations and the selection of these resource to produce
the desired goods at the appropriate time and at the least possible cost.
It is the planning for manufacture a economical product before it is going to
manufacture. It is also called as a advance planning for developing production system.

PRODUCT DESIGN:
According to the customer need and demands the product will be designed
economically for manufactured a finished product by using of raw materials and
instruments. The product design should have shape and size of the product which will be
manufactured.

OBJECTIVES OF PRODUCT DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT:

1. To full fill the customer's needs and demands.
2. To compete the compotators in the market about the same product.
3. To maintain the product quality.
4. To increase the productivity.
5. For better failure of the work.
6. To improve the (R &D) Research and Development.
7. To make the economical product.
8. To reduce the expenses.

PROCESS ENGINEERING:
A good definition of a process describe it has series of connected steps or actions to
achieve a customer. Process engineering involved translating the needs of the customers
informs (typically) production facility. That convert raw material into value added
components that are transported to the next stage of the supply chain typically packaging
engineering.

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DESIGN
SPECIFICATI
ON

PROCESS PROCESS
CAPABILITY PLANING INSPECTION

STOCK FINISHED
PROCESS PART
MATERIALS

Fig. Process engineering diagram for Manufacture a product

INGREDIENTS

CUSTOMER ORDER ORDER

ORDERS ENTERED ASSEMBLED 3/4

CUSTOMER ORDER
WAITS DELIVERD

Fig. Process engineering diagram for delivery the product

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Example for process engineering:

Some large volume process such as petroleum refining tend to transfer the products
into transportation (Trucks or rail) that are directed to distributer or bulk outlets prior to
construction the design work of a process engineering beings with a block diagram showing
raw material and the transformation unit operation designed. The design work then
programmes to a process flow diagram, Material flow path, inventory control equipment
etc...

CHARACTERISTICS OF PROCESS ENGINEERING

1. It gives scope to starting the process and end with quality.
2. It has good aim and purpose for the success of process.
3. It maintains the standard & quality throughout the process.
4. It reduces the production cost.
5. It became a process more economical.

PRODUCT ENGINEERING:
It refers to the designing and developing a device assembly or a system such that it to
be produced as an inform for sale though same production. Usually entire activity dealing
with issues of cost product ability, quality and user features.

STANDARD TIME:
It is the time necessary for machining a job by machine of specified capacity and
suitable machining method.
1. The standard time is defined as a time required completing the all operation of a
product.
2. The standard time is the time utilized for complete the component by unitization of
suitable machining method.

3. It is used for the component manufacturing

4. The standard time includes following time
a. Machining time
b. Handling time
c. Selecting time

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MACHINING TIME:
It is the time utilized for machining or performing the operation of a product during
manufacturing on machines.

HANDLING TIME:
It is the time required for handling the material during machining handling time is
also standard.

SET UP TIME:
Set up time is located to a particular total size on the basis of parts experience.
CALCULATION OF STANDARD TIME
The standard time for each part may be calculated by the following method
To = Tm + Tn + Th + (Ts + Tset-up +Tr)/n
Where,

To = Overall time
Tm = Machining time
Th = Handling time (loading & un loading)
Ts = service time (coolant lubricating)
Tsu = setup time for tool and work piece
Tr = total rest period
n = total quality to be manufactured per setting
Tn = Number of tool used

MACHINING ALLOWANCE
The material provides beyond the finished contours a casting, forging or roughly
prepared component which is subsequently removed in machining to size.

It is a planed deviation between actual dimensions and nominal or theoretical

dimensions or between on intended final dimension and an intended final dimension is
known as machining allowance. Example An area of excess metal may be left because it is
needed to complete sub sequence machining.
The common causes are listed between an allowance which is a planned deviation
from an ideal is constructed with a tolerance which is account for accepted but unplanned
deviations. Allowance is basically the size difference between components that work
together in assembly allowance is very important.

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TYPES OF ALLOWANCE
1. Allowance (in mould and casting)
2. Draft allowance (in mould & casting)
3. Deformation or camber allowance (casting)
4. Rapping allowance (sand mould)
5. Finishing allowance (casting)
6. Assembly mating parts.

SELECTION OF CUTTING VARIABLES:

CUTTING SPEED:
Selection of cutting speed is major variable which effects on cutting of metal the
selecting of cutting speed include be prepare for metal cutting the cutting edge passes over
the material.
It is expressed by metre /min. It is denoted by "V"
Calculation of cutting speed
V = πdn /1000 in m/min.

FEED
The feed is another variable which effects on metal cutting feed is suitable for machining of
metal cutting.
DEPTH OF CUT
The depth of cut is the perpendicular distance measured from the machined surface
to the uncut surface of work piece. It is denoted by `t`
The calculation of depth of cut is
t=d1-d2/l
The given depth of cut should not be variable while machining. It should be satisfied with
cutting speed and feed.
TYPES MATERIAL SELECTION
The material selection should be good for process and which should be finished by
availability of machining method.
METAL CUTTING FORCE
The metal cutting force is necessary for surface finish. The characteristics of force
acting by that tool towards the work piece.
MATERIAL REMOVAL
The material removal rate is depending on materials of a work tool.

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TOOL LIFE
The tool should have a good life for concept the work.

CHIP THICKNESS
Chip thickness decides the metal cutting rate and operation of work.

STRENGTH OF MACHINE
The machines should have a good efficiency and strength for metal cutting.

CUTTING FLUID
The different types of cutting fluids increase the quality and minimize the heat and
make good strength.

STANDARD TIME
This is also effected on the process planning of metal cutting it should be standard
for operation of work is consists of machining time setup time.

TOOL SELECTION
The Tool selection should proper for metal work and has all the properties regarding
metal cutting.

PLANNING THE OPERATION SEQUENCE:

Determine the best sequence of operation is an important step in the realization of a
product that is designed for production. Product cost and product quantities are closely
related to operations sequence. A deferent sequence of operation performed will result in
deferent operation time deferent than portion time to the work centre, deferent locating,
different clamping device. In the case of an existing plant the operation sequence for a new
product is to be determining on the basis of available equipment and loading condition of
the equipment.

The following are important information prove the process planning sequence.
1. List of available machines
2. List of available general purpose to line
3. Capability of equipment
4. Machine load chart
5. Standard data

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FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLE OF PLANNING THE OPERATION SEQUENCE:

There are certain fundamental principles which must be followed in planning the
optimum operation sequence there are

1. SELECTION OF DOTUM SURFACE

The selections of datum in fluency all sub sequence machining operation and inspection.
2. SURFACE
Surface whose machining will not reduce the rigidity of the work that surface should
be machined earlier in the sequence.
3. OPERATIONS
Internal operation in the sequence or performed in advance of external operation.
4. MATERIAL REMOVED
The operations in the sequence should be big in with removing the largest material of
the work piece.
5. REJECTS OF WORK
The operation sequence should be minimizing the reject of Work piece due to damage
improper dimensions rough finish etc...
6. FINISHING OPERATION
Finishing operation should be performed at the end of operation sequence to reduce
damaging of finished surface of changing their diameters.

7. ROUGHING AND FINISHING

Roughing and finishing operation should be done on separate machine so that
accuracy of machine intended for finishing.
8. INSPECTION
Inspection should be done before operation during operation after operation.
9. MATERIAL HANDLING
Material handling is a necessity of any productivity activity. Since it applies to the
movement of raw material parts in process finished good packing material dispatched of
scrap. The sequence of machining operation should be coordinate with heat treating
operation.

MAIN CONDITIONS IN SELECTING THE MACHINING METHODS

Various criteria to be considered while selecting the machining operations.
1.SIZE OF ORDER
The number of components to be produced will determine to large extent how much can
spent on the following.
a) Tools
b) Fixtures
c) Special machines

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The processer should keep in mind the following of new equipment is to be purchased
for machining.
a) Cost of labour
b) Cost of tooling
c) Tool tears down
d) Maintenance
e) Cost of machining

2. RATE OF PRODUCTION

Rate of production is an important factor to be considered while writing process sheet

the production cost should be minimum and it should be satisfied with customer.
3. SIZE OF WORK PIECE:
Depending on size of work piece the various operations should be combined in such a
way that is should be easier to move the work piece to the machine.
4. MACHINE AVAILABLE:
The processer should be know the following details of various machines available
A) Operation which can be performed on machines available
B) Power rating machine
C) Size of work piece can be handled by various machines
D) Precision
E) Dependability
5. NATURE OF SURFACES TO BE MACHINED:
A surface which is controlled by close tolerance may be need to be machined
independently where as adjustment surface may be machined in one set up.

TOOL ALLOWANCE
Time allowance per components for tooling may be calculated as follows.
T = Total cutting time per component in min.
M = Average of life per tool in min.
N = Number of tool in set up
T = Average time to reset one tool in min.
S = Total tool life
.'. Total tool life = m n in min.
Z = Number of components for a complete set up of tool changes
S/T = M X N/T
A = allowance per component per tool

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T / 2 = t xT / MXN
B = allowance per component for N tools
.'. Allowance per component for N tools
=A×N

= t ×T × N
M×N

= t× T
M in min.

PROCESS PLANNING SHEET:

1. Process planning sheet is a detail record where all information relating to different
operation needed to manufacturing a part are listed in labour form.
2. This also known an analysis sheet, instruction sheet, operation sheet, on process sheet.
3. The description of the operation and their elements indicated in process sheet.
4. It gives information about different operation time expenditure.
5. The character of a process sheet will depends mainly on the scale up production and the
degree of importance of the product being manufactured.

PROCESS PLANNING SHEET INCLUDES FOLLOWING INFORMATION:

1. Information concerning the work piece which includes home drawing and service
function.
2. Information concerning the blank which include material size of stock when used as a
blank character etc..
3. Description and number of operation and those of their elements.
4. Information concerning the manufacturing equipments such as machine tool auxiliary
equipment attachments and accessories etc..
5. Data regarding description of Work sizes or code number.
6. Data on jigs, fixtures and tools.
7. Information concerning standard time, setting time, handling time, machine time
operation.
8. Job rate for each operation.

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EXAMPLES OF PROCESS PLANNING SHEET:

1. The process planning sheet is also called as analysis sheet, information sheet, operation
sheet process sheet, instruction sheet. For different operation design sheet and
information sheet.
2. The process planning sheet describes all the information regarding (part or product)
manufacture. (Production).
3. The process sheet inform of labour which contain all the different information covering
part manufacture.
4. The process planning sheet indicates operation description and process of work.
5. It helps to gives the information regarding work on what is to be done and why.
6. It needs to increase the quality and quantity and minimize the product cost.
7. It helps to give a information of time during manufacture after manufacture.

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PROCESS PLANNING SHEET FOR GRINDING AND MILLING

OPERATIONS

Company name: X Y Z Routing sheet no.: 01

Product:
Product No.: 01 P a g e o f
v-block
Unit Name: p q r

P r o c e s s p l a n n i n g P a r t N o . : 0 1 0 1 - 0 2
Operation Name:
Part name: V-block
Milling, Grinding
sheet no: 01

R M S : F M S : Lot Size:
Material: M.S Material code: 01 Unit: Mill-01 Parts per Units:10 0 3 - 0 4
55mmx55mm 50mmx50mm 10x5 no.

Operation C u t t i n g Sta nda r d

Operation no. Equipments: Jigs and Fixtures: Instruments: R e m a r k s :
Details: Tools: Time:

P la in mill 0 1 Collets , Adapter Machine vice Ø 25mm End mill Vernier Calliper 3 0 m i n - - - - - -

Angle mill 0 2 Indexing Chuck, Vice Ø 10mm End mill Vernier, angle Gauge 1 5 m i n - - - - - -

Slot mill 0 3 A r b o r Machine vice Ø 8 mm End mill Vernier Calliper 3 0 m i n - - - - - -

Grinding
Slot grinding 0 4 S p i n d l e Magnetic bed Vernier, Depth micrometre 4 5 m i n - - - - - -
Wheel

Grinding
Plain grinding 0 5 S p i n d l e Magnetic bed Vernier, Micrometre 1 0 m i n - - - - - -
Wheel

Planner: Planner sign: Approver:

Approver sign: a.b.c
ABC a.b.c ABC

Sign date: Approved date:dd

Planning date:dd/mm/yy Sign date: dd/mm/yy
dd/mm/yy /mm/yy

Al ter a ti on
Issued no:-01 Issued date: dd/mm/yy Alteration No:-01
Date:dd/mm/yy

FACTORS AFFECTING ON PRODUCTION PLANNING

1. There are several factors that affecting or contribute to the success of production
planning for a product or a service.
2. In general production planning must on line with overall operation strong alien with
overall corporate strategic objectives.
3. Internal and external effects.
4. Companies vision, mission and values.
5. Work delivery schedule.
6. Market level.

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QUALITY:
Minimize mistakes give better quality service of product to costumer quality reduce in the
production cost.

SPEED:
React quality to costumer requirement speed decreases inventory, Increases productivity to
full fill customer requirements.
DEPENDABILITY:
Deliver your product or service with quality when customer want or require dependability
save time and cost.
FLEXIBALITY:
Changing customer demands and makes useful product or service for life time.
COST:
The cost is minimizing more expenses by reducing production cost by make a product
economic.
PRODUCTIVITY:
The major of the deficiency of a person, machine, factory system etc., are used in
converting raw material into useful finished products. Productivity is computed by dividing
average output per period by the total cost incurred or resources (capital, energy, material,
personal) consumed in that period productivity is a critical determinate of cost efficiency.
Productivity is an average measure of the efficiency of production. It can be
expressed as the ratio of output to input used in the production process when all output an
input or included in productivity measure is also called productivity.

IMPORTANT HINTS
1. Process planning is a procedure used to develop retailed list of a manufacturing
operations required for the production of part or product.
2. Process planning is a linkage between product design and product manufacturing.
3. Steps involved in the process planning should be most economical.
4. There are two process planning followed, the one is manual process planning and the
other one is computer added process planning.
5. Product cost and product quantity is closely related to operation sequence.
6. Process planning sheet is also called as analysis sheet.
7. Process planning sheet includes all the manufacturing information related to the work.
8. Production is an organized activity of converting raw material into useful product.
9. Production planning is also called as advanced planning, for developing production
system.

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10. Production design has certain shape and size of the product which will be
manufactured.
11. Process engineering involves translating the need of customer into production facilities
that converts raw material into value added component.
12. In selecting the machining method size of order, rate of product, size of work piece,
machine available.

FILL IN THE BLANKS:

1) Process develops the broad plan of manufacturing a_________.
Ans: Product.

2) The purpose of process planning is to determine and desirable the _____ needed to
Produce a product.
Ans: Process

3) Process planning determining the best _______sequence to develop the process for
Produce a Product.
Ans: Operation

4) ____________is also known as analysis sheet or process sheet for instruction

invalid.
Ans: Process planning sheet.

5) ___________ sheet determines different operations sequence design, specification,

Analogue product tools inspection devices etc.
Ans: Process planning.

6) The raw material converting into a finished product is known as a _________

Ans: Product.

7) Production planning is made by ________department.

Ans: Production.

8) __________ is also called as advanced planning for developing the production

system.
Ans: Production planning.

9) The ________time is used for calculating the machining operations on a machine.

Ans: Machining.

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10) _________ time is used for handling the tools, machines, raw material.
Ans: Handling.

11) _________allowance is planned deviation between an actual dimensions and fixed

dimension.
Ans: Machining.

12) Overall time, machining time, handling time and service time are used for calculate
______time.
Ans: Total time

MATCH THE FOLLOWING:

PART-A PART-B
1. Process Planning _______ Analysis sheet.
2. Production planning _______ Advanced planning.
3. Process planning _______ Operation sequence.
4. Operation sequence _______ Scheduling.
5. Process planning sheet ______ Operation programs.
6. Tool allowance ______ L= t x T/m in Min.
7. Product design ______ Size, shape of product.
8. Cutting variables ______ Feed, speed, depth of cut.
9. Product ______ Raw material to finish.
10. Cutting speed ______ M /min. or πdn /1000.
11. Feed ______ mm/min.

IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1.What is the process planning? ? List out the step involved in process planning?
2. What is process engineering? Explain the general factors of involved production
planning?
3. Define the following terms with reference to machining operation.
1) Cutting speed 2) machining allowance 3) standard time 4) depth of cut
4. Define the following with reference to process engineering.
1) Process design 2) production design 3) set up time 4) machining allowance
5) productivity
5. Explain the following a) product design b) process design?
6. Explain the requirements of process planning?
7. Design a process planning sheet for a slotting operation to be performed on milling
machine and indicate the specification required.

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UNIT 2- PROCESS OF METAL CUTTING

INTRODUCTION:
In the metal cutting working industry work pieces of most different shapes &
dimensions of different material are worked. the various working process fall into two
groups of Cutting & Non cutting examples Forging, Pressing, Drawing etc., and that of
cutting shaping by which finish surface desired shape and dimension is obtained by
separating a layer from the parent of work piece in the form of chips example Turning,
Drilling, Milling etc.,

CUTTING TOOL:
A cutting tool may be used either for cutting a part as with a knife or for removing
chips. The work piece is produced by removing metal by uses of cutting tool. Cutting tool
removes access material from the work piece and produce finished product.
TYPES OF TOOL MATERIAL:
The selection of proper tool material depends upon the types of service to which the
tool will be subjected.
1. Carbon steel
2. Medium alloy steel
a. O- type tool steel
b. A- type tool steel
3. High speed steel
a. 18-4-1 steel
b. Molybdenum steel
c. Cobalt steel
4. Cubic boron nitrides
5. Coated carbide steel.
6. Cemented carbide tools
a.Tungsten
b.Titanium
7. Stellites
8. Ceramics
9. Diamonds
10. Abrasives
a. Aluminum
b.Silicon

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c.Carbide
d. Emery paper
e.Stones
1. CARBON STEELS:
It is contains0.08% to 1.5% carbon.
ADVANTAGES:
1. It is hand operated tool.
2. These are available in cheap rate.
3. It is easy to forging.
4. It is a simple hardened tool.

DISADVANTAGES:
1. These tools are comparatively low heat tools.
2. These are not efficient to high wear and high shock.
3. They lose their required hardness at temperature 200°c to 230°c.
4. These are work in low cutting speed.

2. MEDIUM CARBON STEELS:

These type tools have a carbon content alien to plane carbon steel but in addition
there is say up to 5% alloy consisting of tungsten, molybdenum, chromium & vanadium.

ADVANTAGES:
The addition other element with carbon which improve the performance position of
the carbon steel in respect of hot hardness wear resistant, shock and resistance.
DISADVANTAGES:
They lose their hardness at 250°c to 350°c.
It has midway performance position between plain carbon & high speed steel.
APPLICATION:
1. Punching dies
2. Gauges
3. Gauges and instruments
4. Coining dies.
TYPES OF MEDIUM ALLOY STEELS:
O-TYPE STEELS:
i) These are oil quenched hardened steel. The composition of o-type steels are Carbon- 0%
to 90% Manganese - 1% Vanadium - 0.1% CR - 0.3%.
ii) These are used to punch dies.

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A-TYPE STEELS:
i) These are hardened steels by high temperature.
ii) The composition of this steels are Carbon 71%, Chromium 75%, used to manufacture of
gauges and dies.
3. HIGH SPEED STEELS:
1) It is shortly called by the name of HSS.
2) These are operating at cutting speed 20 to 30 times higher than carbon steel.
3) It has better hardness up to 900 degree Celsius.
4) They are used for producing a different operations like drilling, turning, tapping, boring,
milling, etc.,
5) It has superior hot hardness wear resistance property.

There are three types of high speed steels

1) 18-4-1 HIGH SPEED STEEL:
1. These type of steels containing 18% of tungsten, 4% of chromium, 1% of vanadium.
2. It is better for heavy duty work.
2) MOLYBDENUM HIGH SPEED STEEL:
1. These steel containing 6% of molybdenum, 6% of tungsten, 4% of chromium, 2% of
vanadium.
2. It has excellent cutting ability and good strength.
3) COBALT HIGH SPEED STEEL:
1. These steels contain 90% tungsten, 4% chromium 12% of cobalt.
2. It is sometimes called as Super High Speed steel.

4) STELLITES:
1. Stellites is the trade name of non ferrous cast alloy.
2. It contains alloying elements those are 40-48% of cobalt, 30-35% of chromium, 12-19%
of tungsten carbon is added 1.8-2.5%.
3. Stellites pressure hardness up to 1000° c.
4. They can't be forged to shape but may be deposited directly on the tool shank in action
flame small tips of cast stellites can be braised in places.

DIS ADVANTAGES:
1. These are brittle materials.
2. These are not widely used for metal cutting operation.
APPLICATIONS:
1. This tool is used in non ferrous materials like rubber, plastics.
2. It is used in wear abrasive problem.
3. Gradually load used for metal cutting.

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5) ABRASSIVE:
a) It is a substance used for grinding, polishing and finishing.
b) Abrasive is widely used for grinding, harder material.
c) Abrasive obtained the superior desired finish on hardened or unhardened.
APPLICATION:
Abrasive are in the nature of grain in various forms such as.
i) Loose grain

ii) Bonded wheel

iii) Stones

iv) Emery paper

v) Embed

vi) Clothing

vii) Corundum

There are two types abrasives generally used in grinding operation.

a) Aluminum oxide
b) Silicon carbide

A) ALUMINIUM OXIDE:
i. It is used for grinding the hard material.
ii. It is used for high tensile material.
B) SILICON CARBIDE:
i. It is used for grinding soft material.
ii. It is used for low tensile material.
6) DIAMOND:
i. It is hardest material.
ii. The diamond is used for cutting tool as an industrial diamond.
iii. Alternately diamond can be artificial.
iv. The diamond can be run at temperature up to 1650°c.
ADVANTAGES:
1. It has better cutting speed so it can be run at cutting speed about 50 times greater than
HSS tool.
2. It has in compressible nature.
3. They have large grain structure.
4. It conducts high heat.
5. It withstands with high heat, wear, shock and co-efficient friction.

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APPLICATIONS:
1. These are suitable for cutting glass, plastic and ceramic.
2. Abrasive material cutting.
3. It is used for producing fine finish on components.
7) COATED CARBIDE STEELS:
1. Coated carbide steels are Tic, Tin, AI2o3
2. A thin chemically stable shock resistance refectory coating of Tic, Tin, Al2o3 are applied
on the tungsten carbide inserts using chemical rapper disposition inserts.
3. In coating the first layer is of Tic, and second layer of Al2o3, and thin layer is of Tin.
4. It has better wear resistance property.
8) CUBIC BORON NITRIDE (CBN)
1. It is the second hardest material available next to diamond.
2. It consists of atoms of boron and nitrogen.
3. It is has high hardness ability.
4. It is having high thermal conductivity.
5. It is having high tensile strength.
APPLICATION:
A thin layer of CBN is applied cemented carbide tools to obtain better machining per
formation.
9) CEMENTED CARBIDE:
1. These are composed of carbon mixed with other elements. The basic ingredients of most
cemented carbide are tungsten carbide which is extremely hard.
2. Boron titanium & tantalum are also used to form carbide.
3. To increase the toughness of tool the cobalt must be mixed with carbide.
4. The steel machining carbide is cemented and composed with 82% tungsten, 10% of
titanium and 8% of cobalt.

10) CONSTRUCTIN OR FORM OF CEMENTED CARBIDE:

The carbide tools are made by brazing or silver soldering the formed inserts on the ends of
commercial steel holders.
ADVANTAGES:
1. It has wear resistance property.
2. It withstand at high heat.
3. It cuts a metal at 1000 degree Celsius temperature.
4. The cutting speed is greater than the hardness of material.
5. The tool has high compressive strength.

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DISADVANTAGES:
1. It is very brittle.
2. It is low resistance to shock.

TYPES OF CEMENTED CARBIDES:

There are two types of cemented carbides
1. Tungsten type
2. Titanium tungsten type
CERAMICS:
1. It is also called as aluminium oxide tool.
2. These tools are made by composing aluminium oxide powder in a mould at about 280
kg /cm² or more.
3. Ceramic tool material is made in the form of tips that are to be clamped on the metal
shanks.
ADVANTAGES:
1. These tools have externally high compressive strength.
2. It can with stand temperature up to 1200° c.
3. It has low bending strength.
4. It has better cutting speed four times of that cemented carbides.
DISADVANTAGES:
1. It is quit brittle.
2. These tools are used rare in machining of hard material.
3. Vibration is high during machining.
4.They are used for single point tools in semi finish and finish turning of cast iron, plastics
etc.,
CHARACTERISTICS OF CUTTING TOOL MATERIAL
1. HOT HARDENESS:
The tool material must be harder & have good strength than the work piece metal at
working temperature.
2. HARDNESS:
The tool material must be harder and have good strength than work piece material
3. WEAR RESISTANCE:
The tool must be with stand excessive wear resistance property.
4. TOUGHANESS:
The tool material must be having toughness properties which must be with stand shock
and vibration and prevent the breakage of tool.
5. STRENGTH:
The cutting tool material has good strength of cutting.

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6.COST:
Cost for material of the cutting tool should be in reasonable limits.

7. FABRICATION:
Fabrication of the tool material should have reasonable limits.
8. CONDUCTIVE:
The tool material must be conductive.
9. CARBON AND OTHER CONTENT:
The carbon content must be greater than other content in tool material.

METAL CUTTING PROCESS

In which chips is formed by relative motions between the work piece and the cutting
point of tool, held against the work piece the relative motion is either of the work piece or of
the cutting or of both.
TYPES OF CUTTING PROCESS
There are two major types of metal cutting process.
1. NON METAL CUTTING PROCESS
i. Forging Process
ii. Pressing Process
iii. Drawing Process
iv. Bending Process
V.Forging Process
vi. Forming Process
Vii.Molding Process
viii. Casting Process
2. METAL CUTTING PROCESS
i. Turning Process
ii. Drilling Process
iii. Milling Process
iv. Grinding Process
v. Shaping Process
vi. Threading Process
vii. Reaming Process
viii. Boring Process
ix. Taping Process

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CLASSIFICATION OF METAL WORKING PROCESS:

The metal cutting or working process is classified on the bases of following.
1. Types of work
2. Shape and size of work piece
3. Different operation which form the shape & size and maintaining dimensions
4. Type of work holding device
5. Tool holding devices
6. Type of machines
7. Size of tool
8. Types of operations performed

There are two types of cutting process

1. Metal cutting
2. Non metal cutting

1. METAL CUTTING PROCESS:

In which chips is formed by relative motions between the work piece and the cutting
point of tool held against the work piece the relative motion is either of the work piece or of
the cutting or of both. The following operations are to be performed by the Metal cutting
process.
1. Turning Operation
2. Milling Operation
3. Drilling Operation
4. Grinding Operation
5. Tapping Operation
6. Threading Operation
7. Boring Operation

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2. NON METAL CUTTING PROCESS:

In this process of forming the shape and size without Cutting action. It is chip less
process it forms shape of work piece according to standard dies and instruments. The
following operations are to be performed by the Non metal cutting process.

1. Casting Operation
2. Forging Operation
3. Pressing Operation
4. Drawing Operation
5. Bending Operation.

METHODS OF METAL CUTTING

There are two basic methods of metal cutting using a single point cutting tool.
1. Orthogonal or two dimensional method
2. Oblique or three dimensional methods

ORTHOGONAL METHOD:

Fig. Orthogonal cutting method

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Fig. Orthogonal cutting method

1. Orthogonal metal cutting method is also called as two dimensional methods.

2. Orthogonal cutting takes place when the cutting face of the tool is at 90 degree to the line
of action or tool path this is called orthogonal method.
3. The depth of cut & feed in this method is same as oblique method.
4. When compare to the oblique method the orthogonal method also removes same metal
and have a less tool life.
5. Orthogonal cutting in the machine shop confirm mainly to such operations as knife
turning, boring , slotting etc.,
6. Orthogonal cutting is the simplest type.
7. The heat & friction developed in this method is more.
8. It produces high chip formation.
9. This method used for the operations like turning, boring, surface finishing.

OBLIQUE METHOD:

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1. Oblique cutting method d is also called as three dimensional methods.

2. The oblique cutting method takes place when the cutting face inclined at an angle less
than 90 degree to the path of tool this cutting action is called oblique method.
3. The depth of cut & feed is same as in the oblique method.
4. In this method the tool have a longer life.
5. The heat & friction is developed during cutting is small.
6. It is also remove more metal in the same as orthogonal method.
7. The machining is done by oblique cutcutting
ting method is better than orthogonal method.
8. In this method the chip formation is less as compared to orthogonal method.
9. This method is used for forming the operations like facing, chamfering, indexing etc.,

TYPES OF CHIPS:
The form & dimension of a chip in metal making indication the nature and quality
of a particular machining process but the type of chip formed is greatly influence by the
properties
erties of the material removes and various conditions .The chips are indicated by the
shapes and sizes .The form & dimensions of chip is depends upon the metal. The formation
of chip is depends on various operation. In metal cutting process hard and brittle material
are very united & ductile are mostly used.
The chips of ductile materials are removed metal varying property of tear, shear
and flow this result in three types or form.
1. The discontinuous or segmented form
2. The continuous or ribbon type
3. The continuous with built of edge

01.THE DISCONTINUOUS OR SEGMENTED

SEGME FORM

Fig. Discontinuous chip formation

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1. These type of chips consist of elements fractured into fairly small pieces on a head of the
cutting tool.
2. This type chip is obtained in machining most of brittle materials such as cost iron &
bronze.
3. The material rapture during plastic deformation and form the chips as separate small
pieces.
4. These chips produced good surface finish.
5. In this process the Tool life is also reasonably good.
6. The formed chips have small rake angle.
7. The
he discontinuous chips can also be formed on some ductile metals under certain
condition speed, friction and elastic limit.
8. With the ductile material however the surface finish is bad with the tool life.

02. CONTINIOUS CHIPS OR RIBBON TYPE

Fig. types of chips formation

1. The continuous chip consists of elements bonded firmly together without being
fractured.
2. The chipss are formed under the plastic deformation stage.
3. The upper side of the continuous chip has a smalls those while the lower side which
sides over tool and is smooth and shine .
4. The continuous form is considered most desirable for low fricti
friction,
on, low power
consumption, long tool life good surface finish.
5. This type of chip formation is obtained in machining of ductile metal such as mild steel,
copper etc.,
6. Factors for formation of chips are fine feed, high cutting speed, Long rarake angle
sufficient lubrication and smooth tool life.

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03. CONTINIOUS WITH BUILT UP EDGE TYPE

Fig. Continuous with built up edge type chip formation

1. In this the building up of rigid of metal on the tip surface of the tool above the cutting
edge.

2. This type of chip is formed in the ductile metal due to pile of compressed and highly
stressed metal form at the extreme edge of the tool.
3. Owing to the high heat and pressure generated there. This metal is welded to the
cutting tips and forms of false cutting edge to the tool. This weld metal is extremely
strain hard abrasive so weaker chip metal tear away from the weld metal as the chip
moves along the tool.
4. The built up edge produce rough surface on the work surface.
5. At very high speed usuall
usuallyy associated with carbide tool the built up edge is very small
or non existence smooth machined surface result.
6. Continuous chip formation tending to promoted the formation of built up edges
include low cutting speed, low rake angle, high feed, cutting fluid
fluid and large depth of
cut.

MECHANICS OF CUTTING AND CHIP FORMATION

OR SHEAR PLAIN IN METAL CUTTING:
CUTTING
Consider a below diagram in that the tool is considerable as stationary and the work
movable. The metal is compressed in the area infront of the cutting tool .This cases high
temperature share plastic deformation plastic flow it the metal is ductile.

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SHEAR PLAIN OR SHERING ACTION:

When the stress is developed in the work piece just ahead to the cutting tool reaches
a value exceeding the ultimate strength of metal particular will share to form a chip
elements which moves up along the face of the work. The shearing movement of each
element
ement is arrested by work hardening & the movement is transferred to the element.

The process is repetitive and continuous chip is formed the chip formation having highly
compressed and burnished under side and selected top side caused by the shearing action.
The plain along which element shears is known as deformation of shear plain the chip is
formed by plastic deformation of the grain structure of metal along the shear plain.

SHEAR ZONE IN METAL CUTTING:

Actually the deformation does not occur sharply across the shear plain but rather it occurs
along a narrow bond. Consider a below diagram in that the structure begins elonging
along the line AB (below the shear plain) and continuous to do so until it’s co completely
deformed along the line CD (above the shear plain).

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SHEAR ZONE OR PRIMERY DEFOORATION

It rigid the lower surface AB where elongation of the grain structure begins and
upper surface CD where its completed and the chip is born is known as shear zone primary
deformation.
CHIP THICKENESS RATIO
The outward flow of the metal causes the chip to be thicker after separation from the
parent, metal. That is chip produced is thicker than the depth of cut.
Let,
a2= thickness of chip
a1= uncut thickness (feed- incase of turning)
From the geometry of figure
a2 =a1 = cos (β- γ)
Sin β

If the degree of reduction or chip reduction co efficient is designated as `re`

re = a1 = cos (β- γ)
a2 sin β

From which
Tan β = cos γ
Re-sin γ
The chip reduction coefficient can also be ultimate in a different manner by measuring the
length of chip (lc) when
r1=Lo/Lc
Where
r1= chip reduction coefficient from length measurement
L0=Original length of uncut material in mm
From constancy of volume removal
r1=Lo/Lc = Qcbc /aobo = Ac / AO = ra

Where
Ao = uncut area of layer to be removed in mm2
Ac = Area of chip cross section in mm2
ro= chip reduction coefficient from area measurement
If there is no side flow of the chips
When,
bc = bo
r1 =ra = rc

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It is difficult to measure the cross section of chip accuracy since one side of the chip
is usually rough. Hence rc is often determined from length measurement.

The density of metal may be used to find the chip reduction coefficient
Thus, rc = tw in p/m
Where,
w= width of chip
p= density of metal
m = weight per unit length of the metal

VELOCITY OF RRELATIONSHIP:
The velocity relationship for orthogonal cutting is illustrated in above figure.
Where,
ve- is cutting velocity
vs - is the velocity of shear
Vf -is the velocity of chip flow up the tool life.
Therefore from the figure (2.7)
Vs = vc cos γ/cos(β-γ)
Vf = vc = sinβ/ COS(β-γ)
or from equation Vf =Vc /rc

From the principle of kinematics that the relative velocity of two bodies (here tools & the
chip) is equal to the vector difference between their velocity relative to the reference body
(the work piece).
So,
Vc = Vc+vf

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CUTTING TOOL:
A cutting tool may be used either for cutting a part as with a knife or for
removing chips. The work pieces are produced by removing metal by uses of cutting tool.
Cutting tool removes access material from the work piece and produce finished product.

TYPES OF CUTTING TOOL:

There are two types of Cutting tools.
1. Single point cutting tool.
2. Multipoint cutting tool.

1. SINGLE POINT CUTTING TOOL:

The single point cutting tool having a single point are edge of sharp cutting point which
removes metal on the work peace and perform the shape and size. The single point cutting
tool is in the form of simple. In metal removing process the tool moves towards to the work
piece for remove the material.

Fig. single point cutting tool

APPLICATION OF SINGLE POINT CUTTING TOOL:

The single point cutting tool is used for performing the following operations
1. Turning operation
2. Shaping operation
3. Slotting operation
4. Facing operation
5. Boring operation

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6. Threading operation
7. Engraving operation
8. Chamfering operation

MULTI POINT CUTTING TOOL:

The multi point cutting tools having mainly two or more than two single points
arranged together as a unit for remove the access material. The milling cutters are the
suitable for this as the name indicates it have two or more than two cutting points those are
arranged together as a unit.

Fig. Multi point cutting tool

APPLICATION OF MULTI POINT CUTTING TOOLS:

The multi point cutting tool is used for performing the following operations
1. Milling operation
2. Grinding operation
3. Indexing operation
3. Drilling operation
4. Reaming operation
5 .Tapping operation
6. Knurling operation

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SINGLE POINT CUTTING TOOL NAMINACLATURE

Fig. single point cutting tool nomenclature

Fig. multi point cutting tool (milling cutter) nomenclature

The nomenclature of single point cutting tool is shown in above figure. The
nomenclature of tool define the shape of tool .The cutting tool nomenclature means
systematic of the various parts and angles of a cutting tool .The cutting tool angles are the
same whether the tool is a single point tool or multipoint tool or a grinding wheel.
The complete nomenclature of the various parts of a single point tool is shown in
above figure These are shank, face, heel, flank, nose, base, back rake angle, side rake
angle, side clearance, end cutting edge, wide cutting edge and lip angle .

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SHANK
1. It is the portion of the tool bit.
2. It is rectangular shape in cross section
3. It does not remove the material because it does not have cutting edge.
BASE
It is underside of the shank.
BODY
It is the whole portion of cutting tool including cutting edge.
FACE
The face of the cutting tool that surface against to which the chip slides upwards.
LIP
It is also called as cutting angle it included angle when the tool has been ground wedged
shaped.
FLANK
It is the surface of cutting tool which face the work piece.

HEEL
It is the lowest portion of the cutting tool.

NOSE
The nose of a tool is the conjunction of the side cutting edge angle and cutting edge angle
the nose radius increase the tool life and improves better surface finish.
RAKE
It is the top of away from the cutting edge.
LARGER RAKE ANGLE
It is conductive to good surface finish each tool have a side back rake angle.
BACK RAKE ANGLE
It indicates that the plain which forms the face or top of the tool has been ground back at
an angle slopping from the nose.
SIDE RAKE ANGLE
It indicates that the plane which forms the face or top of the cutting tool has been ground
back at angle slopping from the side cutting edge.
SIDE RELIF ANGLE
It indicates that the plane which forms the flank or side of tool has been ground back at
an angle sloping down from the end of cutting edge.

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END RELIFE ANGLE

It is also called as end clearance. It indicates that the nose or end of tool has been ground
back of an angle slopping down from the end of cutting edge.
END CUTTING EDGE ANGLE
It indicates that the plane which forms the end of the tool has been ground back at an
angle sloping from the nose to the side of the shank.

SIDE CUTTING EDGE ANGLE

It indicates that the plane forms the flank .The major chips are removed by this side
cutting edge angle.

TOOL LIFE AND WEAR:

Fig. Tool life and wear

Tool life is the time or (period). A tool will operate satisfactory until dulled. It is life
of a tool which is work within the period of wear or "dulled" or "days".
1) The tool life is an important factor in a cutting tool performance.
2) A tool cannot cut for unlimited period of time because it has definite life.
3) The face of tool to be smooth than the cutting tool have long life.
4) The blunt tool cases chatter marks in machining and pox surface finish.
5) A wearied or blunt tool increases in cutting forces power consumption.
6) The blunt or wearied tool increases over heating of the tool.

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TOOL FAILURE:

THE FAILUR OF CUTTING TOOL MAY BE THE RESULT OF

1) Wear on the flank of the tool.
2) Wear at the tool chip interface.
3) Combination of flank and cracking;
4) The spoiling or crumbling of the cutting tools.
5) The less of tool hardness.
6) Fracture of cutting tools.

1. WEAR ON THE FLANK OF THE TOOL

1) Flank wear is a flat portion worn behind the cutting edge which eliminates same
clearance.
2) Flank wear takes place when machining brittle material as cast iron.
3) Flank wear takes place one feed is less than 1.5mm/revolution.
4) Flank wear region is called "wear land".

2. WEAR AT THE TOOL CHIP INTERFACE

1) This occurs in the form of depression or crater.
2) This type of wear is caused by the pressure of the chip as it slides up the face of the
cutting tool.
3) This type of wear takes place when feed is greater than 0.15 mm/revolution at low or
moderate speed.
4) This wear effects on the cutting edge so that the tool is weakened or breakdown.
5) This type of wear occurs when HSS stellites carbide tools turn ductile metals.

3. THE COMBINATION OF FLANK AND CRATERING

This type of combination happened when feed is greater than 0.15 mm/rev of lower
moderate speed.

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4. THE SPALLING OR CRUMBLING OF THE CUTTING TOOLS

1) A cutting tools has improperly ground relief angles will rub on the metal and wear the
clearance angle.
2) If the cutting edges are not will supported they will be subjected to cracking and spilling.
3) Other factors that cause the tool to chip spall or accessing chip 1000 intermittent heating
and cooling interrupted cutting.
5. THE LOSS OF TOOL HARDENESS
The loss of tool hardness happened by the excessive heat under the cutting condition
when the temperature and stresses are high, plastic deformation may cause less of form
stability for hardness of the tool.
6. FRACTURE OF CUTTING TOOL
1) The fracture of tool is caused by a process of mechanical breakage.
2) When the cutting force is very large then the fracture or cracks are formed on cutting
point.
3) The fracture developing fatigue cracks under chatter conditions.

FACTORS AFFECTING ON TOOL LIFE:

The life of a tool is affected by many factors such as
1. Cutting speed
2. Depth of cut
3. Feed
4. Cutting fluid
5. Chip thickness
6. Nose radius of tool
7. Tool geometry
8. Physical chemical property of work material,
9. Material of tool
10. Machinability

01) CUTTING SPEED

1. Cutting speed has the greater influence on tool life.
2. As the cutting speed increases the temperature also rise's which increases the hardness of
the work.
3. If the cutting speed is increased that causes flank wear or crater, wear on the cutting
tools and cutting edges.

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The relation of cutting speed of tool life is expressed by the formula as VTn=C
Where,
V=Cutting speed in metal portion.
T=Tool life in minutes.
C=Contact which is numerically equal to cutting speed.
n = Exponent which depends on the tool and the work piece the exponent value is
different for different material like HSS 0.1, carbide 0.20 to 0.25, and ceramics 0.42
to 0.55.

02) FEED & DEPTH OF CUT

The tool life is influenced by the feed rate also with a fine feed area of the chip
passing over the tool face is greater than that of a course feed for a given volume of chip
removal but to offset this chip will greater .The effect of feed & depth of cut on tool life is
given by V=257/T0.195x5 0.36 xt0.08 m/min.

Where,
S=Feed in mm/min
t= depth of cut in mm
Another relation between cutting speed for a given tool life depth of cut & feed is given by
Vt=CV/t6x x sy m/min.
Where
Vt = Cutting speed for a given tool life in m/min.
CV = a coefficient depending upon machine, work piece and variables.
xy = exponent which is depends on the mechanical properties of the material being.

03) TOOL GEOMETRY

Fig : Tool geometry

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01) The tool life is also affected by tool geometry. A tool large rake angle become weak as a
large rake angles reduces the tool cross section and the amount of metal to absorb heat.
02) The nose radius tends to improve the tool life and is evident from
The relation VT0 .0927=331 x R 244
Where,
R = nose radius
03) The affect of clearance is to improve tool life at first and then tool life decreases because
of decreased strength .The optimum clearances between 10° to 15°.
04) The side cutting angle may improve tool life under non chatter condition by the relation
of VT0.11=78 (QS+15°)0.264.
Where,
QS = side cutting angle for cemented carbide side cutting angle various between 3° to
25°.
05) The affect of side cutting angle improved surface finish rigidity and equaling speed.

04) TOOL MATERIAL

Physical and chemical properties of work material influence tool life by affecting from
stability and rate of wear of tool.

05) CUTTING FLUID

01) Cutting fluid affects tool life to a great extent by carrying generated heat during cutting
operation.
02) Cutting fluid cools the work piece and tool.
03) It reduces the friction of cutting.

06)TOOL LIFE:
The tool life may be measured in the following ways.
01) Number of pieces machined between tool sharpening.
02) Time of a actual operation that is the time of tool is in constant with job.
03) Total time of operation.
04) Equivalent cutting speed.
05) Volume of material removed between tool sharpening.

The tool life measured is expressed by the relation L= πdtsnt

V= πdn/1000 mm/min.
.'. Tool life L=1000 stvT in mm3/m2.
Where
t=depth of cut in mm
s=feed in mm/rev.
d=diameter of work piece in mm.

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V=cutting speed in mm/min.

T= time to tool failure in mm.
n=rpm of work piece
L=tool life in mm3.

07. MACHINABILITY
Good machinability implements satisfactory result in machining. The "ease" with which a
given material may be worked with cutting tool machinability.
The machinability depends upon
01) Chemical composition of work material
02) Micro structure
03) Mechanical property
04) Physical property
05) Cutting conditions

For evaluating machinability the following criteria may be considered.

1. Tool life between grinds
2. Value of cutting force
3. Quality surface finish
4. Form and size of chips
5. Temperature of cutting
6. Rate of cutting under a standard force
7. Metal removal rate
8. Type of operation
9. Production requirement
MACHINABILITY INDEX:
01) Good machinability indicates many expects but many times one or more objectives.
02) The machinability of the different metals to be machined may be composed by using
machinability index of each.
03) The machinalibity is defined by the following rotation of machinability index.
04) Cutting speed of metal investigated for 20 minutes tool life cutting speed of standard
steel for 20 minutes tool life.

08) CUTTING FLUIDS:

Cutting fluids sometimes referred to as lubricant or coolants are liquids and gases
applied to the tool and work piece to assist in the cutting operation it is the media which is
help to machining process while metal removing.

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PURPOSE OF CUTTING FLUIDS:

01) To cool the tool & prevent the damage of tool.
02) To assist in decreasing friction at the tool chip interface and at the tool work piece
interface.
03) To increase tool life and good surface finish by decreasing the friction.
04) To carry the heat developed during plastic deformation of the shear plane.
05) To lubricate and reduce friction.
06) To improve surface finish.
07) To protect the finished surface from corrosion.
08) To wash the chips away from the tool.
09) The chips are helped out of the fluids of drills taps, dies, saws, and broach. Etc…
10) To cool the work piece.
11) To prevent excessive thermal distortion.
12) The energy or power consumption in removing metal is reduced.
13) It reduces the wear on the cutting tool and increases the tool life.
14) The virtue of lubrication less heat is generated its tends to increase tool life.

PROPERTY OF CUTTING FLUIDS:

01) It has good lubricating quality to produce low coefficient of friction.
02) It should be high heat absorber.
03) It should have high flash point so has to eliminate the hazards of fire.
04) It should be stable so has not to oxide in the air.
05) It should not be reacting with chemically.
06) It should be non corrosion to the work or machine.
07) It should not produce bad smells which is heated.
08) It should be harmless to the operator.
09) It should be transparent.
10) It should be economical.
11) It reduces the production cost.
12) It should have low viscosity.
13) It should be non firable.
SELECTION OF CUTTING FLUIDS
The selection of cutting fluids are depends upon the following factors
1. Types of operations

2. The rate of metal removal

3. Material of work piece

4. Material of the tool

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5. Surface finish requirement

6. Cost of cutting fluids

TYPES OF CUTTING FLUIDS

The type of cutting fluids to be used depends upon the work material and characteristics of
machining process cutting fluids are classified in seven main groups.

1. Water

2. Soluble oil

3. Straight oil

4. Mixed oil

5. Chemical additives

6. Chemical compound and 07. Solid lubricant

01 .WATER
This type fluid contains plane water or water soluble additive but little oil or soap or
coolant.
02. SOLUBLE OIL
This type of oil contains are emulsion composed of 80% or more than 80% of water
soap and mineral oil. The water increases cooling affect and oil provides the best
lubricating properties and ensures freedom from rest.
03. STRAIGHT OIL
The straight oil may be straight mineral oil, corrosion, low viscosity oil, mineral seal,
and higher viscosity.
a. The straight oil or fatty oil consist of chemical vegetables' lard oil…..etc
b. The straight oil both of cooling and lubricating property straight oil is used light
machining operation.
04) MIXED OIL
It is combination of straight mineral and straight fatty oil
a. This oil makes excellent surface finish.
b. This oil makes excellent lubricants.

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05) CHEMICAL ADDITIVE

Straight oil or mixed oil when mixed with sulfur or chlorine is known as chemical
additive oil.
a. It increasing both cooling and lubricating quality.
b. Sulferized mineral oils are commonly used for machining the tough surface and low
carbon steel.
06) CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS:
This compound consist mainly of rust in lubricates such has sodium nitrite mixed
with high percentage of water the chemical compound have grown in favorites coolant .It
avoids the rest formation on grinding.
07) SOLID LUBRICANTES:
Stick waxes and bar soaps are some time used as a conventional means applying lubricating
cutting tool.

TOOL SIGNATURE
The signature is the sequence of numbers listing the various angles in degrees and
size of the nose radius. This numerical method of in deflection has been standardized by the
American standard association. The seven elements that compare to signature of single
point cutting tool are always stated in the following order back rake angle and nose radius.
8-14-6-66-15-14 it has 8- back rake, 14- side rake, 6 -end relief, 6- end side relief, 6- end
cutting edge angle, 15- side cutting edge angle and 4- nose radius.

PROBLEMS ON TOOL LIFE AND TOOL FAILURE

1. While machining carbon steel by a tungsten based steel tool, tool life of 50 minutes was observed
when machined with a cutting speed of 100 m/min. Determine a) General Taylors tool life
equation and b) Tool life for a cutting speed 80 m/min. Assume n= 0.09 and if the Work material
is Carbon steel, Tool material is Tungsten based tool steel.

Solution:
Given data
v=100 m/min
T=50 min.
N= 0.09
a) General Taylors tool life equation
We know the Taylors equation for tool life vTn
Taylors =vTn = C
or Log v+n log T= log c
or log 100+0.09log 50= log c
or C=142.20

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Hence,
vT0.09=142.2

b) Tool life for a cutting speed 80 m/min

Solution:
Given data
vT0.09=142.2
v= 80m/min
T=?
80.T0.09=142.2
Or T=596.57 min.

2. Carbide cutting tool when machined with a mild steel work piece material at a cutting speed of 50
m/min. lasted for 100 min. determine the life tool when the cutting speed is increased by 25%. At
what speed the tool is to be used to get a tool life of 180 min. Assume n= 0.26 in the Taylors
expression.

Solution:
Given data:
V1= 50m/min.
T1=100 min.
N=0.26
For 25% higher speed
V2= 1.25 x v1
=62.5 m/min.
We know that
V1 x T1n =v2 x T2n
Substituting the values,
We get
T2=42.39 min.

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IMPORTANT HINTS:

1.Metal cutting process is the process of removing material from the metal to the
required shapes and dimensions.
2.There are two metal cutting methods are adopted:
i. Metal Cutting.
ii. Non-metal Cutting.
3. Forging, shaping, pressing etc... are the non-metal cutting process.
4. Turning, drilling, milling etc... are the metal cutting process.
5. Cutting tool may be used either for cutting a part as with a knife or for removing chips.
6. Two types of cutting tools are used,
i. Single Point Cutting Tool.
ii. Multi Point Cutting Tool.
7. Single Point Cutting Tools are having single cutting point used to perform turning,
facing, grooving slotting etc operation.
8. Multi Point Cutting Tools are having two or more than two cutting points used to
perform milling, grinding, knurling, drilling, tapping etc operations.
9. There are two methods of metal cutting method:
i. Orthogonal or Two-dimensions.
ii. Oblique or Three-dimensional.
10. Orthogonal cutting takes place when the cutting face of the tools is at 90° to the line of
action or path tool.
11. Oblique cutting takes place when the cutting faces indeed at an angle less than 90° to
the path of tool this cutting action is called oblique method.
12. The cutting tool nomenclature means systematic of the various parts and angels of a
cutting tool.
13. Cutting fluids sometimes referred to as lubricant or coolants are liquids and gases
applied to the tool and work piece to assist in the cutting operation.
14. Good machinability implements satisfactory result in machining.
15. Feed, speed, cutting speed, depth of cut these are the cutting variables.
16. There are three types of chips formation during metal cutting process
i. Continuous ii. Dis Continuous iii. Continuous with built up edge.

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FILL IN THE BLANKS:

1. The ___________of a cutting tool is that surface which faces the work piece.

Ans: Flank

2. The ___________of a single point cutting tool is the ______ portion of the side cutting
edges.

Ans: Heel, Lowest

3. _________ is the portion of a cutting tool which is not ground to form cutting edges and
is rectangular in cross section.

Ans: Shank.

4. The __________ or______ is the included angle when the tool has been ground wedged
shaped.

Ans: Lip or cutting angle.

5. The tool has two or more cutting point is known has ______________.

Ans: Multi point tool.

6. Cutting speed is ordinarily expressed in ___________.

Ans: M/min.

7. The _________ of a cutting tool is the distance the tool advances into along the work
piece.

Ans: Feed.

8. Feed is expressed ____________stock.

Ans: mm/rev
9. The ___________ of cutting may be defined as the speed at which cutting edges passes
over the material.

Ans: Cutting speed.

10. ___________ is the time of a tool which will operate satisfactorily under it is dulled.

Ans: Tool life.

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11. A_____________ causes chatter in machining and poor surface finish.

Ans: Blunt tool.

12. The failure of cutting tools may be the result of ________.

Ans: Flank wear

13. Flank & chatter were takes place when feed is greater than _________at low speed rate.

Ans: 0.15 mm/rev.

14. __________ is a chip less or metal forming process.

Ans: Drawing.

15. _____________ Cutting process is known as chip less process.

Ans: Non metal.

16. The _____ tool is used for removing the chips.

Ans: Cutting tool

17. Orthogonal is a ___________ dimensional cutting method.

Ans: Two

18. Oblique is a ______ dimensional cutting method.

Ans: Three

19._________ Cutting takes place when the cuttings face on the tool 90° to the line of action
of the tool.
Ans: Orthogonal

20.________ type of chip formation is known as segmental type chip formation.

Ans: Discontinuous

21. Commonly discontinuous type of chip is obtained in _______ material.

Ans: Brittle

22. Commonly the continuous type of chip is obtained in _______ material.

Ans: Mild steel or Ductile

23. The ease with which a given material may worked with a cutting is known as_____.
Ans: Machinability

24. Orthogonal cutting process is done by _____________ cutting tool.

Ans: Single point.

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25. Oblique cutting process is done by ___________ cutting tool.

Ans: Single point.

26. The____________ HSS tool is known as supper HSS tool.

Ans: Cobalt.

27. The percentage of carbon in carbon steel tool is ____ to ____.

Ans: 0.08% to 1.5%

28. The ___________ material is used for making grinding wheel and oil stone.
Ans: Abrasive grain material.

29 The.____________ media is used for lubricating and cooling in metal cutting process.
Ans: Cutting fluid.

30.___________ are emulations composed of around 80% or more water soap and mineral.
Ans: Soluble oil.

31.__________ is used as a coolant media machining process.

Ans: Soluble oil.

32. The _________type of cutting tool have both cooling and lubricating properties.
Ans: Straight oil

33. Straight oil is also called _________.

Ans: Mineral oil.

34._________ oil is the combination of straight mineral & straight fatty oil.
Ans: Mixed oil

35. The example for solid lubricants is ________.

Ans: Soap and stick waxes.

MATCH THE FOLLOWING

PART- A PART- B
1. Oblique cutting method. __ Less than 90 degrees.
2. Orthogonal cutting method. __ 90 degrees.
3. Discontinues chips. __ Brittle material.
4. Production planning. __ Advanced planning.
5. Continuous chip formation __ Ductile metal.
6. Orthogonal. __ Two dimensional.
7. Oblique. __ Three dimensional.
8. Metal forming. __ Forming or moulding or casting.

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9. Non-metal cutting. __ Bending, shaping, and pressing.

10. Metal cutting. __ Milling, Reaming, Grinding, Turning
11. Single point cutting tool. __ Turning, Boring ,Facing,
12. Multi point cutting tool. __ Grinding, Drilling, Reaming.
13. Shank. __ No cutting edge.
14. Lip. __ Cutting angle.
15. 18-4-1. __ Tungsten, Chromium, Vanadium.
16. Cobalt tool. __ Super steel.
17. Diamond tool. __ Hardest cutting tool.
18. Grinding wheel. __ Multi point tool.
19. Tool life. __ Until it is dull.
20. Wear on the flank. __ Tool failure.
21. Tool geometry. __ Rake angle.
22. Cutting fluid. __ Reduce friction or wear & tear.
23. Cutting fluid. __ Low viscosity.
24. Mixed oil . __ Mineral & fatty oil.
25. Tool signature. __ Various angles.
26. Solid lubricant. __ Waxes, soaps.
27. Tool allowance. __ Allowance per component in time.

IMPORTANT QUESTIONS:
1. Explain classification of cutting tools?
2. Explain the types of cutting method?
3. Explain briefly types of chips formed during metal cutting process?
4. Explain cutting speed, feed, depth of cut and tool signature?
5. Write the classification of cutting tools?
6. What are the types of chips formed during metal cutting explain?
7. Explain the Nomenclature of signal lip cutting tools?
8. What are the factors affecting for tool life? Explain.
9. List out the different types of cutting tool material explains any three?
10. Mention the different cutting variables which influence the types of chips formed?
11. List out different types of cutting tools and mentions its application.
12. List out the properties of good cutting fluids?
13. Mention the different types of cutting fluids with suitable example?
14. Explain tool life and factors for failure of tool life?
15. List out the types of cutting fluids and list out properties for good cutting fluids?
16. Describe the methods of metal cutting with a neat sketch

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UNIT 3- GAUGE DESIGN

INTRODUCTION:
It is well known fact that no two things in the nature can be identical they may be
found to be closely similar. This is true of production of component parts in engineering
also. We know that every process is a combination of three elements. Man, machine,
material. A change in any one of these will constitute a change in the process. All these
three elements are subjected to inherent and characteristics variations. These variables
results in the variation of size of components. If the process be under control all the
assignable causes of variations and controllable causes of variation have been removed or
controlled the size variation will be within reasonable limits. Thus when process is in
control most of the items will be on or about the mean value and other values will be
distributed in a more or less symmetrical way about the mean value and remaining within
expressible limits.
It is therefore obvious that it is impossible to produce a part to an exact size and
some allowance known as tolerance has to be allowed. The tolerance allowed also depends
on the functional requirements which can be sacrificed. No difficulty arises when the
tolerance allowed is sufficiently greater than the process variation the designer should
ensure that the tolerance on any component is neither restrictive nor permissible it should
be as wide as the process demands and no wider.

TOLERANCE:
As already indicated tolerance can be defined as the magnitude of permissible
variation of a dimension or other measured or control criterion from the specified value.
Tolerances have to be allowed because of the inevitable human failings and machine
limitations which prevent ideal achievements during fabrication. In order to maintain
economic production and facilities the assembly of components it is necessary to allow a
limited deviations from the designed size. Due to its inevitability tolerances constitute an
engineering legality for deviation from the ideal value. And like any other legal matter,
formulation of tolerances must also be given due to consideration and much thought and
planning should go into it. The various factors affecting the choice of tolerances should be
given due consideration.

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FITS:
When two parts are to be assembled the relation resulting from the difference
between their sizes before assembly is called fit. Depending upon the actual limit of hole or
shaft the fit may be Clearance fit or a Transition fit or Interference fit.
LIMITS:
These are two extreme permissible sizes for any dimension (High and Low).
GAUGES:
Gauges are inspection tools of rigid design without a scale which serve to check the
dimensions of manufacturing parts .Gauges are used for determining as to whether the
inspected parts are made within the specified limits.
It is a device for investigated the dimensional fitness of a part for a specific
function. Gauges are used for the shaft work inspection and reference work. It controls the
dimensions of products within the prescribed limitation and it is reject the projects that are
these outside limitations.

TYPES OF GAUGES
There are several types of gauges used for work inspection of different components those
are
1. Fixed gauges 9. Flush pin gauges 17. Taper gauges
2 .Ring gauges 10. Thread gauges 18. Gauge blocks
3 .Receiver gauges 11. Template gauges 19. Master gauges'
4 .Plug gauges 12. Form gauges 20. Limit gauges
5 .pin gauges 13. Go gauges 21. Standard gauges
6 .snap gauges 14. No go gauges 22. Work shop gauges
7 .length gauges 15. Inspection gauges 23. Flat gauges.
8 .Square gauges 16. Dovetail gauge 24. Filler pin gauges
CLASSIFICATION OF PLAIN GAUGES
The Plain gauges are used for checking plain holes and shafts these are classification as
follows.
1. According to their types
a. Standard and limit gages
b. Limit gauges

2. According to their purpose

a. workshop gauges
b. Inspection gauges

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C. Reference or master gauges

3. According to the form of the testing surface
a. Plug gauges for checking holes
b. Snap or ring gauges for checking shafts
4. According to their design
a. Single limit and double limit gauges
b. Single end and double end gauges
c. Fixed and adjustable gauges

ADVANTAGES OF FIXED GAUGES

The various advantages of fixed gauges in comparison to comparator type gauges are.
1. Fixed gauges are essentially free from errors due to drift and the original adjustment
2. These provide positive dimensional information
3. These are portable and independent of power supply availability.
4. These are involved no other auxiliary equipments and setups.
5. These can be designed to check combination of several dimensions comparing to lengths
diameters and angles.
6. These can be designed to inspect interrelated feature for size location form alignment
etc.,
7. These provide uniform reference standards.
8. These are not expensive.
9. Comparators have to be set from time to time master fix gauges.

PLUG GAUGES
1. Generally the gauging members of the plain plug gauges are made up of suitable wear
resisting steel.
2. Handles may be made of light metal alloys for heavy plane plug gauges.
3. Non metallic handles may be provided for smaller plain plug gauges.
4. The gauging surface of plain plug gauges are normally hardened to not less than 750 HV
and suitable stabilised and ground lapped.
5. The plain plug gauges are normally of double ended type for sizes up to 63 mm.
6. Single ended type for size above 63 mm.
7. The usual way of designating the plan plug gauge is by Go and No Go as applicable the
nominal size of the tolerance of work piece to be gauged.

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Fig Plug gauge

( Go and no go plain gauges for size over 10& up to 30mm taper inserted type).
The plain gauge are marked with the following on their handles for their identification.
1. Nominal size
2. The work Go on the Go side
3. The actual values of tolerance
4. Class of tolerance
5. The work No Go on the No Go side
6. Manufacturing name or trade mark

USES OF PLUG GAUGES:

1. These are used to check the uniformity of holes.
2. Plug gauges are used to check the bore diameter.
3. Plug gauges are used to check the fastened type of holes.
4. These are used to check the tapered holes.
5. Plunge gauges may be used to check the flat square holes.

RING GAUGE
1. The plain ring gauges are made of suitable wear resisting steel
2. The gauging surfaces are hardened to a hardness of about 720 H.V.
3. The gauging surfaces are first suitable stabilised using proper heat treatment process and
then ground and lapped and other surfaces are finished smooth.
4. These are protected against climatic conditions by applying a suitable anti corrosive
Coating.
5. These are available in two designs Go and No Go gauges
6. These are designed by Go and No Go as may be applicable the nominal size the tolerance
of the work piece be gauged.
7. The general shapes of Go and No Go gauges for range from 3 to 70mm in 10 steps and
from 72to 250mm in17 steps are shown in following figure.

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Fig. Ring gauge

(Go plain ring gauge for dimension d1 from 3to 70mm in 10 steps)

USES OF RING GAUGES:

1. It is used to measure cylindrical surface.
2. It is used to check the tapers on shafts.
3. It is used to determine the similarity of work piece size.
4. It checks the dimension of external threads of shafts.

SNAP GAUGES:

Fig. Snap gauge

(Go and No Go snap gauges for sizes over 3mm and up to 100mm.)

TYPES OF SNAP GAUGES:

There are two types of snap gauges
1. Rib type snap gauges
2. Plate type snap gauge

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1. RIB TYPE SNAP GAUGES:

Fig. Rib type snap gauge

a. Double ended type snap gauges can be conveniently used for checking sizes in the range
of 3mm to 100mm.
b. Single ended progressive type snap gauges are suitable for size range of 100 to 250mm.
c. The gauging surface of the snap gauges are hardened up to 720 HV and are suitable
stabilised. and the other surface are finished smooth.

2. PLATE TYPE SNAP GAUGES:

Double ended plate type snap gauges are used for sizes in the range of 2 to 100 mm and
single ended progressive type in the size range of 100 to 250 mm.

USES OF SNAP GAUGES:

1. The snap gauges are fixed gauge with inside measuring surface for checking diameter
thickness similar dimensions.
2. The double ended type snap gauges can be conventionally used for checking sizes
(in the range of 3 to 100 mm).
3. Single ended progressive types snap gauges are suitable for checking sizes
(100 to 250mm).

ADJUSTABLE TYPE GAP GAUGES

Fig. Gap Gauge

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1. In these gauges the gauging anvils are adjustable endwise in the horse shoe frame
2. This type of gauge is set by means of slip gauges to any particular limit.
3. It is possible to set well made gauges to within about 0.002 mm 0f a desired size.
4. The adjustability also enables wear of the go anvils to be taken up at any time.
5. If the anvil faces lose their flatness with used they can be reground quite readily.
6. The method of adjusting the anvils is usually by means of independent.
For gap gauges the following conditions must be fulfilled.
1. The frame should be of rigid design and sufficiently strong to withstand workshop
conditions.
2. The gauging anvils should have only a sliding and not a rotating movement for
adjustment.
3. All adjustable parts should close fitting.
4. The means of adjusting the gauging anvils should be simple.
5. There should be suitable provision for sealing the adjustment to prevent unauthorised
re adjustment.
6. The distance between the Go and No Go and anvil should be sufficient when gauge is set
for work of the largest diameter and largest tolerance.

RECEIVER GAUGE:

Fig. Receiver gauge

1. This gauge is similar to ring gauge.

2. It is similar in construction of ring gauge.
3. These are often used for cheeking component before assembly.
4. These are similar to ring gauge but are used to verify the specified uniformly of size and
contour of non circular holes.
5. They are extensively used to check spline shaft
6. These are used to check number of features of work plaices

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RADIUS OR FILLET GAUGES:

Construction: The Radius or Fillet gauge are manufactured by wear resistant steel
and hardened by heat treatment process afterwards these are ground for acting good
smoothness of surface of gauge.

Fig. radius or fillet gauge

USES OF RADIUS OR FILLET GAUGES

1. These are used for checking & measuring the radius curves fillet portion of the work
piece.
2.To remove the sharp corners at the end of component chamfering radius, fillet operations
are done. Such chamfers, radius, curves on the work piece are measured & checking by a
radius gauge.

GAUGE DESIGN:
1. To a greater or lesser extent every gauge is a copy of the part which mates with the part
for which the gauge is designed.
2. For example a bushing made which is to mate with a shaft in this case the shaft is the
opposed part
3. The bushing is checked by a plug gauge which in so for as the form of its surface end its
size concerned is a copy of the opposed part (shaft).
4. If a gauge is designed as an exact copy of the opposed part in so for as the dimension to
be checked is concerned it is called a STANDARD GAUGE.

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IMPORTANT POINTS FOR DESIGN

1. The form of 'Go' gauge should exactly coincide with the form of the opposed (mating)
parts.
2. Go gauges are complex gauge which enable several related dimensions to be checked
simultaneously.
3. Inspection Go gauges must always be put into conditions of maximum impossibility.
4. No Go gauges are gauge for checking a single element of feature.
5. Inspection No Go gauges must always be put into conditions of maximum possibility.

TAYLOR' S PRICIPLE FOR GAUGE DESIGN

Fig. 1 Taylor's principle

According to Taylor’s Go and No Go gauges should be designed to check maximum and

minimum material limits which are checked as below.

GO LIMIT:
This designed is applied to that limit of the two limits of size which
corresponds to the maximum material limit conditions i.e. Upper limit of a shaft and lower
limit of a hole. The form of the Go gauge should be such that it can check one feature of the
component in one pass.
NO GO LIMIT:
This designation is applied to that of the two limits of size which corresponding to
the minimum material condition the lower limit of shaft and upper limit of hole.
The Go plug gauge is the size of the minimum limit of hole. The No Go plug gauge
corresponds to the maximum limit. The Go gauge on the other hand is of a size
corresponding to the maximum limit of the shaft while the No Go snap gauge corresponds
to the minimum limit.

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APPLICATIONS OF TAYLOR' S PRINCIPLE

FOR HOLE:
If the Taylor's principle is followed then the diameter of the largest perfect
application imaginary cylindrical which can be inscribed within the hole. As that it just
contacting the highest points of the surface shall not be a diameter smaller than the "Go"
limit of the size further the maximum diameter at any position in the hole should not exceed
the "No Go" limit of size.
FOR SHAFT:
If The Taylors principal is followed then the diameter of the smallest perfect
imaginary cylinder which can be served circumscribed about the shaft. So that if just
contact the highest points of the surface should not be a diameter largest than the "Go
limit" of size further the minimum diameter at any position on the shaft should not be less
than the "No Go "limit of size.

FOR GO LIMIT:
In case the manufacturing process assures that the error of straightness will not
affect the character of fit of the assembled work piece it is advisable to go for standard
gauge blank sin stage of using full form and length of engagement make the gauge un
necessary bulky and cumbersome and avoid the special gauge of exactly same working
length for one work. If the gauge happens to be too heavy only segmental cylindrical bar
could be used provided the manufacturing process ensures that errors of roundness will not
have any effect on the character of fit of the assembled work piece. For shafts particularly
heavy once it is generally not desirable to use full form ring gauges but only gap gauges but
for this purpose the manufacturing process used should take care of the errors
roughness(especially lading) and the error of straightness.

FOR NO GO LIMIT:
The two point checking devices are not feasible and practicable in actual practice
because these are subject to rapid wear etc .these can be safely replaced by small planes or
cylindrical surface or spherical surfaces for gauging very small holes and in case where
work piece may be deformed to an oval by a two points mechanical contact device the no go
gauge of full form may have to be used.

MAXIMUM MATERIAL LIMIT:

The designation applied to that off the two limits which corresponds to the maximum
material size for the feature. The upper limit of size for shaft or the lower limit of the size
for hole is known as maximum material.

MINIMUM MATERIAL LIMIT:

The designation applied to that of the two limits which corresponds to the minimum
material size for feature. The lower limit of size for the external product or work or the
upper limit of size for an internal feature or work.

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MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM METAL CONDITIONS

MAXIMUM METAL CONDITION:
It corresponds to maximum metal when a part or work has maximum amount of
metal. It is corresponding to higher tolerance of shaft and lower tolerance of hole.
MINIMUM METAL CONDITION:
It is corresponding to minimum amount of material of metals. The low tolerance of
minimum metal condition corresponds to minimum size of shaft and maximum size of hole.
The maximum metal condition as special importunes with regard to geometrical tolerance
as if critically effects the interchangeably of manufactured parts which are used for
assembly.

1. The material for solid gauges provides very good stability and wears resistance.
2. However their relativity high price and sensitivity chipping limit their use to application
where extends.
3. Tungsten carbide controlled temperature environment may be required when gauging
highly tolerance dimensions on parts made of steels.

WEAR ALLOWANCE CONSIDERATION ON GAUGE MAKERS TOLERANCE

Since the gauge maker can't make absolutely accurately gauges permissible
deviation in accuracy must be assigned for gauges manufacture. Further the measuring
surface Go gauges which constantly rub against the surface of parts in inspection are
consequently subjected to wear and lose their initial size. Thus due to wear the size of Go
plug gauge is reduced while that of Go snap gauges is increased. For this reason new Go
plug gauges are made with two positive deviations & go snap gauges with two negative
deviations from the nominal size.
GAUGE MAKERS TOLERANCE:
Keeping all above main points for gauge design in view there are three methods of giving
tolerance on gauges [snap and plug gauges].
There are three types of gauge maker’s tolerance system.
1. First system
2. Second system
3. Third system

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01. FIRST SYSTEM:

Fig .First system of Taylor's principle

1. Work shop and inspection gauges in this method workshop and inspection gauges are
made separately and their tolerance zones are different.
2. According to this system the tolerance on the workshop gauges are arranged to fall inside
the work tolerance.
3. The inspection gauges tolerance fall outside the work tolerance.
4. In work shop gauges Go gauge should eat away 10% of work tolerance.
5. The tolerance on No Go gauges should be one tenth of work tolerance.
6. It work tolerance is 10 units then only 8 units will be left as the difference b/w the
minimum of No Go and maximum of Go the tolerance on Go as well as No Go gauge
individually being one unit each.
7. Inspection gauges are kept beyond work tolerance by 10% of its value.

DISADVANTAGES OF WORKSHOP AND INSPECTION GAUGES

1. Some of the components which are in work tolerance limits may be rejected under
Workshop gauges. So they are again checked by inspection gauges and may be accepted
when tested by inspection gauges.
2. Some components which are not in work tolerance limits may be accepted when tested by
Inspection gauges.
3. The workshop and inspection gauges are to be made separately as their tolerance zone
are different.

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02. SECOND SYSTEM [REVISED GAUGES LIMITS]:

Fig. Second system of Taylor’s principle

1. Under this system the disadvantages of inspections gauges are reduced by reducing the
tolerance.
2. Zone of inspection gauges and the workshop gauges tolerance remains the same.
3. For Go and No Go inspection gauges in this system the 110% of the range of work
tolerance is covered instead of 120% in the first system as shown in fig.

03. THIRD SYSTEM (PRESENT BRITISH SYSTEM):

Fig. Third system of Taylor's principle

In new system following principles are followed along with Taylor's principle.
1. Tolerance should be as wide as is consistent with satisfactory functioning economical
production and inspection.
2. No work should be accepted which lies outside the drawing specified limits.
3. The modern system dispenses with workshop and inspection gauges and we give the same
tolerance limits in workshop and inspection gauges and the same gauges can be used for
both process.
4. The tolerance zone for Go gauge should be placed inside the work limits.
5. Tolerance for the No Go gauges outside the work limits.

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6. Provision for wear of Go gauge is made by introduction of a margin between the

tolerance zone for the gauge and maximum metal limit of the work.
7. Its magnitude is one tenth of the gauge tolerance. Thus when work tolerance is less than
0.09mm there is no need of giving allowance for wear.
8. If work tolerance is more than 0.09mm then 10% gauge tolerance is given only on Go
gauges of wear.
FACTORS AFFECTING ON GAUGE MATERIAL
Many factor affecting the selection of the material for gauges.
1. The tolerance to be checked the non affenstable gauges the composition hardness of the
material to be gauged.
2. The cost of the gauge material.
3. Complexity of work.
4. Major properties of material.
5. Construction of gauges.
6. Dimensional stability and wear resistance hardness compositing of material.

GAUGE MATERIALS
The following materials are used for gauge manufacturing.
GAUGES PARTS MATERIALS
1. Cylindrical ring and plug gauge. ---Tungsten, Carbide.
2. Body, Pins, Button, Anvils ---Cast iron
3. Filler pin gauge ---Tungsten, Carbide.
4. Gauge block ---Tungsten, Carbide
5. Rule threads body ---Cast iron

CARBON STEELS AND ALLOY STEELS

1. These steels should be subjected to a difference treatment in addition to heat treating to
increase dimensional stability of the gauge.
2. Austenite is necessary after quenching.
3. Austenite that is retained in a finished gauge will gradually they form service life
resulting in dimensional change of the gauge.

TUNGUSTEN CARBIDE MATERIAL

1. This material for solid gauge provides very good stability and wear resistance.
2. However their relatively high price and sensitivity to chipping limit their use to
application wear extends use or abrasive conditions are prevented.
3. Tungsten carbide controlled temperature environment may be required when gauge in
highly tolerance dimensions on part made of steels.

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CHROMIUM PLATING STEEL:

1. This steels increases wear resistance and some resistance to corrosion.
2. It is also use full for resisting worn gauges to the original size in store gauges process.
3. However corners or edges should not be chromium plated because the planting flanks
away.

PROBLEMS ON GAUGES

1. Find the values allowance Hole tolerance and shaft tolerance for the following
dimensions of method parts according to basic hole system.
Hole: 37.50mm shaft: 37.47mm
37.52mm 37.45 mm

Solution:

1. Hole tolerance = High limit – Low limit

= 37.52 – 37.50mm
=0.02 mm

2. Shaft tolerance = High limit – Low limit

=37.47-37.45 mm
= 0.02mm
3. Allowance = Max. Metal condition of hole – Max.Metal condition of shaft
= Low limit Hole –High limit of shaft
= 37.50 -37.47 mm
= 0.03mm

2. A 75mm shaft rotates in a bearing. The tolerance of the shaft and bearing is 0.075mm
and the required allowance is 0.10mm determine the dimensions of the shaft and the
bearing bore with basic Hole standard.

Solutions:

Low limit of hole = 75mm

High limit of hole =Low limit + Tolerance
= 75 + 0.075
=75.075mm
High limit of shaft = Low limit of hole – Allowance
= 75 -0.10
= 74.90 mm

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Low limit of shaft = High limit –Tolerance

=74.90-0.075
=74.825mm

3. In limit system of following limits are specified to give a clearance fit between shaft and
hole if Shaft diameter is 30mm and its Lower limit is -0.018 and Upper limit is -0.005
mm, For Hole Diameter is 30 mm and its Lower and Upper limits are +0.020 mm and –
0.00 respectively. Determine a) basic size b) Shaft and Hole tolerance c) The shaft and
Hole limits d) The maximum and minimum clearance.

Solution:
a) Basic size = 30mm
b) Shaft tolerance =0.018-0.005
` =0.013mm
Hole tolerance = 0.02 mm
c) High limit of shaft = 30-0.005mm
=29.995mm
Low limit of shaft = 30 – 0.018
= 29.982mm
High limit of hole = 30+0.020
= 30.020 mm
Low limit hole = 30mm
d) Maximum clearance= High limit of hole – Low limit of shaft
=30.020-29.982 mm
=0.038mm
Maximum clearance = Low limit of hole – High limit of shaft
= 30.00-29.995mm
= 0.005 mm

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IMPORTANT HINTS:

1. Gauges are inspection tools of rigid design without a scale which serve to check the
dimensions of manufacturing parts.

2. Gauges are used to determine the part’s dimension whether it made within the specified
limit.

3. There are different types of gauges used of different work inspection, like fixed gauge,
ring gauge, snap gauge & many more.

4. Plain gauges are used for checking plain holes & shafts.

5. Plain gauges are classified into their types, purpose, testing purpose & their design.

6. Fixed gauges are essentially free from errors due to drift & the original adjustment.

7. Plug gauges are the part of plain gauge made of wear resisting steel.

8. Wear tolerance consideration on Gauge maker’s tolerance.

9. Taylor’s principle according to Taylor “NO GO”0 gauges should be designed to check
maximum & minimum material limits which are checked as GO limit & NOGO limit.

10. Gauge makers tolerance has three method of giving tolerance on gauges First system,
Second system & Third system.

11. In First system, in this method workshop & inspection gauges are made separately &
their tolerance zones are different.

12. In Second system the disadvantages of inspection gauges are reduces by reducing the
tolerance zone of inspection gauge & the workshop gauge tolerance remains the same.

13. In Third system dispense with workshop and inspection gauge and we give the same
tolerance limits on workshop and inspection gauges and the same gauges can be used
for both process.

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FILL IN THE BLANKS:

1) are inspection tools which serves to check the of manufactured parts.
Ans. Gauges, Dimensions

2) Plug gauges are normally ended.

Ans. Double

3) are used to check the uniformity of holes.

Ans. Plug gauges

4) The gauging surface of gauges are normally hardened to a hardness of about _.

Ans. 720 HV

5) ______ended type snap gauges can be conventionally used for checking size in the range
of 3 mm to 100 mm.
Ans. Double

6) The thickness of plate is measured by ____ gauges.

Ans. Snap

7) The diameter of shaft measured by _____ gauges.

Ans. Ring

8) External threads of shaft measured by _____ gauges.

Ans. Ring

9) _________ type of gauges are set by means of slip gauges.

Ans. Adjustable

10) The symbol for cutting speed is ___.

Ans. V

11) The cutting edge of tool passes over the metal of a product is known as __________.
Ans. Cutting speed

12) _____________ is the perpendicular distance measured from the machine surface to the
uncut surface of the work piece.
Ans. Depth of cut

13) _________ gauges are designed to simultaneously check a number of features of work
pieces.
Ans. Receiver

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14) Go gauge should be such that it can check one feature of the component in _______pass.
Ans. One

15) According to _______ principle go & no go gauges should be designed to check

maximum and minimum material limits.
Ans. Taylors

16) ____ limit designation is applied to that limit of two limits of size which corresponds to
the Maximum material limit.
Ans. Go

17) Maximum material limit consider upper limit of a ______ and lower limit of _____.
Ans. Shaft & Hole

18) ______ limit designation is applies to that limit of the two limits of size which
corresponds to the minimum material conditions.
Ans. No go

19) The Minimum material conditions refer to lower limit of ______ and upper limit of
____.
Ans. Shaft & Hole

20) Taylor’s principle states that the ______ gauges should be check all the possible of
dimensions at a time.
Ans. Go

21) Taylors principle states that the ________ gauge should be check any one element of the
dimensions at a time.
Ans. No go

22) According to the first system of gauge maker’s tolerance the inspection gauges
tolerance fall ________ the work tolerance.
Ans. Out side

23) The body, pins, buttons, of gauges are manufactured by _______ material.
Ans. Cast iron

24) Generally the gauging members of the plane plug gauges are made by ______
Ans. Wear resisting steel

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MATCH THE FOLLOWING:

PART- A PART-B

1) Gap gauge --- Slip gauge

2) Go limit --- Maximum metal condition
3) No go limit --- Minimum metal condition
4) Receiver gauge --- Splined shaft
5) Plug gauge ---Uniformity of hole
6) Ring gauge --- Diameter of shaft
7) Gauges --- Inspection tools
8) Radius gauge --- Radius portion of job
9) Work shop gauge --- Within tolerance
10) Inspection gauge --- Out of tolerance

IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

1] What is gauge? Write the classification of gauges explain with neat sketches any two
gauges with their application?

2] Explain gauge design or what you mean by gauge design?

3] With neat sketch explain plug gauge and ring gauge?

4] Explain the Taylor's principle. With help of hole and shaft basis explain?

5] Write a brief about maximum and minimum material limits?

6] Describe for material for gauge design?

7] Explain gauge allowance and tolerance?

8] Explain with a neat sketch gap gauge, receiver gauge, and radius gauges.

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UNIT 4- PLASTIC
INTRODUCTION ON PLASTIC
Today plastics play a dominator role both for industrial and domestic application
because of their excellent properties and merits. These are very popular because of their
high specific strength and stiffness (as result of low relative density) corrosion resistance
good electrical and thermal insulating properties low coefficient of friction toughness and
resilience with good vibrations damping capacity ease of fabrication and inexpensiveness
compared to other metals on volume basis.

DEFINATION OF PLASTIC
Plastic may be defined as organic materials (containing a synthetic high polymer as
the major constituent; polymers being material of high molecular weight formed by joining
together many (poly) small (molecular) that can be easily moulded or shaped by mechanical
or chemical action to give non-crystalline substance that are solid at ordinary temperature.
Plastic may be simply be defined as materials made up of long chain molecules based on
carbon and hydrogen. The basic unit of a long chain molecule is a mer. The structure of one
type of mar is called plastic.

INTRODUCTION ON PLASTIC TOOLING

High product cost close computation and high investment have those industries to
stock material and production in any method in order to service. A most any changing on
industry patterning of operation installation of new machining or the one or more purpose
to reduce cost or to increase production in nowadays plastic used as a tooling material.

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PLASTIC TOOLING
1. In order to increase the production
2. Increase the efficiency of tooling
3. Reduced the time & reduce cost
4. Save the Labour cost
5. Easy to handling of work, tools and instrument
6. Reduce maintenance cost.
A new group of engineering materials and plastic have come into existence.
Some plastics have properties that make them expectable as tooling material. Plastic tools
are often equal to or better than metal tools in many applications in addition many
disadvantages of metals as tooling materials have been overcome.

PLASTIC COMMONLY USED AS TOOLING MATERIAL

OR IMPORTANTANCE OF PLASTIC TOOLING:

1. The major attraction of plastics is that they can be form directly to desired shape by
used to master.

2. Resins that form plastic tooling material are therefore general purchased in liquid and
paste form.

3. They can be worked at temperature.

4. They are made to take the shape of the work piece by various techniques of laminating
pasting and costing.

5. They are generally thermosetting and must be mixed with a cutting agent before they
will setup.

6. Plastic tooling increases production efficiency.

7. It reduces machining time.

8. It servicer to make any shapes.

9. It reduces handling time.

10. It reduces production cost and labour cost.

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CLASSIFICATION OF PLASTIC:
The plastic may be classified into various ways depending upon their basic raw
materials their distinctive properties and the broad application form the engineering point
of view they can be divided into two branches.
1. Thermosetting plastics
2. Thermo plastic.

01. THERMOSETTING PLASTIC

They are formed from the intermediate products which under the influence of heat
pressure etc. Undergo chemical changes of condensation and polymerisation to form a rigid
final shape which is unaffected by heat or solvents. The thermosetting resins owe their
characteristics hardness, rigidity and heat resisting properties due to cross linked net two
structure three dimensional molecules. The long molecular chains are not only interlinked
but also bonded together by additional covalent bonds (cross-linked) phenol formaldehyde
urea formaldehyde and melamine formaldehyde are important thermosetting plastics other
examples are polyester silicon’s epoxy resins phenolics.

THERMO PLASTICS:
These contain linear to branched chain molecules which are not interconnected.
They are obtained from the substituted derivatives of ethylene which can be made to
polymerise under the influence of heat and catalyst. These consist of long molecular chains
entangled with one another but not actually bonded together. They have inherent plasticity
which increases as the temperature is raised. These materials are softened by heat and
affected by certain solvents. They do not undergo chemical changes when heated and on
cooling there plasticity is retained because the structure is unchanged.

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THE TYPES OF TOOLING MATERIAL

The following are the major plastic tooling materials are used in tooling as.

1. Phenolics
2. Polyesters
3. Epoxies
4. Urethane compounds

1. PHENOLICS :
It is a earliest plastic tooling material where applied in the aircraft industry.
MERITS:
Liquid phenolics with acid cured at room temperature where used for such tools as stretch
from dies. It is used large master fixture and some foundry work.
DEMERITS:
1. It is very unstable.
2. Its shrinks badly during the curing.
3. Not suitable for quality tooling.
4. There are very high parts of corrosion to tooling.
APPLICATION OF PHENOLICS
1. Form dies
2. Jigs
3. Fixtures
4. Foundry work.
2. POLYSTERS:
The aircraft industry introduced Polyesters resigns and reinforced them with fibreglass
cloth.
MERITS:
1. They are dimensionally stable than phenolics but still shrink in curing.
2. Originally used in large assembly checking in fixture where the light weight of laminated
construction.

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DEMERITS:
1. It don't maintain the dimensionally accuracy required for tolerance tooling.
2. Now a days it is replaced by other plastics.

APPLICATIONS:
It is uses in laminated to large moulds such as fibreglass, boats when the close tolerance is
not important.

3. EPOXISE:
It is completely replaced phenolics and Polyester resigns because of their superior physical
properties.
They are available for both casting and laminating application with no shrinking.
MERITS:
1. The epoxies are thermosetting resign.
2. After curing those remains solids which become softer when heated but will never again
liquefy.
3. The curing epoxies resigns is accomplished by adding on active agent known as curing
agent.
4. The physical properties of an epoxies costing depend upon the extent of the cure
5. The tool designer and took makers are generally concerned with the practical application
of Epoxies resigns as a tooling material.
7. Since the lack the time founds or background for experienced work.

DEMERITS:
1. Epoxies generally not suitable tooling material when superior material characteristics
are required.
2. They will wear rapidly under abrasive conditions
3. They are not strong, not employed for strong tooling.
4. The selection of Epoxies materials depends upon the severity of the operation.

APPLICATION OF EPOXY PLASTIC TOOLS:

Basically the following types of tools can be produced by use of Epoxy resigns
1. Stretch dies: These are made by laminating or casting.
2. Draw and form dies: These are strong and wear abrasive or heat used for forming sheets
or wire.
3. Hydraulics press dies: These are made by Epoxy costing method.
4. Drop hammer dies: These are used for clod forge sheet metal into shape by use of drop
hammer these are into two parts like core and cavity dies.
5. Checking fixture: These are used to check the shape of tools and assembled parts
produced in tools laminated Epoxy resigns using fibreglass, cloth and mat are
construction types of used for checking fixture

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6. Makeup’s and moulds: These are like a template used for produce a duplicate works.
7. Assembly fixture: It holds the finished product in correct relation to each other for final
assembly the glass, cloth lamination resign plastic tubing are used for assembly.
8. Drill jig: It is used for guiding the drill bits drill jigs are made by laminate procedure.
9. Machining fixture: Epoxies resigns may be used for good advantages when constructing
work like milling fixture boring and lathe fixture etc for conventional operation.
11. Duplicating modules: These are used for constructing master moulds for duplicating
mills and phonographs.

3. URETHANE COMPOUND:
MERITS:
1. The urethane is the group of rubber like material frequently referred to as elastics.
2. They are supplied in the row state as liquids for curing as a putting for trolling or as solid
bars that can be machined shape.
3. They can be formulated to form a soft highly flexible rubber like materials to hard semi
rigid solid used for metal forming dies.
4. The liquid and paste urethane is prepared for epoxies.
DEMERITS:
1. Urethane is non shirkers
2. It has high tensile strength
3. It have high tear
4. It has abrasive resistance
5. Once it cured they have little or no tendency to flow under pressure

APPLICATION:
1. Urethane as a tooling material in making metal forming dies because of its non
compressibility.
2. Soft metal are not marred or scratched when formed by urethane dies because Of their
flexible nature.

MERITS & DEMERITS OF PLASTIC TOOLING

MERITS OR ADVANTAGES:
1. It forms the various shapes without machining operation.
2. It reduces the time.
3. It reduces the cost in reworking tools.
4. It reduces the low fabrication cost.
5. It reduces the storage cost.
6. The plastic tooling saves the labour cost.
7. It can be worked at room temperature.

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8. Curing is obtained by mixing of curing agent.

9. after currying plastic material are becomes solid & soft.
10. It increases production volume.
11. The major attraction of plastic is that they can be formed directly to a desired shape by
use of masters.

DEMERITS OR DIS ADVANTAGES:

1. Plastic will not replaced metal as a tooling material.
2. Plastic tooling materials are viewed as engineering materials in their own light & not a
substance metal.
3. Plastic tooling materials like phenolics are unstable.
4. Some plastic tooling material has shrinkage body during cooling it’s not suitable for
quality tooling.
5. The accurate dimensionally accuracy for close tolerance is not obtained properly in the
large assembly.
6. Some tooling material is wear rapidly under abrasive condition.
7. The major disadvantages of plastic during material are not strong & not suitable for
plastic shearing operation
8. The plastic tooling operation is maintained by skilled person.

PLASTIC TOOLING MANUFACTURING TECHNIQUES

One of the major advantages of plastic as tooling materials is the case in which they
can be shaped this is due to the fact that they are liquid in the raw state of room
temperature broken into 4 basic techniques.

1. Laminating

2. Casting

3. Mass coating

4. Past construction

The construction techniques depend upon the size, types and application of the tool.

LAMINATING PLASTIC
Laminating plastic comprise sheet of paper fabricators word or similar materials
which are first impregnated or coated with resign and bonded together by heat and
pressure to form commercial materials. These materials are hard strong impact resisting
unaffected by heat or water and have good machining characteristics which permits
fabrication into gears, handles and bushings etc.

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Fig: laminating process

Laminates are classified into two categories depending upon the pressure required
to cure the resin in manufacture. Commercial laminated are available in sheets, rods, tubes
and special shapes. Among these sheets form more common.

1. High pressure laminates

2. Low pressure laminates

1. HIGH PRESSURE LAMINATES

Phenolics melamine's urea and silicon are most commonly used resin in high
pressure laminates. Commercial they are available in sheets rod tube and some simple
moulded parts such as refrigerator inner doors etc. Manufacturing sequence of laminated
products is as follows firstly the retinoid material is disadvantage by a solvent to convert it
into liquid varnish. Rods of fabric paper are then passed through a bath for impetration.
They are then passed through a drier which evaporates the solvent leaving a fairly stiff
sheet impregnated with the plastic material. The whole of operation is a continuous process
and is show in following figure.

Fig: high pressure laminates

Under action of heat and pressure a hard rigid plate having desirable properties for many
industries applications are formed.

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2. LOW PRESSURE LAMINATES:

Commercially available low pressure laminates are plywood and glass reinforced
Polyesters parts. Now a day its application is also extended to sand which type construction
such as form resin bonded paper or balsa wood which gives superior strength and weight.

PROCEDURE FOR LAMINATING PLASTIC TOOLING

i. Apply the parting agent to the surface of the model according to instructions for mould
preparation.
ii. Build-up for parting planes frame work may be required.
iii. Make them of clay plaster or wood.

MOULDING METHOD
Moulding of plastic comprises forming an article to the desired shape by application
of heat and pressure to the moulding compound in a suitable mould hardening the material
in the mould.
Thermoplastic materials are generally processed by compression and transfer
moulding and for thermoplastic materials injection and extrusion process are used. The
compression moulding is usually employed except when delicate inserts intricate mould
details or close tolerance are involved in which case transfer mould is preferable. Thermo
plastic materials are generally moulded by extrusion and injection moulding method.
There are exceptions in as much as thermoplastic material are sometimes compression
moulded or cast in heavy section also thermosetting materials are sometimes extruded or
injection moulded.
TYPES OF MOULDING METHODS
There are six types of moulding methods are there
1. Compression moulding
2. Transfer moulding
3. Injection moulding
4. Blow moulding
5. Calendaring
6. Vacuum forming

1. COMPRESSION MOULDING
In compression moulding and transfer moulding the monomers are partially
polymerised in a separate operation and the polymerisation reaction is completed in the
mould. The partially polymerised material is prepared soft and become plastic the upper
part of the die moves downwards compressing the materials to the required shape and
density continuous heat and pressure produce the chemical reaction leading to cross linking
between the molecules chain that hardens the thermosetting material.

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Fig. Compression moulding

2. TRANSFER MOULDING:
The thermosetting moulding power is prepared by mixing filler with resin which is
only partly condensed and make it capable of being softened on re-heating. The resins and
filler are mixed together on heated rolls until the desired characteristics of the moulding
powder are attained. The most commonly used fillers are wood floor, nylon and glass.

3. INJECTION MOULDING:
It makes use of heat softening characteristics of thermoplastic materials. These
materials soften when heated and re-harden when cooled. No chemical change takes place
when the material is heated or cooled the change being entirely physical. For this reason
the softening and re hardening cycle can be repeated any number of times. The granular
moulding material is loaded into a hopper from where it is entered out in a heating cylinder
by feeding device.

Fig. Injection moulding

4. BLOW MOULDING:
The process is applied to only thermoplastic which are used for producing hollow
objects such as bottle and floatable objects by applying air pressure to the sheet material
when it is in heated and in soft pliable condition.

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Blow moulding can be accomplished in two manners i) Direct

Direct blow moulding ii)
Indirect blow moulding. In the former case measured amount of material in the form of
tube is either injected or extracted in a slip cavity die.

Fig. Blow moulding

5. CALENDARING:
The Sheets of PVC can be produced by calendaring process. The polymer is first
mixed with the plasticizer and other additives such as cooling agents is mixed then it is
heated for a short time to produce a rough sheet which is fed through a series of rol
roles.
6. VACUUM FORMING:
This process is also similar to indirect blow moulding with the only difference that
thinning of sheet at the deepest point does not occur but there is uniformity in section
through the mould shape. The equipments and dies used are less costly and any desired
contour can be formed by vacuum forming. The commercial materials are used for low
moulding are acrylics atomiser bullets, cosmetic, containers, bottles, hot water bottles and
Christmas tree arrangements are the examples of this type moulding.

Fig. Vacuum moulding

PLASTIC AS TOOLING:
At present plastics in many field have become in dispensable and at some places they
have safely replaced other materials. In many fields plastic are going to replaced even steel.
The peoples at present they are thinking of making plastic wheels and plastic cycle have
already been made. There is no signal type of plastic rather there is a huge variety of its
forms. Its versatility renders th
them of service
ervice in solving many problems those are,

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1. Electrical insulations
2. Freedom form corrosion
3. Resistance to chemical attack
4. Attractive appearance
5. Low weight
6. Transparency
7. Easy manufacture
8. Capability of taking variety of colours.

APPLICATION OF PLASTIC TOOLING

1. Use of laminated sheet
2. Reinforced plastics
3. Gears
4. Bearings
5. Brake and clutch linings
6. Plastics in foundry
7. It is used as a core binder in the form of line seal oil
8. In shell moulding process
9. In pattern making the phenol formaldehyde acts as best metal to metal adhesive
10. Plastic for low friction application
11. High temperature engineering plastics
12. Plastics for heavily stressed mechanical components.
MODEL PREPARATION FOR CASTING OR MOULDING
1. Plastic cost or laminates can be taken from wood plastic or metal surface provided the
surface is properly prepared.
2. Wood masters should be finished with a lacquer sealer.
3. The surface of the model should be cleaned thoroughly using acetylene alcohol or other
commercial solvent.
4. Then the surface is coated with a high grade post.
5. Then next step is to brush or spray on commercial parting agent.
6. The spray coats should be allowed to dry 20 minutes.
7. Brush coats will dry within one or two hour.
8. The number of coats will be depends upon the condition of the master.

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REPAIR OF PLASTICS
JOINING OF PLASTICS:
Several techniques exist for joining plastic parts. Equipment cost for these
techniques various considerable as does the amount of labour in valued. In addition most of
the methods have limitations regarding the sizes and or types of plastics which they can
joint.
The various methods of joining plastics discussed below.
A. MECHANICAL FASTENING:
This is the simplest way to join plastic parts. In this method a fastening element is
formed into the parts to be joined and thus costs the least only stronger, tougher plastics
are suitable for this method since the joint must service the strain of assembly service load
and possible repeated use.

MECHANICAL FASTENERS
Screws, rivets, pins, sheet metal and nuts are the commonly used as fastener elements for
joining the work through fastening method. They required a plastic that is strong enough to
withstand the strain of fastener insertion and subsequent high stress around the fastener
threaded fastener work best on thick section.

B. SPIN WELDING:
Plastic parts can be joined by a technique similar to inertia welding used for joining metal
parts in the spin welding of plastics one part is held stationary while the other is attached to
a spindle which is brought up to predetermined speed and then forced against the
stationary part.

Fig. Spin welding method

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C. SOLVENT BONDING:
In this method the plastics are joined by softening them by solvent and then
clamping or pressing together. In this way plastic molecules intermingle and the parts bond
together when the solvent evaporates. Thermoplastics are made by solvent bonding
method.

D. ULTRASONIC WELDING:
In this method two parts to be joined are placed together and the pulses are
transmitted from a generator to the parts by a vibrating tool causing them to vibrate
against each other at frequency around 20 KHZ.

E. INDUCTION WELDING:
In this method two pieces of same thermoplastic to be joined together are pressed
together with a metal wire or insert in the joint are magnetic field switched an around it
which causes the metal to be heated up there by melting the plastic and the compression
produces a good fusion weld.

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F. DIELECTRIC WELDING
This method finds applications in welding films and thin sheets in packaging process
it utilizes the technique of breaking down the plastic under high voltages and frequency to
produce dielectric heating and fuse the plastic welding speed is a function of dielectric loss
factor material thickness and the area subjected to the impressed voltage.

G. HOT PLATEN WELDING

In this method the thermoplastic is first softened contacting it with a heated tool and
then pressing together with films or sheet the material is passed under a hot roller the
sticking between the hot tool and the plastic material is prevented by coating the tool.

Fig. Hot platen welding

H. HOT GAS WELDING:

In this method the welding rod compress a thermoplastic rod which is heated along
with the parts to be joined by an inert gas until parts soften and can be pushed together
this is a low speed process for fabricating large structural parts from sheet.

Fig. Hot gas welding method

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I. VIBRATION WELDING:
This is a new technique for joining plastics and produces pressure tight joints in
circular rectangular or irregularity shaped parts made from almost any thermoplastic
material when in dissimilar materials having a melting temperature speed as great as 35° c.
The process is particularly suited for follow container type components having the weld
joint in a single plane.

Fig. Vibration welding

SAFETY PRECAUTION OF PLASTIC TOOLING

The major types of safety precautions of plastic tooling are
1. Sawing bar cutting
2. Plastic tooling
3. Filling of plastics
4. Finishing plastic
5. Using abrasive papers
6. The buffing machine
7. Fabricating of plastic tooling
8. Handling of plastic tooling

1. SAWING BAR CUTTING:

1. When your sawing plastic try to put the part that your sawing as near to job of the vice
as possible otherwise the material will behind as you push the saw back word and
towards may will break.
2. When sawing plastic you create a dust use the hand brush to clean the dust in the
workshop don’t try to blow it on the bench it may well go in your eyes and it is very
difficult to get out.

2. PLASTIC FILLING:
1. Before filling the plastic should take care of plastic which is in liquid status?
2. The raw status plastic should be kept at room temperature otherwise it becomes solid.
3. Fill the plastic properly while manufacturing of plastic tools by using of master into core
cavity.

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3. FILING OF PLASTICS:
1. Plastics are generally softer materials are best file using smooth or dead smooth file.
2. You can file the edge of piece of sawn plastic is exactly the same way as you would file a
piece of metal
3. Check the surface finish of plastic whether it is in right angle.

4. FINISHING PLASTIC:
1. It is very important that everything that you may out of plastics as the very high quality
finish.
2. The finishing of plastics is obtained by the filing method using of second cut file.

5. USING ABRASIVE PAPERS:

1. To reduce the depth and size of the scratches that the cross filing is produce we use
abrasive paper either emery cloth or dry papers.
2. The best way to use the wet and dry papers it to stick of full sized sheet down onto an A4
sized pieces of scrap fly wood.
3. For shapes other than straight edges wet and dry papers can be wrapped around small
pieces of scrap wood or of cock sanding block.
6. THE BUFFING MACHINE:
1. The buffing machine is used to put a final polish on a plastic & metal
2. It is best it most used for polishing plastics are not mixed with once used for polishing
Metal.
3. Polish in stick form is loaded onto map when it is rotating
4. Always wear goggles when buffing as polish and other devices is crown off of the map
5. You should be wear protective glasses or goggles or an apron. Loose hairs should be
bared bad you should roll you shirt or full over slaves up and be sure that you have no
jewelry that can get caught in the rotating map.
7. FABRICATING OF PLASTICS TOOLING:
1. Plastics can be bounded together using a range of advantages but the once that you are
going to find most commonly in your school work shop.
2. Be careful using adhesive.
3. Apply the adhesive carefully using a small amount and mask of areas near to surface
using masking tape.

8. HANDLING OF PLASTIC TOOLS:

1. Loading & unloading of plastic
2. Take care of plastic tools otherwise it may go bend or break down
3. Don’t put heavily loads on plastic load it may causes or damages
4. Use plastic tools for light works
5. While manufacturing composing frames or elements seal the plastic properly by sealing

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agent.

IMPORTANT HINTS
1. Plastic may be defined as organic material; it contains a synthetic, high polymer as the
major constituent.
2. A new group of engineering materials and plastic have come into existence.
3. Plastic commonly used as a tooling material.
4. It increases production efficiency, and reduce production cost.
5. Plastics are classified into two types:
I. Thermo Plastic.
II.Thermosetting Plastics.
5. Thermo setting plastic formed from the intermediate product which under the influence
of heat.

7. Polyesters are introduced by aircraft industries resign and reinforced them with fiber
glass cloth.
8. Thermo plastic contain linear to branched chain molecules which are not inter
connected.
9. Moulding of plastic comprises forming an article to the desired shape by application of
heat and pressure to the moulding, compound in a suitable mould hardening.

9. Take care of plastic tools otherwise if may go bend or break down.

10. While manufacturing composite frames or elements seal the plastic properly by sealing
agent.

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FILL IN THE BLANKS:

1. In now days __________ play a dominator role both for industrial and domestic
application because of their excellent application.
Ans: Plastic

2. Plastic has ________and ________insulating properties.

Ans: Electric and Thermal.

3. Plastic is material made up of long chain molecules based on __________.

Ans: Hydrogen & Carbon.

4. Now day’s plastic are used as a_________ material.

Ans: Tooling.

5. ___________are oftener as equal as or better than metal tools in many applications.

Ans: Plastic tools.

6. Plastic tooling increases the___________ efficiency.

Ans: Production.

7. Plastic can be classified into _________________

Ans: Thermo plastic & Thermo set plastic.

8. The __________ plastic is used in air craft industry.

Ans: Phenolics.

9. Phenolics are used in long _______________work.

Ans: Master feature & some foundry.

10. Phenolics are applicable in __________.

Ans: Form dies & jigs.

11. ____________modules are used for constructing for duplicating mill pantographs.
Ans: Duplicating.

12. Urethane compounds are group of ______________to as like material.

Ans: Frequently referred to as elastic.

13. Urethanes are used for ____________ forming dies.

Ans: Metal.

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14. The plastic tooling operation is done by the _________operator.

Ans: Skilled.

15. Lamping plastic is done by comprise sheet of____________.

Ans: Paper & fabric.

16. _______________ are generally moulded by and injection mouldings method.

Ans: Thermo plastic material.

17. _________moulding is used for producing hollow object.

Ans: Blow.

18. The ____________forming process is also similar to indirect blow molding.

Ans: Vacuums

19. In mechanical fastness process ________is joined by screws, pins, sheet metal, nuts.
Ans: Plastic.

20. In electric welding the plastic is welded by _________ .

Ans: Dielectric fluid.

21. The __________operation is used for final polish on a plastic.

Ans: Buffing.

MATCH THE FOLLOWING:

PART- A PART-B
1. Plastic tooling ----- Laminating or model perforation
2. Epoxies plastic ----- Stretch dies
3. Plastic tooling ----- Rapid tooling
4. Plastic tooling ----- Various shaped tooling
5. Plastic tooling ----- Moulding
6. Phenol plastics ----- Air craft industries
7. Plastic tooling ----- Buffing m/c
8. Plastic polish ----- Buffing m/c

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IMPORTENT QUESTIONS

1. Write a brief introduction about plastic?

2. Write a brief about plastic tooling?

3. Explain classification of plastics?

4. Explain the major plastic tooling materials are used in tooling?

5. Explain brief about Epoxies?

6. Explain merits of plastic tooling material?

7. Explain Demerits of plastic tooling material?

8. List out the type of moulding methods?

9. Explain compression moulding and Injection moulding?

10. Define Application of plastic tooling?

11. Explain Spin welding, Ultrasonic welding, Dielectric welding?

12. Write difference between Thermo plastic and thermo set plastic?

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UNIT 5 -TOOLING FOR NC MACHINES

INTRODUCTION:
Numerically control has been developed out of the need for higher productivity,
lower cost & more precise manufacturing .This is the latest machine tools control system
since the industrial revolution & can be considered as the most sophisticated form of
automation for controlling machine tools equipment or processes.
In a NC system operation instructions are inputted to the machine as numbers
which are suitably coded for storing on tapes these instruction are then automatically
carried out in the machine tools in predetermined sequence with preset or self adjusted
speed ,feed ,etc... without human intervention .Avoidance of human intervention omission
of conventional tooling and featuring an quick change capability of NC system are
primary factor consider to decide the level of acceptance of NC machine tools for a
particular job other maintainable advantages identified of NC over conventional machine
tools with automation are 1) Optimization of cutting tool life & quality of jobs. 2) Possibility
of making parts which are impossible in conventional machining system. 3) Quick and
more accurate inspection and detection of errors in design and fabrication.

NUMERICAL CONTROLLED MACHINE:

NC machine means it is a Numerical Controlled machine. NC machine response to
the electrical signals from the controller. Accordingly the machine executes various slide
Motions and spindle rotation to manufacture a part.
Any NC machine can be considered as general purpose machine tool fitted with drive
motors and other auxiliary functions of the machine. It is different from conventional
machine.
The NC machine consist as usual the work table, spindle, base, column & other parts.
As a general purpose machine contains the NC machine tool range from single spindle to
multiple spindle with motion tools range and multi axis control system transducers for rpm
& motion.

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Fig. NC machine
NC AND ITS COMPONENTS:
Numerical control is technique of automatically operating a productive facility,
based on a code of letters, numbers and special characters. The complete set of coded
instructions; responsible for executing an operation (or a set of operation) is called a part
program.
This program is translated into electrical signals to drive various motors to operate
the machine to carry out the required operation. The components of a traditional NC
machine are shown in following figure the components are described in the following
paragraphs.

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PART DRAWING

WRITTEN NC
PROGRAM

PROGRAMME INSTRUCTION
PUNCHED ON SENT TO NC M/C
TAPE

MICRO TAPE TAPE NC M/C

COMPUTER PUNCH READER

TAPE
PUNCH

Fig. Instructions flow in NC machine

PROGRAMME OF INSTRUCTIONS:
The programme of instructions often called part program is the detailed set of direction
for producing a component by the NC machine. Each line of instructions is mixture of
alphabetic codes and numeric data and is punched in an input media in a specified
format. The input is read by a tape reader which transfers the instructions to a machine
controller to operate the machine slides and to generate specific surface on the job.

TAPE PUNCH

Usually it is paper tape of width, paper Mylar, aluminium Mylar, or plastic are also
used as tape materials. Paper tape is cheap and popular but cannot last long. It is treated
to register oil & water. Mylar tapes are expensive but durable. Mylar tapes are still used
by machine manufacture to store Information as executive tapes. Punching machine of
various types is used to key in program instructions to tapes. Presently tapes are prepared
by micro -computers by keying in the information from the manuscript.

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Once the entire program has been entered, it is checked and corrected if needed, and
then the computer activates the tape punching unit to produce the tape. The computer
can also generate the program print -out through its printer.

TAPE READER

A tape reader reads the whole pattern on the tape and converts the patters to
corresponding electrical signal.
MACHINE CONTROLLER

Controller receives the electrical signal from tape reader or an operating penal and
causes NC machine to respond. It contains a decoder /encoder interpolator and facilities
to execute auxiliary functions which are machine dependent .The decoder or encoder
receives the data and stores them in two separate memory locations. One for the part
geometry data and the other for the process data. Process data includes switching
functions for adjusting feed rate, spindle speeds, tool changes, cutting fluid applications
etc. Geometric data consists information about tool motion, tool length, tool radius, tool
compensation etc.

As the machine is to shape complex surface at a constant feed rate, signals must be
given to various slides and spindles so that the individual motion can be integrated to
produce the required shape which can be represented by complex curve or simple lines.
The interpolator breaks down these curves into small individual increments for each
controlled motion of the machine tool. Controller also interfaces various machine units
like drive motors, transducers and other control function of the machine tool.

NC MACHINE
NC machine response to the electrical signals from the controller. Accordingly the
machine executes various slide Motions and spindle rotation to manufacture a part. Any
NC machine can be considered as general purpose machine tool fitted with drive motors
and other auxiliary functions of the machine. It consists as usual the work table, spindle
and other hardware as a general purpose machine contains. Transducers are fitted to
feed back data on the positions of the driveways, for the rpm of the spindle and for the
amount of cut in the job. NC machine tools rage from single spindle drilling machine to
complex machine having multiple motions, tool changer, high capacity tool magazine and
multi axis control.

VERSATILE CONTROL SYSTEM

It has been man, but he is for from the mark reliable. It has limited memory and
may be rectal influenced by his environment. Its speed is slow& erratic & his ability to
repeat dimension is externally limited.

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CONTROL SYSTEM:
1] It has been developed to overcome the many short coming of man as a control system
2] Instructions to the machine concerning feed movement positioning, cycling, sequencing
have been built into the machine in the form of cams stops times and other mechanical
and electrical devices that are manually established by the operation before each
particular job.
3] This type of control is restricted to parts of similar configuration.
4) Automatic screw machine, automatic lather manufacturing type milling machine and
automatic lather manufacturing grinding machines are example of machine tools
employing this type of control they are often referred to as fixed program machine tools.

VARIABLE PROGRAM MACHINE:

It has to lead the development of numerical control. The main contributor to its
development has been the air craft industry because frequent design changes and small lot
production methods as used in industries. Where long production schedules & the
manufacture of repetitive parts are common.

THE FIRST NUMERICALLY CONTROL MILLING MACHINE

It comes about through as air force development control with Mass Measurement
institute of technology. This machine is generally considered as the first successful
numerical control application for machine tool and this established the concept of
numerical control for industrial use.
BASIC PRINCIPLE OF NUMERICAL CONTROL
1] A numerically controlled machine tool is one that is controlled by numbers instruction
for the NC is written in numerical form.
2] These numeric instructions are written [programmed] in advance & stored on a suitable
medium which is usually 1- in wide punched tape although magnetic tape and punched
cards have been used.
3] The numeric instructions are stored interpreted and changed into signals that are
understood by the machine tool.
4] The main control unit consists of a system of electronic interpreting devices and in
general is the defender of all machine operation.
5] The coded instructions can control the machine slide position spindle speed direction of
spindle rotation amount of feed direction of feed movements.
6] On same sophisticated machine the coded instruction may be co ordinate to control the
machine axis movements to machine complicated three dimensional surfaces.
7] The machine operator role is reduced to threading the tape starting the m/c operator.
8] The instruction to the machine can easily be changed by replacing the roll of tape on the
main control unit with another similar to the way a movie projector operator changes a
roll of movie film.

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NUMERICAL CONTROL SYSTEM USE IN TODAY

Two basic numerical control systems are in use modern industry today.
a] Positioning system [point to point]
b] Contouring system [continuous path]
POSITIONING SYSTEM [POINT TO POINT]
These are used to locate a point or a series of points by moving independently in two
dimensions called x & y dimensions. The path of their motion is not important as long as
they meet at the point. For example a NC drilling machine will position the work at a single
specific point the drill advance to drill a hole to the proper depth with draw when
completed and then reposition to the next hole and start the cycle once again this operation
will continuous until the hole path is completed. Other machine tools using this type of
control system are jig bores, turret lathes, boring mills, engine lathes and machining
centers.

CONTOURING OR CONTINUOUS PATH SYSTEM

The path the tool will follow through the work important. The x & y dimensions or
the x, y & z dimension are needed to determine the desired curve or form & must be closely
co ordinate. The dimensions must be synchronized by the system after being feed into as in
divided dimensions. The curve or form is generated by a series of minutes over lapping
straight lines or parabolas. None of these lines or parabolas is larger than the total
dimensional tolerance on both sides of the line or cutter path. By releasing the proportional
signal values of the x, y & z dimensions in each of a series of fine time intervals each
interval produces a short straight line or parabola. The sum of these lines or parabolas is
the desired curve computers of points needed for contouring prohibit manual
programming.

THE MACHINING CENTRE CONCEPT

Early efforts in the development of numerically controlled machine tools were
concentrated on machines that were to a job previously impossible or externally difficult or
tool express to do by conventional means. As the NC concept developed and materialized it
was recognized that NC could be very easily adapted to conventional machine. Machine
tool and high volume machines controlled by NC data large commercial market potential
this type of machine tools equipped with NC relieve the operator of many planning and
positioning responsibility hover many of the original limitation still exist.

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Fig. The machining centre concept

ADVANTAGES OF NC MACHINE CENTRE

1] After the initial setup, additional setup time is eliminated.

2] Only one work holding fixture is necessary because the transfer to another machines has
been eliminated.
3] Setup time is reduced for the same reason.
4] Less time is needed for the change of feeds and speeds tool selection and inspection and
indexing of the work piece.
5] A more accurate part is produced because of the elimination of transfer error.

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DIFFERENCE BETWEEN NC MACHINE & CONVENTIONAL MACHINES

CONVENTIONAL MACHINE NUMERICAL CONTROL MACHINE

1] Conventional machine are difficult operate 1] NC machine are easy to operate for
for several hours. Several hours.

2] The operator has to continuously focus 2] These machines has been a major step
on the job at hand. toward automating the job shop & short
run product.
3] The resemble of product formed depends
on the skill of the operator visible differ 3] Resembles of the product formed depends
may occur on the skill of operator.

4] Highly skilled operators are required to 4] There is no need of highly skilled operator
work on conventional machine. to work on NC machine.

5] Changes for major improve in the same 5] Changes of major improvement in the NC
conventional machine are less. machine.

6] One person cannot operate more than one 6) One person can operate the numerical
conventional machine at a time. controlled machine.

7] The production rate is decreased in 7] The production rate can be increased

conventional machine. in these machines.

8] The accuracy not maintained easily 8] High accuracy is maintained.

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ADVANTAGES: DISADVANTAGES OF NC:

1] Reduced data closed tolerance quick 1] Looted or numerical designations

design change capacity all parts a like require NC drafting machine to check design.
higher contouring complexity.

2] How tool cast faster tool & first part 2] Limited maximum production rate
delivery flexible quantities less specified no alternate method it designed and tooled
operator skills, high operator efficiency less for NC mastered and tooling cut.
material handling.

3] Reliable production estimates and yields 3] No work around capacity less machine
fixed flow time. planning flexibility.

4] Time study and incentive system not 4] Methods improvement part of rape
required to attain efficiency. program not closes for floor condition.

5] More uniform quality on cycle inspection 5] More decision of responding of product

random defects of NC operations are usually quality.
groups & easy to see.

6] Fever machines to house and service 6] NC equipment more complex specification

& skills are required to maintain NC.

7] When possible sub contact reproducibility 7] Material supply must be maintain limited
& control is excellent. sources of sub containing.

8] Better cost control, better cost information 8] Over load and indirect cost higher
less group firmer, real cost & productivity capacity investment less chance to improve a
control better capacity to sell. tool low quite.

SPINDLING TOOLING FOR MACHINING CENTRE

Machining center are capable of a verity of machining operations for this purpose
a verity of tools are required in machining centre to be efficient must have automatic tool
changes work parts positioning is called shafting a part from the NC operation.
Most of maintaining centers have automatic tool changes in angled double gripping
fingers for removal of tools in the spindle and tool magazine.

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TYPES OF NUMERICAL CONTROL MACHINES

1] Drilling machine
2] Single spindle drilling machine
3] Multiple spindle drilling machine
4] Radial spindle drilling machine
5] Lathe machine
6] Turning machine
7] Turret machine
8] Milling machine
9] Horizontal spindle machine
10] Vertical spindle machine
11] Machining centre
12] Horizontal machining centre
13] Vertical machining centre
14] Grinding machine
15] Surface grinders
16] Tool and cutter grinders
17] Cylindrical grinding
18] EDM machine

TYPES OF MACHINING CENTRES:

There are two types of machining center

a] Horizontal spindle center

b] Vertical spindle center
The horizontal spindle machining center and vertical spindle machining centers are
operated on three axis x, y & z

A. HORIZONTAL SPINDLE MACHINING CENTRE

It has three axis x, y & z the x axis control for the vertical movement of the spindle.
Y axis controls the table movement. And z axis controls the horizontal movement of the
spindle.

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Fig; 1 horizontal spindle machining centre

VERTICAL SPINDLE MACHINING CENTRE:

It has 3 axis x, y & z the x axis control for the table movement left or right. y axis
control for the table movement towards or may from the column. z axis control for the
vertical movement of the spindle.

Fig. vertical spindle machining centre

CUTTING TOOLS FOR

OR NUMERICAL CONTROLLED MACHINE

A numerically controlled machine tools is only as good as the cutting tool even then
the spindle may be more accurate the machine move rapid & the positioning system more
precise than the equipment conventional machine tool the NC mach
machine
ine is no more accurate
than the cutting tool in the spindle cutting tools than may be suitable for conventional
machine is may not be applicable for NC machines because NC machine exhibit greater
dependability.

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In other work the cutting tool must be more dependable to match the dependability of
the NC machines. The use of NC machine as simplified or eliminated elaborate jigs or
fixtures. This may be simplify production but it will increase the need for exact and rigid
cutting tools in accurate or lack of rigidity may be over come with conventional machine
because the jig or fixture will in part guide and support the cutting tool and produce
greater accuracy.

TWIST DRILLS
Generally speaking production drilling on conventional drilling machines involves
the use of drill jig containing guide ways bushing the drill is positively located guided into
the correct position of the work piece.
The drill is supported to a degree for entry especially where long drill bushings are used
and therefore the tendency to chatter is used and therefore the tendency to chatter is
reduced.
Thus the drill depends upon the guide bushing for location the drill point geometric may be
poor yet satisfactory result are still obtained when using guide bushing drill concentricity
can be rightly off since the guide bushing will have it corrected is Brue enough for
satisfactory result.

Fig. Twist drill

SPACE DRILLS
The discussion thus far has been confined to smaller twist drill sizes when it is
necessary to drill holes larger than line diameter on NC drilling machine man use have
found space type drills satisfactory and economical.

MILLING CUTTERS
Generally speaking the cutting speed, feed rate and depth of cut are higher on NC
milling machine or machining centers for this reason the trend has been toward heavier
and stiffer milling cutter made of the premium grade of cutting tool materials solid carbide
tools have had increased use because of the inherent rigid stability of tungsten carbide.

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Fig. milling cutters

TOOL HOLDING METHODS FOR NUMERICAL CONTROLS

One of the virtues of NC machine tools is that dead or non productive time is
reduced drastically. A machine tools is not making money unless it is making chips it does
good to by a machine tool capable of making heavier cuts at increased feed rate is it takes a
same amount of time for setup tool changing. By the same taken it makes little sense to eye
the never cutting tool materials and increase the cutting speed to a point where it endanger
the operator and skill use traditional tool change and setup methods the best way to reduce
machining cost today it to reduce machine down time.

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TOOL CHANGING FOR MACHINING CENTRE

1) Tool in machine spindle is arranged properly

2] Tool in magazine is ready
3] Gripping fingers of tool changer gripped both tools {new & old}
4] Tools are removed by gripped arm
5] Inserted new tool in spindle and old goes to tool magazine
6] Tool magazine starts rotating to make the next required available of the tool change
Position.

TURRET TYPE NUMERICALLY CONTROLLED MACHINE

The simplest type of NC machine with tool position is the turret drilling machine
one of the smaller machine is available this machine is equipped with both power index and
automatic cycle together with numerical control of table positioning the automatic cycle
includes rapid spindle traverses to work power feed control rapid spindle retraction
automatic index adjustable feed rate for tapping & automatic reverse of tape at
predetermined depths it has size turret spindles with a number 33 jobs taper the time
required to index the turret is second that is capable of drilling, tapping, reaming and
counter boring of up to 1/2 inches.

A turret type NC machines capable of milling in addiction to drilling operations. it

automatically drill, mills, taps, bores & counter bores with all functions selected and
control by tape once the cycle has been started the entire sequences of operation is
completed without further operator super vision.
Turret indexing is by table command and any one of eight tools may be selected at
random by tape command maximum of six second is required to change from one tool to
another power to delivered only to the tool selected the others remaining idle.

Fig. turret type numerical control machine

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AUTOMATIC TOOL CHANGER

One of the better known and more popular tool changer is offered on the
misalliance metric machining centre the tool changing mechanism for the model second
mils wall knee metric tool storage is accomplished by a rotary magazine for 30 tool
holders with tools with one tool is the spindle the machine has capacity for 31 different and
transfer tools.

Fig. automatic tool changer

AUTOMATIC TOOL CHANGER AND TOOL POSITION

The previous discussion had to do with increasing the speed and efficiency of
manual tool changing the next logical step in this direction would be to eliminate manual
handling of the tool. All together this has generally been done either by providing a means
of indexing the tools into cutting position as in the case of a turret drill or by provide a tool
changer mechanism. Such removes the tool from a storage magazine and places it in the
machine spindle either adds a considerate amount to tool cost but the express is more than
offset by increased machine utilization.

TOOL PRESETTING
Presetting cutting tool involves positioning the cutting edges for their correct
relationship to the work piece completely away from the parent machine this allows the
parent machine to stay busy an another job thus reducing the non productive time
required to set the cutting tool by conventional methods .

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Tool presetting is usually accomplished through the use of a presetting fixtures that
has been designed for a specific m/c or a specific system of tooling some presetting fixtures
closely resemble the tool position of the parent machine itself while other and universal in
nature universal setting fixtures of this type are suitable for a system of tooling that
accommodates several different machines in some cases conventional guiding equipment
such as surface plates, height gauges indication and optical computers may be used it is the
purpose of this section to discuss the various types of presetting fixture used to familiarized
the tool designer with the basic concept of tool presetting.

Tool presetting is usually done at a tool presetting center these may be the existing
tool crib or special area of the tool crib designated as tool setting center the cutting tools for
the NC machine are store here along with work holding fixture and special tooling for NC
machines the center is also responsible for the maintenance of tooling such as cleaning
inspection and replacing cutting inserts.

TOOL HOLDING DEVICES

ADAPTER:
It is a form of cullet used on milling machines having standardized spindle and the
cutters having shank are usually mounted on the milling adapters. A adapter is connected
with the spindle by a draw bolt or it may direct bolted to it.

TYPES OF ADAPTERS
There are three types of adapters
1] Shell end mill adapter
2] Morse tapper adapter
3] End mill adapter

1] SHELL END MILL ADAPTER

It is tool holding device it holds to use the shell end mill. It has to be attached to an
end milling. NC milling machine adapter before it can be mounted in the machine adapter
align with key ways formed in the shell end mill and the adapter or aligned through the use
of a large counter bore on the black of a cutter and a precision ground plate on the nose of
the adapter.

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Fig. shell end mill adapter

2] MORES TAPER ADAPTER

The most tapper adapter has an internal bore hole for mounting on the tapper
shank end mill cutter. The tapper shank or extension on one end for mounting and drilling
the cutter with the help of adapter which fixed at nose of spindle. The taper shank end mills
are available from 10 to 63 mm in diameter may have tangled end or tapered from
mounting on taper adapter most taper adapter is a tool holding devise holds the tapered
shank cutter for rotating during metal cutting on NC machine and CNC machine.

Fig. Morse taper adapter

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3] END MILL
It is tool holding device used for holding the straight end mills, shell end mills, taper
end mills. The taper end mill adapter which having a shape of a collets the adapter
disconnect with the spindle by a draw bolt for rotating cutters.

Fig. end mill cutter

4] COLLET CHUCKS
1] The collect chucks are used for gripping bars introduced through the head stock of NC
capstone or turret lathe machine.
2] The collect chuck is most commonly used for holding the work.
3] Collect chucks are more suitable then self centering chucks in mass production work.
4] Collect chucks are most suitable then self centering chucks
5] It holds the work piece quick and accurate and disengage the work piece has round or
any other shaped bore are fitted in the chucks for holding bars.

Fig. collets chuck

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TYPES OF COLLET CHUCKS

There are three types of collet chucks those are
1] Push out type collet chuck
2] Drawing in type collet chuck
3] Dead length type collet chuck

BORING BARS:
It is a tool used for metal working and wood working, boring, forms a hole [circular
shape] as drill the boring bar having a tool which cut the circular holes or non circular
holes. Metal work piece in metal boring the total can be plugged and dragged on the x or y
axis to create a slot or symmetrical hole or U -channel on it may moved only up and down
motion (on z axis) to create perfect circular hole.
The modern boring tools have three primary components body bar holder dial
screw the body is made of solid stock and it has two basic parts the top part threads or
pressed in to the supporting shanks the lower parts is lower parts is bar holder dial screw is
for adjusting the hole diameter.

TOOLING FOR NUMERICAL CONTROL TURNING MACHINE

It is a production machine used to manufacture any number of identical pieces in
the minimum time. The turning NC machine is consisting of a bed all general head stock
saddle table tool holder spindle. The special characteristics of turning NC machine enable it
to perform assures of operation such as turning drilling facing cutting of knurling slotting
and many other operation in a regular sequence to produce a large number of identical
piece in minimum time. The better example for turning machine is turret lathe machine.

TURRET LATHE MACHINE

The turret lathe is production lathe used to manufacture any number of identical
pieces in minimum metal time. These are develop by engine lathe, turret lathe consist of
engine lathe. The turret lathe consist of a bed, head stock, saddle, tool post of 4 stations.
The tool post is mounted on cross slide in indexing by hard there is one cross slide index by
hand there is no tail stock for turret lathe in case hexagonal turret is mounted on slide rest
the work piece is held in collect chuck the turret holds all the 6 tools or more then 6 tools.

The turret may be indexed automatically and each tool work regular sequence. The
different tool performing different operation on repetitive work piece without measuring
dimension in each case. These special characteristics of turret lathe enable to perform a
drilling, reaming and may other operations in regular sequence to produce large number of
work piece in short period.

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Fig.turret lathe

QUALIFIED TOOLING
Shapes often uses a DNC , CNC or NC system simply to transfer part program files
to machine qualified tool few shapes us DNC or CNC machines in more advanced ways
such as a means of integrating a qualified tooling system to monitor tool life and speed
setup, after old tool replaced a new tool or new insert over installed in tool holder the
standard length diameter are measured. And entered in to the system data base the
systematic also records techniques name, date, time tool was qualified expected tool life.
It desired once it qualified a disposable or coded tag is attached to the tool holder
and that bar can be is scanned to indentify the tool in the data base when the tool is loading
the operators scan the bar code position the bar code represents the position of machining
and operation sequence in qualified tooling . The data base displace the time tool life
automatic transfer the data recording to shop by SMS .

TYPES OF PRESETTERS
There are two types of presetters available
a] Contact presetters
b] Non contact presetters

A] CONTACT PRESETTERS
It is a touch probe that touches the tool maker measurement contact tool presetters
used a magnetic scale, glass scale for measurement of tool.
B] NON CONTACT PRESETTERS
These are uses a shadow groups to provide a tool profile view for inspection and presetting

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SELECTION OF TOOL PRESETTERS

For present the tool consider the maximum tool length [z-axis] and diameter [x-
axis] that will be measured this consideration is important in determining the travel
capacity of the presetters and whether it will measure the complete range of tools used
tolerances and allowance of tools and range of tools shank used in tool operations.
Tool prestters should be fixture for the shank ram, BT hang N M T B, D I N
standard v-flange and lathe tool shank adopter are commonly used for shank and tool
holding shanks.

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IMPORTANT HINTS
1. In NC system operation instructions are imputed to the machine as numbers which
are suitably coded for storing on tapes.
2. The NC machine consist as usual the work table, spindle, base, column and other
hard wares.
3. Versatile control system has a limited memory and may be rectal influenced by its
environment.
4. The first NC milling machine comes about through as air force development control
with a mass actuate institute of technology.
5. In NC machine after the initial set-up, additional set-up is eliminated.
6. The production rate is decreased in conventional machine compared to NC machine.
7. There are two types of NC machine centre :
A. Horizontal Spindle Centre.
B.Vertical Spindle Centre.
8. The simplest type of NC machine with tool position is the turret drilling machine.
9. Adapter is a tool holding device, which has the following types
A. Shell end mill adapter.
B.Morse taper adapter.
C.End mill adapter.
10. The torrent lathe is consisting of bed, head-stock, saddle, tool post of four stations.
11. There are two types of pre-setters
A.Contact Pre-setters.
B.Non-Contact Pre-setters.

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FILL IN THE BLANKS

1) NC some time referred to a __________control.

Ans: Symbolic.

2) NC developed out of the need for _____________ productivity.

Ans: Higher

3) In NC system operation _________are inputted to the machine as numbers.

Ans: Instructions.

4) NC machine response to the __________signals from the controller according to the

machine.
Ans: Electrical.

5) The ________ type of machine has multi axis control system for rpm & motion.
Ans: NC

6) The first successful numerical control machine developed by _________industries.

Ans: Air force.

7) The instructions are converted into _________program after feed into NC machine.
Ans: Numerical.

8) Numerical instructions are stored & changed into _________signals.

Ans: Electrical.

9) Magnetic tapes are used for storing instructions in _________machine .

Ans: NC.

10) Positioning system in NC system is also called as___________.

Ans: Point to point.

11) Contouring system of NC system is also known as __________ .

Ans; Continuous path.

12) NC drilling machine will ________the work at a single specific point.

Ans: Position.

13) NC machine have _____ gallery magazine for holding the multiple tools.

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Ans: Tool.
14) In horizontal spindle machining centre's ______axis control for the vertical
movement of the spindle.
Ans: X.

15) _______Axis control the table movement in horizontal machining.

Ans: Y

16) The spindle movements in horizontal machining centre are controlled by _________.
Ans: Z- Axis.

17) ________Axis control the table movement in VMC.

Ans: X

18) Z- axis control __________movement of the spindle in VMC.

Ans: Vertical.

19) Example for the NC lathe machine__________ .

Ans: Turret Lathe.

20) Automatic tool changers are commonly used in_________.

Ans: NC Machine.

21) __________device presenting cutting tools position in NC machine

Ans: Tool Presetters.

22) __________is a form of collets used on milling machine.

Ans: Adapter.

23) Straight shank cutters are hold into __________ Adapter

Ans: Shell end mill

24) Tapered shank cutters are hold ___________Adapter

Ans: Internal and Morse taper

25) Collets chucks are used as a _________ .

Ans: Grinding bars.

26) _______are used to holding identical shaped work piece on lathe machine.
Ans: Collet checks.

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27) Boring bar working as a drill tool performing the___________ shape.

Ans: Circular.

28) Boring bar is used for enlarge the____________.

Ans: Cylindrical holes.

29) For transpiring part program files to machine __________is often used by
DNC/CNC/NC system.
Ans: Qualified tooling.

30) Contact and noncontact are presetters used for presetting tool position.
Ans: Non contact.

MATCH THE FOLLOWING

PART- A PART- B

1.NC _______ Electrical signals

2.DND/CNC _______ NC
3.NC _______ Numerical control
4.Adapters ______ Tool holding devices
5.Machining centre ______ x y z axis
6.Morse taper adapter ______ Taper shank end mill
7.End mill taper adapter ______ Straight shank
8.Collets chuck ______ Self centering check
9.Collets chuck ______ Turret lathe m/c
10.Boring bar ______ Boring tool
11.Qualified tooling ______ DNC/CNC/NC
12.Qualified tooling ______ Transfer program
13.ATC ______ Automatic tool changer

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IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1. What is NC machine?
2. Explain the control system of NC machine?
3. Explain the basic principle of NC machine?
4. Explain the positioning (point-to-point) system in NC machine?
5. Explain the machining centre's concept?
6. Explain the advantages of NC machine?
7. Differentiate between NC machine and conventional machine?
8. List out types of numerical control systems?
9. with a neat sketch explain the Arbor, Adapter used on NC machine.
10. Explain horizontal machining centre?
11. Explain vertical machining centre?
12. Explain tool holding devices in NC machine?
13. Explain turret type numerical controlled machine?
14. Explain automatic tool changer?
15. List out the tool holding devices used on NC machine?
16. What is adapter? Explain types of adapters?
17. What is collets chuck? Explain types of collate chucks?
18. Explain boring bars used on NC machine?
19. Explain turret lathe machine
20. What is presetter? Explain the types of presenters?
21. Explain the selection of tool presenters?

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