Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION TO DIGITAL SIGNAL

PROCESSING
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Signals
1.5 Signal Processing

Copyright
c 2018 Andreas Antoniou
Victoria, BC, Canada
Email: aantoniou@ieee.org

July 9, 2018

Frame # 1 Slide # 1 A. Antoniou Digital Filters – Secs. 1.1, 1.2, 1.5

Introduction

t Signal processing emerged soon after World War I in the form

of electrical filtering.

Frame # 2 Slide # 2 A. Antoniou Digital Filters – Secs. 1.1, 1.2, 1.5

Introduction

t Signal processing emerged soon after World War I in the form

of electrical filtering.
t With the invention of the digital computer and the rapid
advances in VLSI technology during the 1960s, a new way of
processing signals emerged: digital signal processing.

Frame # 2 Slide # 3 A. Antoniou Digital Filters – Secs. 1.1, 1.2, 1.5

Introduction

t Signal processing emerged soon after World War I in the form

of electrical filtering.
t With the invention of the digital computer and the rapid
advances in VLSI technology during the 1960s, a new way of
processing signals emerged: digital signal processing.
t This and the next two presentations provide a brief historical
summary of the emergence of signal processing and its
applications.

Frame # 2 Slide # 4 A. Antoniou Digital Filters – Secs. 1.1, 1.2, 1.5

Introduction

t Signal processing emerged soon after World War I in the form

of electrical filtering.
t With the invention of the digital computer and the rapid
advances in VLSI technology during the 1960s, a new way of
processing signals emerged: digital signal processing.
t This and the next two presentations provide a brief historical
summary of the emergence of signal processing and its
applications.
t To start with, a classification of the various types of signals
encountered in today’s technological world is provided.

Frame # 2 Slide # 5 A. Antoniou Digital Filters – Secs. 1.1, 1.2, 1.5

Introduction

t Signal processing emerged soon after World War I in the form

of electrical filtering.
t With the invention of the digital computer and the rapid
advances in VLSI technology during the 1960s, a new way of
processing signals emerged: digital signal processing.
t This and the next two presentations provide a brief historical
summary of the emergence of signal processing and its
applications.
t To start with, a classification of the various types of signals
encountered in today’s technological world is provided.
t Then the sampling process is described as a means of
converting analog into digital signals.

Frame # 2 Slide # 6 A. Antoniou Digital Filters – Secs. 1.1, 1.2, 1.5

Signals

t Typically one assumes that a signal is an electrical signal, for

example, a radio, radar, or TV signal.

Frame # 3 Slide # 7 A. Antoniou Digital Filters – Secs. 1.1, 1.2, 1.5

Signals

t Typically one assumes that a signal is an electrical signal, for

example, a radio, radar, or TV signal.
However, in DSP a signal is any quantity that depends on one
or more independent variables.

Frame # 3 Slide # 8 A. Antoniou Digital Filters – Secs. 1.1, 1.2, 1.5

Signals

t Typically one assumes that a signal is an electrical signal, for

example, a radio, radar, or TV signal.
However, in DSP a signal is any quantity that depends on one
or more independent variables.
A radio signal represents the strength of an electromagnetic
wave that depends on one independent variable, namely, time.

Frame # 3 Slide # 9 A. Antoniou Digital Filters – Secs. 1.1, 1.2, 1.5

Signals Cont’d

t In our generalized definition of a signal, there may be more

than one independent variable and the independent variables
may be any quantity other than time.

Frame # 4 Slide # 10 A. Antoniou Digital Filters – Secs. 1.1, 1.2, 1.5

Signals Cont’d

t In our generalized definition of a signal, there may be more

than one independent variable and the independent variables
may be any quantity other than time.
For example, a digitized image may be thought of as light
intensity that depends on two independent variables, the
distances along the x and y axes; as such a digitized image is,
in effect, a 2-dimensional signal.

Frame # 4 Slide # 11 A. Antoniou Digital Filters – Secs. 1.1, 1.2, 1.5

Signals Cont’d

t In our generalized definition of a signal, there may be more

than one independent variable and the independent variables
may be any quantity other than time.
For example, a digitized image may be thought of as light
intensity that depends on two independent variables, the
distances along the x and y axes; as such a digitized image is,
in effect, a 2-dimensional signal.
A video signal is made up of a series of images which change
with time; thus a video signal is light intensity that depends
on the distances along the x and y axes and also on the time;
in effect, a video signal is a 3-dimensional signal.

Frame # 4 Slide # 12 A. Antoniou Digital Filters – Secs. 1.1, 1.2, 1.5

Signals Cont’d

t In our generalized definition of a signal, there may be more

than one independent variable and the independent variables
may be any quantity other than time.
For example, a digitized image may be thought of as light
intensity that depends on two independent variables, the
distances along the x and y axes; as such a digitized image is,
in effect, a 2-dimensional signal.
A video signal is made up of a series of images which change
with time; thus a video signal is light intensity that depends
on the distances along the x and y axes and also on the time;
in effect, a video signal is a 3-dimensional signal.
t Some signals arise naturally, others are man-made.

Frame # 4 Slide # 13 A. Antoniou Digital Filters – Secs. 1.1, 1.2, 1.5

Signals Cont’d

Natural signals are found, for example, in:

t Acoustics, e.g., speech signals, sounds made by dolphins and
whales

Frame # 5 Slide # 14 A. Antoniou Digital Filters – Secs. 1.1, 1.2, 1.5

Signals Cont’d

Natural signals are found, for example, in:

t Acoustics, e.g., speech signals, sounds made by dolphins and
whales
t Astronomy, e.g., cosmic signals originating in galaxies and
pulsars, astronomical images

Frame # 5 Slide # 15 A. Antoniou Digital Filters – Secs. 1.1, 1.2, 1.5

Signals Cont’d

Natural signals are found, for example, in:

t Acoustics, e.g., speech signals, sounds made by dolphins and
whales
t Astronomy, e.g., cosmic signals originating in galaxies and
pulsars, astronomical images
t Biology, e.g., signals produced by the brain and heart

Frame # 5 Slide # 16 A. Antoniou Digital Filters – Secs. 1.1, 1.2, 1.5

Signals Cont’d

Natural signals are found, for example, in:

t Acoustics, e.g., speech signals, sounds made by dolphins and
whales
t Astronomy, e.g., cosmic signals originating in galaxies and
pulsars, astronomical images
t Biology, e.g., signals produced by the brain and heart
t Seismology, e.g., signals produced by earthquakes and
volcanoes

Frame # 5 Slide # 17 A. Antoniou Digital Filters – Secs. 1.1, 1.2, 1.5

Signals Cont’d

Natural signals are found, for example, in:

t Acoustics, e.g., speech signals, sounds made by dolphins and
whales
t Astronomy, e.g., cosmic signals originating in galaxies and
pulsars, astronomical images
t Biology, e.g., signals produced by the brain and heart
t Seismology, e.g., signals produced by earthquakes and
volcanoes
t Physical sciences, e.g., signals produced by lightnings, the
room temperature, the atmospheric pressure

Frame # 5 Slide # 18 A. Antoniou Digital Filters – Secs. 1.1, 1.2, 1.5

Signals Cont’d

Man-made signals are found in:

t Audio systems, e.g., music signals

Frame # 6 Slide # 19 A. Antoniou Digital Filters – Secs. 1.1, 1.2, 1.5

Signals Cont’d

Man-made signals are found in:

t Audio systems, e.g., music signals
t Communications, e.g., radio, telephone, TV signals

Frame # 6 Slide # 20 A. Antoniou Digital Filters – Secs. 1.1, 1.2, 1.5

Signals Cont’d

Man-made signals are found in:

t Audio systems, e.g., music signals
t Communications, e.g., radio, telephone, TV signals
t Telemetry, e.g., signals originating from weather stations and
satellites

Frame # 6 Slide # 21 A. Antoniou Digital Filters – Secs. 1.1, 1.2, 1.5

Signals Cont’d

Man-made signals are found in:

t Audio systems, e.g., music signals
t Communications, e.g., radio, telephone, TV signals
t Telemetry, e.g., signals originating from weather stations and
satellites
t Control systems, e.g., feedback control signals

Frame # 6 Slide # 22 A. Antoniou Digital Filters – Secs. 1.1, 1.2, 1.5

Signals Cont’d

Man-made signals are found in:

t Audio systems, e.g., music signals
t Communications, e.g., radio, telephone, TV signals
t Telemetry, e.g., signals originating from weather stations and
satellites
t Control systems, e.g., feedback control signals
t Medicine, e.g., electrocardiographs, X-rays, magnetic
resonance imaging

Frame # 6 Slide # 23 A. Antoniou Digital Filters – Secs. 1.1, 1.2, 1.5

Signals Cont’d

Man-made signals are found in:

t Audio systems, e.g., music signals
t Communications, e.g., radio, telephone, TV signals
t Telemetry, e.g., signals originating from weather stations and
satellites
t Control systems, e.g., feedback control signals
t Medicine, e.g., electrocardiographs, X-rays, magnetic
resonance imaging
t Space technology, e.g., the velocity of a space craft

Frame # 6 Slide # 24 A. Antoniou Digital Filters – Secs. 1.1, 1.2, 1.5

Signals Cont’d

Man-made signals are found in:

t Audio systems, e.g., music signals
t Communications, e.g., radio, telephone, TV signals
t Telemetry, e.g., signals originating from weather stations and
satellites
t Control systems, e.g., feedback control signals
t Medicine, e.g., electrocardiographs, X-rays, magnetic
resonance imaging
t Space technology, e.g., the velocity of a space craft
t Politics, e.g., the popularity ratings of a political party

Frame # 6 Slide # 25 A. Antoniou Digital Filters – Secs. 1.1, 1.2, 1.5

Signals Cont’d

Man-made signals are found in:

t Audio systems, e.g., music signals
t Communications, e.g., radio, telephone, TV signals
t Telemetry, e.g., signals originating from weather stations and
satellites
t Control systems, e.g., feedback control signals
t Medicine, e.g., electrocardiographs, X-rays, magnetic
resonance imaging
t Space technology, e.g., the velocity of a space craft
t Politics, e.g., the popularity ratings of a political party
t Economics, e.g., the price of a stock at the TSX, the TSX
index, the gross national product

Frame # 6 Slide # 26 A. Antoniou Digital Filters – Secs. 1.1, 1.2, 1.5

Signals Cont’d

Two general classes of signals can be identified:

t Continuous-time signals
t Discrete-time signals

Frame # 7 Slide # 27 A. Antoniou Digital Filters – Secs. 1.1, 1.2, 1.5

Continuous-Time Signals

t A continuous-time signal is a signal that is defined at each

and every instant of time.

Frame # 8 Slide # 28 A. Antoniou Digital Filters – Secs. 1.1, 1.2, 1.5

Continuous-Time Signals

t A continuous-time signal is a signal that is defined at each

and every instant of time.
t Typical examples are:

Frame # 8 Slide # 29 A. Antoniou Digital Filters – Secs. 1.1, 1.2, 1.5

Continuous-Time Signals

t A continuous-time signal is a signal that is defined at each

and every instant of time.
t Typical examples are:
– An electromagnetic wave originating from a distant galaxy

Frame # 8 Slide # 30 A. Antoniou Digital Filters – Secs. 1.1, 1.2, 1.5

Continuous-Time Signals

t A continuous-time signal is a signal that is defined at each

and every instant of time.
t Typical examples are:
– An electromagnetic wave originating from a distant galaxy
– The sound wave produced by a dolphin

Frame # 8 Slide # 31 A. Antoniou Digital Filters – Secs. 1.1, 1.2, 1.5

Continuous-Time Signals

t A continuous-time signal is a signal that is defined at each

and every instant of time.
t Typical examples are:
– An electromagnetic wave originating from a distant galaxy
– The sound wave produced by a dolphin
– The ambient temperature

Frame # 8 Slide # 32 A. Antoniou Digital Filters – Secs. 1.1, 1.2, 1.5

Continuous-Time Signals

t A continuous-time signal is a signal that is defined at each

and every instant of time.
t Typical examples are:
– An electromagnetic wave originating from a distant galaxy
– The sound wave produced by a dolphin
– The ambient temperature
– The light intensity along the x and y axes in a photograph

Frame # 8 Slide # 33 A. Antoniou Digital Filters – Secs. 1.1, 1.2, 1.5

Continuous-Time Signals

t A continuous-time signal is a signal that is defined at each

and every instant of time.
t Typical examples are:
– An electromagnetic wave originating from a distant galaxy
– The sound wave produced by a dolphin
– The ambient temperature
– The light intensity along the x and y axes in a photograph
t A continuous-time signal can be represented by a function

x(t) where −∞ < t < ∞

Frame # 8 Slide # 34 A. Antoniou Digital Filters – Secs. 1.1, 1.2, 1.5

Continuous-Time Signals Cont’d

x(t)

Frame # 9 Slide # 35 A. Antoniou Digital Filters – Secs. 1.1, 1.2, 1.5

Discrete-Time Signals

t A discrete-time signal is a signal that is defined at discrete

instants of time.

Frame # 10 Slide # 36 A. Antoniou Digital Filters – Secs. 1.1, 1.2, 1.5

Discrete-Time Signals

t A discrete-time signal is a signal that is defined at discrete

instants of time.
t Typical examples are:

Frame # 10 Slide # 37 A. Antoniou Digital Filters – Secs. 1.1, 1.2, 1.5

Discrete-Time Signals

t A discrete-time signal is a signal that is defined at discrete

instants of time.
t Typical examples are:
– The closing price of a particular commodity on the stock
exchange

Frame # 10 Slide # 38 A. Antoniou Digital Filters – Secs. 1.1, 1.2, 1.5

Discrete-Time Signals

t A discrete-time signal is a signal that is defined at discrete

instants of time.
t Typical examples are:
– The closing price of a particular commodity on the stock
exchange
– The daily precipitation

Frame # 10 Slide # 39 A. Antoniou Digital Filters – Secs. 1.1, 1.2, 1.5

Discrete-Time Signals

t A discrete-time signal is a signal that is defined at discrete

instants of time.
t Typical examples are:
– The closing price of a particular commodity on the stock
exchange
– The daily precipitation
– The daily temperature of a patient as recorded by a nurse

Frame # 10 Slide # 40 A. Antoniou Digital Filters – Secs. 1.1, 1.2, 1.5

Discrete-Time Signals Cont’d

t A discrete-time signal can be represented as a function

x(nT ) where −∞ < n < ∞

and T is a constant.

Frame # 11 Slide # 41 A. Antoniou Digital Filters – Secs. 1.1, 1.2, 1.5

Discrete-Time Signals Cont’d

t A discrete-time signal can be represented as a function

x(nT ) where −∞ < n < ∞

and T is a constant.
t The quantity x(nT ) can represent a voltage or current level or
any other quantity.

Frame # 11 Slide # 42 A. Antoniou Digital Filters – Secs. 1.1, 1.2, 1.5

Discrete-Time Signals Cont’d

t A discrete-time signal can be represented as a function

x(nT ) where −∞ < n < ∞

and T is a constant.
t The quantity x(nT ) can represent a voltage or current level or
any other quantity.
t In DSP, x(nT ) always represents a series of numbers.

Frame # 11 Slide # 43 A. Antoniou Digital Filters – Secs. 1.1, 1.2, 1.5

Discrete-Time Signals Cont’d

t A discrete-time signal can be represented as a function

x(nT ) where −∞ < n < ∞

and T is a constant.
t The quantity x(nT ) can represent a voltage or current level or
any other quantity.
t In DSP, x(nT ) always represents a series of numbers.
t Constant T usually represents time but it could be any other
physical quantity depending on the application.

Frame # 11 Slide # 44 A. Antoniou Digital Filters – Secs. 1.1, 1.2, 1.5

Discrete-Time Signals Cont’d

x(nT)

nT

Frame # 12 Slide # 45 A. Antoniou Digital Filters – Secs. 1.1, 1.2, 1.5

Discrete-Time Signals Cont’d

Frame # 13 Slide # 46 A. Antoniou Digital Filters – Secs. 1.1, 1.2, 1.5

Discrete-Time Signals Cont’d

Frame # 14 Slide # 47 A. Antoniou Digital Filters – Secs. 1.1, 1.2, 1.5

Discrete-Time Signals Cont’d

Note:
The signals in the previous two slides are discrete-time signals since
a mutual fund or the TSX index has only one closing value per day.

They are plotted as if they were continuous-time signals for the

sake of convenience.

Frame # 15 Slide # 48 A. Antoniou Digital Filters – Secs. 1.1, 1.2, 1.5

Nonquantized and Quantized Signals

t Signals can also be classified as:

– Nonquantized
– Quantized

Frame # 16 Slide # 49 A. Antoniou Digital Filters – Secs. 1.1, 1.2, 1.5

Nonquantized and Quantized Signals

t Signals can also be classified as:

– Nonquantized
– Quantized
t A nonquantized signal is a signal that can assume any value
within a given range, e.g., the ambient temperature.

Frame # 16 Slide # 50 A. Antoniou Digital Filters – Secs. 1.1, 1.2, 1.5

Nonquantized and Quantized Signals

t Signals can also be classified as:

– Nonquantized
– Quantized
t A nonquantized signal is a signal that can assume any value
within a given range, e.g., the ambient temperature.
t A quantized signal is a signal that can assume only a finite
number of discrete values, e.g., the ambient temperature as
measured by a digital thermometer.

Frame # 16 Slide # 51 A. Antoniou Digital Filters – Secs. 1.1, 1.2, 1.5

Nonquantized and Quantized Signals Cont’d

x(t) x(nT)

t nT

(a) Continuous-time, nonquantized (b) Discrete-time, nonquantized

x(t) x(nT)

t nT

(c) Continuous-time, quantized (d) Discrete-time, quantized

Frame # 17 Slide # 52 A. Antoniou Digital Filters – Secs. 1.1, 1.2, 1.5

Alternative Notation

t A discrete-time signal x(nT ) is often represented in terms of

the alternative notations

x(n) and xn

Frame # 18 Slide # 53 A. Antoniou Digital Filters – Secs. 1.1, 1.2, 1.5

Alternative Notation

t A discrete-time signal x(nT ) is often represented in terms of

the alternative notations

x(n) and xn

t In the early presentations, x(nT ) will be used most of the

time to emphasize the fact that a discrete-time signal is
typically generated by sampling a continuous-time signal x(t)
at instant t = nT .

Frame # 18 Slide # 54 A. Antoniou Digital Filters – Secs. 1.1, 1.2, 1.5

Alternative Notation

t A discrete-time signal x(nT ) is often represented in terms of

the alternative notations

x(n) and xn

t In the early presentations, x(nT ) will be used most of the

time to emphasize the fact that a discrete-time signal is
typically generated by sampling a continuous-time signal x(t)
at instant t = nT .
t In later presentations, the more economical notation x(n) will
be used where appropriate.

Frame # 18 Slide # 55 A. Antoniou Digital Filters – Secs. 1.1, 1.2, 1.5

Sampling Process

To be able to process a nonquantized continuous-time signal

by a digital system, we must first sample it to generate a
discrete-time signal.

Frame # 19 Slide # 56 A. Antoniou Digital Filters – Secs. 1.1, 1.2, 1.5

Sampling Process

To be able to process a nonquantized continuous-time signal

by a digital system, we must first sample it to generate a
discrete-time signal.
We must then quantize it to get a quantized discrete-time
signal.

Frame # 19 Slide # 57 A. Antoniou Digital Filters – Secs. 1.1, 1.2, 1.5

Sampling Process

To be able to process a nonquantized continuous-time signal

by a digital system, we must first sample it to generate a
discrete-time signal.
We must then quantize it to get a quantized discrete-time
signal.
That way, we can generate a numerical representation of the
signal that entails a finite amount of information.

Frame # 19 Slide # 58 A. Antoniou Digital Filters – Secs. 1.1, 1.2, 1.5

Sampling Process Cont’d

A sampling system comprises three essential components:

– sampler
– quantizer
– encoder

Frame # 20 Slide # 59 A. Antoniou Digital Filters – Secs. 1.1, 1.2, 1.5

Sampling Process Cont’d

Sampler

x(nT) xq(nT)
x(t) Quantizer Encoder xq' (nT)

Clock

nT

Sampling system

Frame # 21 Slide # 60 A. Antoniou Digital Filters – Secs. 1.1, 1.2, 1.5

Sampling Process Cont’d

A sampler in its bare essentials is a switch controlled by a

clock signal which closes momentarily every T seconds
thereby transmitting the level of the input signal x(t) at
instant nT , i.e., x(nT ), to its output.

Sampler

x(nT) xq(nT)
x(t) Quantizer Encoder xq' (nT)

Clock

nT

Sampling system
Frame # 22 Slide # 61 A. Antoniou Digital Filters – Secs. 1.1, 1.2, 1.5
Sampling Process Cont’d

A sampler in its bare essentials is a switch controlled by a

clock signal which closes momentarily every T seconds
thereby transmitting the level of the input signal x(t) at
instant nT , i.e., x(nT ), to its output.
Parameter T is called the sampling period.
Sampler

x(nT) xq(nT)
x(t) Quantizer Encoder xq' (nT)

Clock

nT

Sampling system
Frame # 22 Slide # 62 A. Antoniou Digital Filters – Secs. 1.1, 1.2, 1.5
Sampling Process Cont’d

A quantizer is a device that will sense the level of its input

and produce as output the nearest available level, say, xq (nT ),
from a set of allowed levels, i.e., a quantizer will produce a
quantized continuous-time signal.
Sampler

x(nT) xq(nT)
x(t) Quantizer Encoder xq' (nT)

Clock

nT

Sampling system

Frame # 23 Slide # 63 A. Antoniou Digital Filters – Secs. 1.1, 1.2, 1.5

Sampling Process Cont’d

An encoder is essentially a digital device that will sense the

voltage or current level of its input and produce a
corresponding binary number at its output, i.e., it will convert
a quantized continuous-time signal into a corresponding
discrete-time signal in binary form.
Sampler

x(nT) xq(nT)
x(t) Quantizer Encoder xq' (nT)

Clock

nT

Sampling system

Frame # 24 Slide # 64 A. Antoniou Digital Filters – Secs. 1.1, 1.2, 1.5

Sampling Process Cont’d

The sampling system described is essentially an

analog-to-digital converter and its implementation can assume
numerous forms.

Sampler

x(nT) xq(nT)
x(t) Quantizer Encoder xq' (nT)

Clock

nT

Frame # 25 Slide # 65 A. Antoniou Digital Filters – Secs. 1.1, 1.2, 1.5

Sampling Process Cont’d

The sampling system described is essentially an

analog-to-digital converter and its implementation can assume
numerous forms.
These devices go by the acronym of A/D converter or ADC
and are available in VLSI chip form as off-the-shelf devices.
Sampler

x(nT) xq(nT)
x(t) Quantizer Encoder xq' (nT)

Clock

nT

Frame # 25 Slide # 66 A. Antoniou Digital Filters – Secs. 1.1, 1.2, 1.5

Sampling Process Cont’d

A quantized discrete-time signal produced by an A/D

converter is, of course, an approximation of the original
nonquantized continuous-time signal.

Frame # 26 Slide # 67 A. Antoniou Digital Filters – Secs. 1.1, 1.2, 1.5

Sampling Process Cont’d

A quantized discrete-time signal produced by an A/D

converter is, of course, an approximation of the original
nonquantized continuous-time signal.
The accuracy of the representation can be improved by
increasing
– the sampling rate, and/or
– the number of allowable quantization levels in the quantizer

Frame # 26 Slide # 68 A. Antoniou Digital Filters – Secs. 1.1, 1.2, 1.5

Sampling Process Cont’d

A quantized discrete-time signal produced by an A/D

converter is, of course, an approximation of the original
nonquantized continuous-time signal.
The accuracy of the representation can be improved by
increasing
– the sampling rate, and/or
– the number of allowable quantization levels in the quantizer

The sampling rate is simply 1/T = fs in Hz or 2π/T = ωs in

radians per second (rad/s).

Frame # 26 Slide # 69 A. Antoniou Digital Filters – Secs. 1.1, 1.2, 1.5

Sampling Process Cont’d

Once a discrete-time signal is generated which is an accurate

representation of the original continuous-time signal, any
required processing can be performed by a digital system.

Frame # 27 Slide # 70 A. Antoniou Digital Filters – Secs. 1.1, 1.2, 1.5

Sampling Process Cont’d

Once a discrete-time signal is generated which is an accurate

representation of the original continuous-time signal, any
required processing can be performed by a digital system.
If the processed discrete-time signal is intended for a person,
e.g., a music signal, then it must be converted back into a
continuous-time signal.

Frame # 27 Slide # 71 A. Antoniou Digital Filters – Secs. 1.1, 1.2, 1.5

Sampling Process Cont’d

Once a discrete-time signal is generated which is an accurate

representation of the original continuous-time signal, any
required processing can be performed by a digital system.
If the processed discrete-time signal is intended for a person,
e.g., a music signal, then it must be converted back into a
continuous-time signal.
Just like the sampling process, the conversion from a discrete-
to a continuous-signal requires a suitable digital-to-analog
interface.

Frame # 27 Slide # 72 A. Antoniou Digital Filters – Secs. 1.1, 1.2, 1.5

Sampling Process Cont’d

Typically, the digital-to-analog interface requires a series of

two cascaded modules, a digital-to-analog (or D/A) converter
and a smoothing device:

D/A y′(nT) Smoothing

y(nT) y(t)
converter device

Frame # 28 Slide # 73 A. Antoniou Digital Filters – Secs. 1.1, 1.2, 1.5

Sampling Process Cont’d

A D/A converter will receive an encoded digital signal in

binary form like that in Fig. (a) as input and produce a
corresponding quantized continuous-time signal such as that
in Fig. (b).
The stair-like nature of the quantized signal is, of course,
undesirable and a D/A converter is normally followed by some
type of smoothing device, typically a lowpass filter, that will
eliminate the uneveness in the signal.

y(nT) y'(t)

t
nT
(a) (b)

Frame # 29 Slide # 74 A. Antoniou Digital Filters – Secs. 1.1, 1.2, 1.5

Sampling Process Cont’d

Complete DSP system

Smoothing
Sampler Quantizer Encoder Digital system D/A converter
device

x(nT) xq(nT) x'q(nT) y(nT) y′(nT)

x(t) y(t)

Clock

nT

Frame # 30 Slide # 75 A. Antoniou Digital Filters – Secs. 1.1, 1.2, 1.5

Sampling Process Cont’d

The quality of the conversion from a continuous- to a

discrete-time signal and back to a continuous-time signal can
be improved
– by understanding the processes involved and/or
– by designing the components of the sampling system carefully.

Frame # 31 Slide # 76 A. Antoniou Digital Filters – Secs. 1.1, 1.2, 1.5

Sampling Process Cont’d

The quality of the conversion from a continuous- to a

discrete-time signal and back to a continuous-time signal can
be improved
– by understanding the processes involved and/or
– by designing the components of the sampling system carefully.
This subject will be treated at a higher level of sophistication
in Chap. 6.

Frame # 31 Slide # 77 A. Antoniou Digital Filters – Secs. 1.1, 1.2, 1.5

Signal Processing

Signal processing is the science of analyzing, synthesizing,

sampling, encoding, transforming, decoding, enhancing,
transporting, archiving, and generally manipulating signals in
some way or another.

Frame # 32 Slide # 78 A. Antoniou Digital Filters – Secs. 1.1, 1.2, 1.5

Signal Processing

Signal processing is the science of analyzing, synthesizing,

sampling, encoding, transforming, decoding, enhancing,
transporting, archiving, and generally manipulating signals in
some way or another.
These presentations are concerned primarily with the branch
of signal processing that entails the manipulation of the
spectral characteristics of signals.

Frame # 32 Slide # 79 A. Antoniou Digital Filters – Secs. 1.1, 1.2, 1.5

Signal Processing

Signal processing is the science of analyzing, synthesizing,

sampling, encoding, transforming, decoding, enhancing,
transporting, archiving, and generally manipulating signals in
some way or another.
These presentations are concerned primarily with the branch
of signal processing that entails the manipulation of the
spectral characteristics of signals.
If the processing of a signal involves modifying, reshaping, or
transforming the spectrum of the signal in some way, then the
processing involved is usually referred to as filtering.

Frame # 32 Slide # 80 A. Antoniou Digital Filters – Secs. 1.1, 1.2, 1.5

Signal Processing

Signal processing is the science of analyzing, synthesizing,

sampling, encoding, transforming, decoding, enhancing,
transporting, archiving, and generally manipulating signals in
some way or another.
These presentations are concerned primarily with the branch
of signal processing that entails the manipulation of the
spectral characteristics of signals.
If the processing of a signal involves modifying, reshaping, or
transforming the spectrum of the signal in some way, then the
processing involved is usually referred to as filtering.
If the filtering is carried out by digital means, then it is
referred to as digital filtering.

Frame # 32 Slide # 81 A. Antoniou Digital Filters – Secs. 1.1, 1.2, 1.5

 This slide concludes the presentation.
Thank you for your attention.

Frame # 33 Slide # 82 A. Antoniou Digital Filters – Secs. 1.1, 1.2, 1.5