3.

Heat and Temperature

What will you learn
• What is heat and how is it measured
• Contact temperature measruement v non contact
• How radiation is converted to temperature
• An introduction to heat transfer

Temperature
We are all familiar with thermometers. In a book about temperature
measurement, even if it is devoted to non-contact temperature measurement, it
is necessary to start by defining the existing temperature scale. Most of the
world is using the Celsius temperature scale, therefore this literature is
exclusively metric.

The Celsius temperature scale goes back to Anders Celsius, a Swedish

physicist, who set the water freezing point to 0º C and the water boiling point to
100ºC. Today it is defined in no less than 17 well reproducible melting or
freezing points for various materials. Some of these points are shown in the
figure below.

The Kelvin scale, which is the international SI scale, is displaced in relation to

the Celsius scale with 273.15 ºC. 0 K = -273.15 ºC.

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 1064.43 °C 1337.58 K gold –Erstarrungspunkt
Gold melting point

961.93 °C 1235.08 K silver - melting point

419.58 °C 692.73 K zinc - melting point

100.00 °C 373.15 K water – Siedepunkt

Wasser boiling point

0.01 °C 273.16 K
water – freezing point
Wasser Tripelpunkt

* bei Normaldruck 1013.25 hPa

-182.96 °C 90.19 K Sauerstoff Siedepunkt

oxygen – boiling
-218.79 °C 54.36 K Sauerstoff Tripelpunkt
oxygen - freezing
-246.05 °C 27.10 K Neon
neon – boiling Siedepunkt
-252.87 °C 20.28 K Wasserstoff Siedepunkt
hydrogen – boiling
-256.11 °C 17.04 K Wasserstoff* Siedepunkt
hydrogen – freezing
-259.34 °C 13.81 K Wasserstoff Tripelpunkt
hydrogen – triple point
-273.15 °C 0K absoluter Nullpunkt
Absolute zero

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Temperature measurement
Temperatures are in everyday life usually measured by means of thermometers
of various kinds. The thermometer is one type of tool for contact temperature
measurement. That denomination comes from the fact that the thermometer is
touching the object when the measurement takes place. Other types of contact
thermometers use a bimetal plate or an electric coil, where the temperature
causes the electrical resistance to change, to sense the temperature.

The non-contact temperature measurement is carried out by measuring the

heat radiation from the object. This technique is called radiometry or pyrometry .

Contact temperature measurement devices

There are seven basic types of temperature sensors:

Thermocouples
Resistive temperature devices/thermistors
Bimetallic devices
Liquid expansion devices/thermometers
Molecular change of state devices
Silicon diodes

Thermocouples
A thermocouple indicates the temperature by measuring the electromotive force
(EMF). The EMF increases with temperature but it is not linear to it.

A simple termocouple consists of two alloys joined to a hot junction, which has
an open and one closed end. The voltage is measured at the open end. The
voltage is a function of the temperature at the closed end. It needs calibration to
measure temperatures.

Many different metal alloys are used in combination for the hot, thermoelectric
junction. They are adapted to many different measurement situations and
objects.

Resistive temperature device (RTD) and thermistors

It is in principle the electrical resistance, which changes with temperature that is
measured. The RTD is stable and linear. The resistance increases with
temperature. They can measure temperatures up to some 850ºC.

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The thermistor is designed with a semiconductive device in which resistance
decreases as temperature increases. Thermistors are the most accurate of the
devices mentioned so far. These devices cannot measure too high
temperatures, i.e. a couple of hundred ºC is possible.

The advantage with RTDs and thermistors is their accuracy. However, they
send a small current through the measuring point, which might jeopardise the
measurement result. The thermocouple does not do that.

Bimetallic devices
If you bond two different metals together they will expand with different speeds
if heated up and so the form of such a bimetallic device will change. This
movement can be used for measuring temperature, but it is also used as a
circuit breaker etc.

Liquid expansion devices/thermometers

We all know the normal thermometer with its liquid in a thin, even capillary,
glass tube. Mercury is used. It freezes at –39ºC and can thus not be used at the
very low temperatures. Instead some other liquid may be used e.g. coloured
ethanol.

Molecular change of state devices

An example of such a device is the paint which changes colour if it surpasses a
certain temperature. The change of colour is irreversible and it is thus a witness
of the fact that the temperature has at least for a while surpassed some limit.
Another example is the liquid crystal. It changes colour with temperature.
Normally a couple of different crystals are used together, which gives a
reasonable idea of the temperature over an area. It is, though, hardly possible
to use it for measurement.

Silicon diode sensors

These devices are used for measurement of very low, cryogenic, temperatures.
It is a linear device. They are most linear at temperatures below 100 K (-173ºC).
Depending on the type of silicon sensor they are typically applicable in the
temperature range from 75 K down to 1.5 K and they have high precision.

Silicon diodes also, like RTDs and thermistors, need an excitation current. This
might in specific applications be a problem.

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What is thermography?

From object to thermogram

35

30

Shown here on the left is a thermal image with its corresponding ‘normal’
photograph on the right. It is also an example of how infrared can be used.

The heat picture or the ‘thermogram’ is closely related to the normal photograph
and it is easy to see analogies with ‘normal’ photography when we want to explain
how thermograms are created. We live in a world where most of the time we are
surrounded by light of various types. We might not always remember, however, that
this light, almost without exception, comes from a source that is very hot. The most
usual source is the sun. However, heat sources can come in the form of
incandescent lamps, light arcs, sparks and indeed any object, which emits radiation.
Consider for a moment a lamp.

In fact this is a special, high-power type of lamp, used in airports etc. The
temperatures on the shell of this lamp are extremely high. However, switch it off and
it goes dark. With our hands we can feel, without touching the lamp, that the lamp is
warm long after it has been switched off. A lamp may be switched off, but it radiates
heat for a long time after.

In fact all objects with a temperature above absolute zero, i.e. –273º C, radiate heat.
Thermography is a technique of obtaining imaging objects by means of their own
heat radiation. This radiation has properties, which to a large extent are the same or
similar to the properties of visible light.

Thermography allows us humans to visualise and understand what the thermal

camera ‘sees’, i.e. like an image with light or dark parts, or with different
colours. Not only does it help us to see thermal variations but it is also a
technique for quantifying these differences.

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 500

The temperature of this hand is around 32º C whereas the table beneath is
about 21º C. If we take a closer look at the table we can see some reflections
from the hand. These reflections seem to be of a slightly higher temperature
than the rest of the table. Obviously the thermal camera perceives not only
direct radiation from an object but also radiation, which has been reflected from
another object before being registered by the camera.

30

25

2 2

As the camera stands at some distance from the object, the radiation passes
through the atmosphere before hitting the camera and as it is transmitted
through the atmosphere it is subjected to a degree of influence.

Finally, the radiation hits the thermal camera, which has an objective. It focuses
the heat radiation onto a sensor for heat radiation. That element is called the
infrared detector.

15 mm

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This detector transforms the incident radiation into an electrical signal, which is
then processed into a visible image, i.e. the thermogram.

The whole process can be illustrated in the following way:

Object Atmospheric Thermal Thermogram

influence
camera

What is heat radiation?

Heat radiation is closely related to visible light, and belongs to what is called
electromagnetic radiation. We are familiar with many types of electromagnetic
radiation, like radio, radar, visible light, X-ray etc. They are all of the same
nature and propagate with the same speed, 300 000 km/sec, which is known as
the speed of light.

From radiation to temperature

So far we have been discussing only radiation. The operator is, however,
generally interested in the temperature. As the relation between radiation and
temperature is a physical law, hence the camera measures the radiation and
then it calculates the temperature. The camera is able to do this calculation
provided it has been calibrated. Every camera is calibrated before delivery.

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By having the camera look at very exact blackbody radiators we can establish
this relation for the camera, store that relation in the memory and use it for the
calculation of the temperature of the object. That relation has a mathematical
form, which is derived from Planck’s law. The figure below gives an idea of the
relation between radiation and temperatu
As we can see it is a non-linear relation between the temperature t and the radiation
W. The calculation of radiation into temperature is carried out by the camera. But to
go from the received radiation to a true, trustworthy temperature read-out, the
camera requires some further input. Let us consider a normal measurement
situation.

Radiation

t Temperature

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 IR Imaging and Heat Transfer
Source: Microsoft Encarta
Multimedia Encyclopedia

Temperature
The sensation of warmth or coldness of a substance on contact is determined
by the property known as temperature. Although it is easy to compare the
relative temperatures of two substances by the sense of touch, it is impossible
to evaluate the absolute magnitude of the temperatures by subjective reactions.
Adding heat to a substance, however, not only raises its temperature, causing it
to impart a more acute sensation of warmth, but also produces alterations in
several physical properties, which may be measured with precision. As the
temperature varies, a substance expands or contracts, its electrical resistivity
changes, and in the gaseous form, it exerts varying pressure. The variation in a
standard property usually serves as a basis for an accurate numerical
temperature scale (see below).

Temperature depends on the average kinetic energy of the molecules of a

substance, and according to kinetic theory energy may exist in rotational,
vibrational, and translational motions of the particles of a substance.
Temperature, however, depends only on the translational molecular motion.
Theoretically, the molecules of a substance would exhibit no activity at the
temperature termed absolute zero.

Temperature, in physics, is the property of systems that determines whether

they are in thermal equilibrium. The concept of temperature stems from the idea
of measuring relative hotness and coldness and from the observation that the
addition of heat to a body leads to an increase in temperature as long as no
melting or boiling occurs. In the case of two bodies at different temperatures,
heat will flow from the hotter to the colder until their temperatures are identical
and thermal equilibrium is reached. Thus, temperatures and heat, although
interrelated, refer to different concepts, temperature being a property of a body
and heat being an energy flow to or from a body by virtue of a temperature
difference.

Temperature changes have to be measured in terms of other property changes

of a substance. Thus, the conventional mercury thermometer measures the
expansion of a mercury column in a glass capillary, the change in length of the
column being related to the temperature change. If heat is added to an ideal
gas contained in a constant-volume vessel, the pressure increases, and the
temperature change can be determined from the pressure change by Gay-
Lussac's law, provided the temperature is expressed on the absolute scale.

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Heat Flow between Two Gases
Two identical gases at different temperatures are kept apart by a barrier. The
arrows in the boxes represent the speed of the molecules. The gas at the higher
temperature is composed of molecules which move at a higher average speed.
When the barrier is removed, the gases mix and the individual gas molecules
collide with each other. The molecules in the higher temperature gas slow down
and its temperature decreases. The molecules in the lower temperature gas
speed up and its temperature increases. The final temperature of the gas is
called the equilibrium temperature.

Temperature Scales
Five different temperature scales are in use today: the Celsius scale, known
also as the centigrade scale, the Fahrenheit scale, the Kelvin scale, the
Rankine scale, and the international thermodynamic temperature scale. The
centigrade scale, with a freezing point of 0°C and a boiling point of 100°C, is
widely used throughout the world, particularly for scientific work, although it was
superseded officially in 1950 by the international temperature scale. In the
Fahrenheit scale, used in English-speaking countries for purposes other than
scientific work and based on the mercury thermometer, the freezing point of
water is defined as 32°F and the boiling point as 212°F. In the Kelvin scale, the
most commonly used thermodynamic temperature scale, zero is defined as the
absolute zero of temperature, that is, -273.15°C, or -459.67°F. Another scale
employing absolute zero as its lowest point is the Rankine scale, in which each
degree of temperature is equivalent to one degree on the Fahrenheit scale. The
freezing point of water on the Rankine scale is 492°R, and the boiling point is
672°R.
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In 1933 scientists of 31 nations adopted a new international temperature scale
with additional fixed temperature points, based on the Kelvin scale and
thermodynamic principles. The international scale is based on the property of
electrical resistivity, with platinum wire as the standard for temperature between
-190° and 660°C. Above 660°C, to the melting point of gold, 1063°C, a standard
thermocouple, which is a device that measures temperature by the amount of
voltage produced between two wires of different metals, is used; beyond this
point temperatures are measured by the so-called optical pyrometer, which
uses the intensity of light of a wavelength emitted by a hot body for the purpose.

In 1954 the triple point of water—that is, the point at which the three phases of
water (vapor, liquid, and ice) are in equilibrium—was adopted by international
agreement as 273.16 K. The triple point can be determined with greater
precision than the freezing point and thus provides a more satisfactory fixed
point for the absolute thermodynamic scale. In cryogenics, or low-temperature
research, temperatures as low as 0.003 K have been produced by the
demagnetization of paramagnetic materials. Momentary high temperatures
estimated to be greater than 100,000,000 K have been achieved by nuclear
explosions.

One of the earliest temperature scales was that devised by the German
physicist Gabriel Daniel Fahrenheit. According to this scale, at standard
atmospheric pressure, the freezing point (and melting point of ice) is 32°F, and
the boiling point is 212°F. The centigrade, or Celsius scale, invented by the
Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius, and used throughout most of the world,
assigns a value of 0°C to the freezing point and 100°C to the boiling point. In
scientific work, the absolute or Kelvin scale, invented by the British
mathematician and physicist William Thomas, 1st Baron Kelvin, is most widely
used. In this scale, absolute zero is at -273.16°C, which is zero K, and the
degree intervals are identical to those measured on the centigrade scale. The
corresponding “absolute Fahrenheit” or Rankine scale, devised by the British
engineer and physicist William J. M. Rankine (1820-72), places absolute zero at
-459.69°F, which is 0°R, and the freezing point at 491.69°R. A more consistent
scientific temperature scale, based on the Kelvin scale, was adopted in 1933.

Effects of Temperature
Temperature plays an important part in determining the conditions in which
living matter can exist. Thus, birds and mammals demand a very narrow range
of body temperatures for survival and must be protected against extreme heat
or cold. Aquatic species can exist only within a narrow temperature range of the
water, which differs for various species. Thus, for example, the increase in
temperature of river water by only a few degrees as a result of heat discharged
from power plants may kill most of the native fish.

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The properties of all materials are also markedly affected by temperature
changes. At arctic temperatures, for example, steel becomes very brittle and
breaks easily, and liquids either solidify or become very viscous, offering high
frictional resistance to flow. At temperatures near absolute zero, many materials
exhibit strikingly different characteristics. At high temperatures, solid materials
liquefy or become gaseous; chemical compounds may break up into their
constituents.

The temperature of the atmosphere is greatly influenced by both the land and
the sea areas. In January, for example, the great landmasses of the northern
hemisphere are much colder than the oceans at the same latitude, and in July
the situation is reversed. At low elevations the air temperature is also
determined largely by the surface temperature of the earth. The periodic
temperature changes are due mainly to the sun's radiant heating of the land
areas of the earth, which in turn convect heat to the overlying air. As a result of
this phenomenon, the temperature decreases with altitude, from a standard
reference value of 15.5°C (60°F) at sea level (in temperate latitudes), to about -
55°C (about -67°F) at about 11,000 m (about 36,000 ft). Above this altitude, the
temperature remains nearly constant up to about 33,500 m (about 110,000 ft).

Thermometer
A thermometer is an instrument used to measure temperature. The most
commonly used thermometer is the mercury-in-glass type, which consists of a
uniform-diameter glass capillary that opens into a mercury-filled bulb at one
end. The assembly is sealed to preserve a partial vacuum in the capillary. If the
temperature increases, the mercury expands and rises in the capillary. The
temperature may then be read on an adjacent scale. Mercury is widely used for
measuring ordinary temperatures; alcohol, ether, and other liquids are also
employed for this purpose.

120 50

100 40

80 30
20
60
10
40
0
20
10

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Outdoor Thermometer
A red-dyed alcohol thermometer measures an outside air temperature of about
6°C (about 43°F). In a thermometer, an expanding fluid such as alcohol or
mercury is trapped within a closed glass rod. As the fluid expands or contracts,
it is measured by marks calibrated for given temperatures. The scale may be
marked for either the Celsius or Fahrenheit temperature scales or both.

The invention of the thermometer is attributed to Galileo, although the sealed

thermometer did not come into existence until about 1650. The modern alcohol
and mercury thermometers were invented by the German physicist Gabriel
Fahrenheit, who also proposed the first widely adopted temperature scale,
named after him, in which 32°F is the freezing point of water and 212°F is its
boiling point at standard atmospheric pressure. Various temperature scales
have been proposed since his time; in the centigrade, or Celsius, scale, devised
by the Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius and used in most of the world, the
freezing point is 0°, the boiling point is 100°.

Types of Thermometers
A wide variety of devices are employed as thermometers. The primary
requirement is that one easily measured property, such as the length of the
mercury column, should change markedly and predictably with changes in
temperature. The variation of that property should also remain fairly linear with
variations in temperature. In other words, a unit change in temperature should
lead to a unit change in the property to be measured at all points of the scale.

The electrical resistance of conductors and semiconductors increases with an

increase in temperature. This phenomenon is the basis of the resistance
thermometer in which a constant voltage, or electric potential, is applied across
the thermistor, or sensing element. For a thermistor of a given composition, the
measurement of a specific temperature will induce a specific resistance across
the thermistor. This resistance can be measured by a galvanometer and
becomes a measure of the temperature.

Various thermistors made of oxides of nickel, manganese, or cobalt are used to

sense temperatures between -46° and 150°C (between -50° and 300°F).
Similarly, thermistors employing other metals or alloys are designed for use at
higher temperatures; platinum, for example, can be used up to 930°C (1700°F).
With proper circuitry, the current reading can be converted to a direct digital
display of the temperature.

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Very accurate temperature measurements can be made with thermocouples, in
which a small voltage difference (measured in millivolts) arises when two wires
of dissimilar metals are joined to form a loop, and the two junctions have
different temperatures. To increase the voltage signal, several thermocouples
may be connected in series to form a thermopile. Since the voltage depends on
the difference of the junction temperatures, one junction must be maintained at
a known temperature; otherwise an electronic compensation circuit must be
built into the device to measure the actual temperature of the sensor.

Thermistors and thermocouples often have sensing units less than 1/4 cm (less
than 1/10 in) in length, which permits them to respond rapidly to temperature
changes and also makes them ideal for many biological and engineering uses.

The optical pyrometer is used to measure temperatures of solid objects at

temperatures above 700°C (about 1300°F), where most other thermometers
would melt. At such high temperatures, solid objects radiate sufficient energy in
the visual range to permit optical measurement by exploiting the so-called glow
color phenomenon. The color at which hot objects glow changes from dull red
through yellow to nearly white at about 1300°C (about 2400°F). The pyrometer
contains a light bulb type of filament controlled by a rheostat (dimmer switch)
that is calibrated so that the colors at which the filament glows correspond to
specific temperatures. The temperature of a glowing object can be measured by
viewing the object through the pyrometer and adjusting the rheostat until the
filament blends into the image of the object. At this point the temperatures of the
filament and the object are equal and can be read from the calibrated rheostat.
Another temperature-measuring device, used mainly in thermostats, relies on
the differential thermal expansion between two strips or disks made of different
metals and either joined at the ends or bonded together.

Special-Purpose Thermometers
Thermometers may also be designed to register the maximum or minimum
temperature attained. A mercury-in-glass clinical thermometer, for example, is a
maximum-reading instrument in which a trap in the capillary tube between the
bulb and the bottom of the capillary permits the mercury to expand with
increasing temperature, but prevents it from flowing back unless it is forced
back by vigorous shaking. Maximum temperatures reached during the operation
of tools and machines may also be estimated by special paint patches that
change color when certain temperatures are reached.

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