What’s All This About Bits and Bytes?

Bit

A bit is the smallest increment of storage on a computer. Imagine each bit is like a light bulb. Each
one is either on or off, so it can have one of two values (either 0 or 1).

Byte

A byte is a string of 8 bits (eight light bulbs in a row). A byte is basically the smallest unit of data that
can be processed on your family computer. As such, storage measurements are always done in bytes
rather than bits. The largest decimal value that can be represented by a byte is 28 (2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x
2 x2 x2) or 256. For more information on binary numbers, including how to convert them to decimal,
please see the resource area below.

Megabytes, Gigabytes, Terabytes… What Are They?

These terms are usually used in the world of computing to describe disk space, or data storage space, and
system memory. For instance, just a few years ago we were describing hard drive space using the term
Megabytes. Today, Gigabytes is the most common term being used to describe the size of a hard drive. In
the not so distant future, Terabyte will be a common term. But what are they? This is where it gets quite
confusing because there are at least three accepted definitions of each term.

According to the IBM Dictionary of computing, when used to describe disk storage capacity, a megabyte is
1,000,000 bytes in decimal notation. But when the term megabyte is used for real and virtual storage, and
channel volume, 2 to the 20th power or 1,048,576 bytes is the appropriate notation. According to the
Microsoft Press Computer Dictionary, a megabyte means either 1,000,000 bytes or 1,048,576 bytes.
According to Eric S. Raymond in The New Hacker's Dictionary, a megabyte is always 1,048,576 bytes on the
argument that bytes should naturally be computed in powers of two. So which definition do most people
conform to?

When referring to a megabyte for disk storage, the hard drive manufacturers use the standard that a
megabyte is 1,000,000 bytes. This means that when you buy an 80 Gigabyte Hard drive you will get a total
of 80,000,000,000 bytes of available storage. This is where it gets confusing because Windows uses the
1,048,576 byte rule so when you look at the Windows drive properties an 80 Gigabyte drive will report a
capacity of 74.56 Gigabytes and a 250 Gigabyte drive will only yield 232 Gigabytes of available storage
space. Anybody confused yet? With three accepted definitions, there will always be some confusion so I will
try to simplify the definitions a little.

The 1000 can be replaced with 1024 and still be correct using the other acceptable standards. Both of these
standards are correct depending on what type of storage you are referring.

Processor or Virtual Storage Disk Storage

· 1 Bit = Binary Digit · 1 Bit = Binary Digit
· 8 Bits = 1 Byte · 8 Bits = 1 Byte
· 1024 Bytes = 1 Kilobyte · 1000 Bytes = 1 Kilobyte
· 1024 Kilobytes = 1 Megabyte · 1000 Kilobytes = 1 Megabyte
· 1024 Megabytes = 1 Gigabyte · 1000 Megabytes = 1 Gigabyte
· 1024 Gigabytes = 1 Terabyte · 1000 Gigabytes = 1 Terabyte
· 1024 Terabytes = 1 Petabyte · 1000 Terabytes = 1 Petabyte
· 1024 Petabytes = 1 Exabyte · 1000 Petabytes = 1 Exabyte
· 1024 Exabytes = 1 Zettabyte · 1000 Exabytes = 1 Zettabyte
· 1024 Zettabytes = 1 Yottabyte · 1000 Zettabytes = 1 Yottabyte
· 1024 Yottabytes = 1 Brontobyte · 1000 Yottabytes = 1 Brontobyte
· 1024 Brontobytes = 1 Geopbyte · 1000 Brontobytes = 1 Geopbyte
Bit: A Bit is the smallest unit of data that a computer uses. It can be used to represent two states of
information, such as Yes or No.

Byte: A Byte is equal to 8 Bits. A Byte can represent 256 states of information, for example, numbers or a
combination of numbers and letters. 1 Byte could be equal to one character. 10 Bytes could be equal to a
word. 100 Bytes would equal an average sentence.

Kilobyte: A Kilobyte is approximately 1,000 Bytes, actually 1,024 Bytes depending on which definition is
used. 1 Kilobyte would be equal to this paragraph you are reading, whereas 100 Kilobytes would equal an
entire page.

Megabyte: A Megabyte is approximately 1,000 Kilobytes. In the early days of computing, a Megabyte was
considered to be a large amount of data. These days with a 500 Gigabyte hard drive on a computer being
common, a Megabyte doesn't seem like much anymore. One of those old 3-1/2 inch floppy disks can hold
1.44 Megabytes or the equivalent of a small book. 100 Megabytes might hold a couple volumes of
Encyclopedias. 600 Megabytes is about the amount of data that will fit on a CD-ROM disk.

Gigabyte: A Gigabyte is approximately 1,000 Megabytes. A Gigabyte is still a very common term used
these days when referring to disk space or drive storage. 1 Gigabyte of data is almost twice the amount of
data that a CD-ROM can hold. But it's about one thousand times the capacity of a 3-1/2 floppy disk. 1
Gigabyte could hold the contents of about 10 yards of books on a shelf. 100 Gigabytes could hold the entire
library floor of academic journals.

Terabyte: A Terabyte is approximately one trillion bytes, or 1,000 Gigabytes. There was a time that I never
thought I would see a 1 Terabyte hard drive, now one and two terabyte drives are the normal specs for
many new computers. To put it in some perspective, a Terabyte could hold about 3.6 million 300 Kilobyte
images or maybe about 300 hours of good quality video. A Terabyte could hold 1,000 copies of the
Encyclopedia Britannica. Ten Terabytes could hold the printed collection of the Library of Congress. That's a
lot of data.

Petabyte: A Petabyte is approximately 1,000 Terabytes or one million Gigabytes. It's hard to visualize what
a Petabyte could hold. 1 Petabyte could hold approximately 20 million 4-door filing cabinets full of text. It
could hold 500 billion pages of standard printed text. It would take about 500 million floppy disks to store
the same amount of data.

Exabyte: An Exabyte is approximately 1,000 Petabytes. Another way to look at it is that an Exabyte is
approximately one quintillion bytes or one billion Gigabytes. There is not much to compare an Exabyte to. It
has been said that 5 Exabytes would be equal to all of the words ever spoken by mankind.

Zettabyte: A Zettabyte is approximately 1,000 Exabytes. There is nothing to compare a Zettabyte to but to
say that it would take a whole lot of ones and zeroes to fill it up.

Yottabyte: A Yottabyte is approximately 1,000 Zettabytes. It would take approximately 11 trillion years to
download a Yottabyte file from the Internet using high-power broadband. You can compare it to the World
Wide Web as the entire Internet almost takes up about a Yottabyte.

Brontobyte: A Brontobyte is (you guessed it) approximately 1,000 Yottabytes. The only thing there is to
say about a Brontobyte is that it is a 1 followed by 27 zeroes!

Geopbyte: A Geopbyte is about 1000 Brontobytes! Not sure why this term was created. I'm doubting that
anyone alive today will ever see a Geopbyte hard drive. One way of looking at a geopbyte is 15267
6504600 2283229 4012496 7031205 376 bytes!

Now you should have a good understanding of megabytes, gigabytes, terabytes and everything in between.
Now if we can just figure out what a WhatsAByte is......:)
In electronics, an integrated circuit (also known as IC, chip, or microchip) is a miniaturized
electronic circuit (consisting mainly of semiconductor devices, as well as passive components)
that has been manufactured in the surface of a thin substrate of semiconductor material.
Integrated circuits are used in almost all electronic equipment in use today and have
revolutionized the world of electronics. Computers, cellular phones, and other digital appliances
are now inextricable parts of the structure of modern societies, made possible by the low cost of
production of integrated circuits.

What is a CPU?:

The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is responsible for interpreting and executing most of the commands
from the computer's hardware and software. It is often called the "brains" of the computer.

The CPU is Also Known As:

processor, microprocessor, central processor, "the brains of the computer"

CPU Description:

A modern CPU is usually small and square with many short, rounded, metallic connectors on its
underside. Some older CPUs have pins instead metallic connectors.

The CPU attaches directly to a CPU "socket" (or sometimes a "slot") on the motherboard. The CPU is
inserted into the socket pin-side-down and a small lever helps to secure the processor.

After running even a short while, modern CPUs can get very hot. To help dissipate this heat, it is
necessary to attach a heat sink and a small fan directly on top of the CPU. Typically, these come
bundled with a CPU purchase. Other more advanced cooling options are also available including water
cooling kits and phase change units.

OS – OPERATING SYSTEM

In today's technological jungle the word "Operating Systems" would be familiar to most
people. As well as, they have some understanding of what it means in their minds. But, it
would be difficult to most people, if asked, to provide an exact definition of an "Operating
Systems".
In this article, we will discuss the basic definition of an Operating Systems, types of
Operating Systems, their usage and functions.

The basic and one of the earliest definitions of Operating Systems can be said to be - A
system which takes inputs from different sources, processes them based on pre-
designed instructions within it and provides meaningful outputs. The Operating System
is very commonly referred to by its acronym "OS".
Computer Operating Systems -

However, typically Operating Systems are commonly known to be for computers. Some
examples which would be easy to recall are Microsoft Windows (98, 2000, Vista, etc.),
UNIX, Macintosh and many more. There are literally hundreds of Operating Systems
developed worldwide and being used for various purposes, on various platforms and
devices.

The job of an Operating Systems for a computer is mainly to manage the hardware and
software resources of the system. In desktops or laptops, the hardware resources include
processes, hard disk, memory, disk space, mouse, printers, other peripherals, etc.;
whereas the software resources are the various software applications being used on that
desktop/laptop. Operating Systems also play a very important role in providing a
consistent interface for the applications irrespective of the hardware or peripherals used.
There may be different drivers used along with the Operating Systems for this purpose.

Common Tasks and standards of an Operating Systems - Following are the

common tasks :

1. Operating Systems Processor Management: This involves ensuring that all the
system resources receive sufficient processes time for expected functioning as well as
making sure that the processer is used to its optimum capacity.

2. Operating Systems-Memory Management or Storage Management: Computer

systems have different types of memories such as temporary (RAM, Cache, etc.) as well
as permanent memories (Hard Drives, USB Drives, etc.). It is the job of an Operating
System to allocate the relevant and necessary memory space to the applications &
devices for efficient and optimum processing of information.

3. Operating Systems-Device Management: Managing the inputs and outputs of

various devices / peripherals is also one of the critical functions of an Operating Systems.
With the help of device drivers, the OS controls flow of information with the necessary
allocation of system resources to ensure correct input and output.

4. Operating Systems-Application Management: As the OS manages the devices

using drivers, it also manages the various applications running on a computer using
different Application Program Interfaces (APIs). Based on the data received from the
application through the APIs, the OS performs actions to provide the expected results.

5. Operating Systems-User Interface: A user interface provides a consistent way of

interaction between the user and the computer system. The OS acts as an engine to
provide means of interaction between user and computer through the user interfaces.

Operating Systems for devices other than computers - Electronic devices other
computers also require Operating Systems of one form or another to function as per
expectation. Example - cell phone, microwave, industrial systems, intelligent devices,
etc. In case of such devices, the sources and form of inputs as well as outputs is different
than that in a computer system. Accordingly, the Operating Systems designed to drive
these devices are also programmed differently.

Types of Operating Systems - Following are the types of an Operating Systems:

1. Operating Systems for Real-time OS: These types of OS are used to control
machinery, control systems and industrial systems and have very less or in certain case
no user-interface capability.

2. Operating Systems for Single User, Single Task OS: This is a typical computer
system where one user can work effectively only on one task. Cell phones and palm tops
are examples where these types of systems are used.

3. Operating Systems for Single User, Multi-tasking: Computer Operating Systems

of desktops or laptops typically fall within this category. Here, the user can use several
applications at a time.

4. Operating Systems for Multi-User: Here, various users use the computer system
through different terminal and the Operating Systems on that computer has to balance
multiple users with multiple applications.

dragged, drag·ging, drags.

v.tr.

1. To pull along with difficulty or effort; haul: dragged the heavy box out of the way. See
synonyms at pull.
2. To cause to trail along a surface, especially the ground.
3. Computer Science.
a. To move (a pointing device, such as a mouse) while pressing down on one of its
buttons.
b. To move (an element of a graphical display) on a computer screen using a
pointing device.
 4. To move or bring by force or with great effort: had to drag him to the dentist; dragged
the truth out of the reluctant witness.
5.
a. To search or sweep the bottom of (a body of water), as with a grappling hook or
dragnet.
b. To bring up or catch by such means.
6. To prolong tediously: dragged the story out.
7. Baseball. To hit (a bunt) while taking the first steps toward first base.
8. To break up, rake, or smooth out (land or dirt), especially by pulling a drag or heavy
mesh: dragged the infield between innings.

v.intr.

1. To trail along the ground: The dog's leash dragged on the sidewalk.
2. To move slowly or with effort.
3. To lag behind.
4. To pass or proceed slowly, tediously, or laboriously: The time dragged as we waited.
5. Computer Science. To move a pointing device while pressing down on one of its buttons.
6. To search or dredge the bottom of a body of water: dragging for the sunken craft.
7. To take part in or as if in a drag race.

8. Charles Babbage, a British Mathematics professor, is regarded as

the Father of Computers. He was born in England in 1792 as the son of a rich banker from
Devon. He was inspired by Napier's logarithm tables and Napier's logs and bones. He began
to design a "difference engine" in 1821 which was a very large and complicated machine
intended for doing logarithmic calculations automatically.

First Computer Programmer

Augusta Ada King, Countess of Lovelace (10 December 1815 – 27 November 1852), born
Augusta Ada Byron, was an English writer chiefly known for her work on Charles Babbage's
early mechanical general-purpose computer, the analytical engine. Her notes on the engine
include what is recognised as the first algorithm intended to be processed by a machine; as such
she is regarded as the world's first computer programmer.[1][2]

BLINKING VERTICAL BAR

..is a cursor. In text editing, this is sometimes called the insertion point or caret, which
distinguishes it from the mouse cursor. Alternately, the mouse cursor is referred to as a pointer to
eliminate confusion.
 VisiCalc was the first computer spreadsheet program. It was released to the
public in 1979, running on an Apple II computer. While most early microprocessor
computers had been quickly supported by BASIC and a few games, VisiCalc introduced a
new level in application software. It was considered a fourth generation software program.
Companies invested time and money in doing financial projections with manually calculated
spreadsheets, where changing a single number meant recalculating every single cell in the
sheet. With VisiCalc, you could change any cell, and the entire sheet would be automatically
recalculated.

Excel 2003 and earlier has 16,777,216 cells per worksheet (65,536 rows * 256
columns). Each cell can hold 32,767 characters. Each workbook can contain unlimited
worksheets (limited by system memory).

Excel 2007 has 17,179,869,184 cells per worksheet (1,048,576 rows * 16,384 columns).