Manual 1

Differentiation
Disclaimer:

Materials have been extracted from various sources

for classroom teaching purposes only.
Due credit is being given to relevant authors

1
 Table of contents
Contents Page No
Disclaimer 1
Table of contents 2
Part 1: 4
Notes and exercises
Differentiation Rules
Formulae and Definitions 5
Derivative Notation 6
Second Derivative 6
Formula for differentiation 7
Product Rules, Quotient Rules and Chain Rules 8
Exercise 1.01 9
Exercise 1.02 10
Exponential Functions
In class investigation 1 12
Exponential graph 16
Differentiate exponential functions 16
Exercise 1.03 18
Growth and decay 19
Graph for exponential growth and decay 19
Application of exponential functions 20
Exercise 1.04 21
Trigonometric functions
Revision on trigonometry 24
In class investigation 2 27
Derivative of y=sin x 31
Derivative of y=cos x 31
Exercise 1.05 35
Exercise 1.06 37
The second derivative and application of differentiation
The increments Formula 38
Exercise 3.01 40
Rate of change 42
Rectilinear Motion 46
Exercise 3.02 49
Revision on Factorization 51
The second derivative and concavity 53
Stationary points 54
Classifying stationary points 55
Second derivative sign test 56
Global maximum and minimum 57
Exercise 3.03 60
Exercise 3.04 61
Exercise 3.05 62
Optimisation 65
Exercise 3.06 68
2
 Exercise 3.07 70
Exercise 3.08 72
Exercise 3.09 74
Answers 76
Part 2: 86
Revision Exercises
Chapter 1: Differentiation 87
Chapter 2: Applications of differentiation 101
Chapter 5: Trigonometric Function 117
Answer 124
Chapter 1: Exponential Functions
Exercise 1.2 137
Chapter 2: Differentiation 1
Exercise 2.1 141
Exercise 2.2 146
Exercise 2.3 151
Exercise 2.4 158
Chapter 3: Differentiation 2
Exercise 3.1 162
Exercise 3.2 166
Chapter 4: Differentiation 3
Exercise 4.1 167
Exercise 4.2 169
Chapter 5: Application of differentiation
Exercise 5.1 174
Exercise 5.2 177
Chapter 6: Application of differentiation
Exercise 6.1 181
Exercise 6.2 184
Exercise 6.3 192
Exercise 6.4 196
Exercise 6.5 199
Answer 202

3
PART 1: Notes and Exercises

4
Differentiation Rules
3.1.7 Examine and use the product and quotient rules

3.1.8 Examine the notion of composition of functions and use the chain rule for determining the derivatives of

composite functions

Formulae and Definitions

Consider the point A( x, f ( x )) on a given curve as shown on the diagram below:

Supposed point B is located further along the curve – an increase of ‘h’ units. Point B will have coordinates
B(( x + h), f ( x + h))

The straight line AB is called a chord of the curve.

The slope of AB can be calculated by:

f ( x + h) − f ( x)
Slope of AB =
( x + h) − x
f ( x + h) − f ( x)
=
h
As the distance ‘h’ becomes smaller point B moves towards point A and chord AB approaches a limiting value at point A.

i.e. As h → 0 the gradient of chord AB approaches the gradient of the tangent line at point A.

This limiting function is known as derivative.

f ( x + h) − f ( x)
i.e. lim
h→0 h

This process of determining the gradient formula or gradient function of a curve or function is called DIFFERENTIATION.

5
Example:
Find f ' ( x ) using the limiting chord process (first principle)

(a) f ( x ) = x
2

Answer: f ' ( x) = 2 x

(b) 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥

Answer: f ' ( x) = 6 x − 2

Derivative Notation
The derivative of a function is commonly represented by:

dy df d
f ' ( x) f' y' [ f ( x )]
dx dx dx

Second derivative
A second derivative of a function can be found by differentiating twice. The notation for second derivative included

d2y
f ' ' ( x)
dx 2
6
Formula for Differentiation
Suppose m and n is any real number and c is a constant

Original function Derivative function

′ (𝑥)
1. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐 𝑓 =0
′ (𝑥)
2. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑚𝑥 𝑓 =𝑚
3. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑛 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)
= 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1
4. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 𝑛 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)
= 𝑛𝑎𝑥 𝑛−1
5. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥) ± ℎ(𝑥) 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑔′ (𝑥) ± ℎ′(𝑥)

Revision:

1
x −n =
xn
1

xn = n x
m

x n = n x m = (n x ) m
dy
The derivative is the gradient function of the curve y = f (x ) .
dx

Example:
Find f ' ( x )

(a) f ( x) = 5

(b) f ( x ) = 3 x
2

(c) f ( x ) = x 2

2
(d) f ( x ) = 5 x 2 + 2 x +
x
3
5 2 2
Answer: (a) 0 (b) 6 x (c) x (d) 10 x + 2 −
2 x2
7
Product Rules, Quotient Rules and Chain Rules
Original function Derivative function
1.Product Rule 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) ∙ 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑑𝑦
= 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)𝑔(𝑥) + 𝑔′ (𝑥)𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
2.Quotient Rule 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑦 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)𝑔(𝑥) − 𝑔′ (𝑥)𝑓(𝑥)
=
𝑑𝑥 [𝑔(𝑥)]2
3.Chain Rule 𝑦 = [𝑓(𝑥)]𝑛 𝑑𝑦
= 𝑛[𝑓(𝑥)]𝑛−1 ∙ 𝑓′(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥

Example:
Product Rules:
dy
1. If y = ( x − 6)( x + 4 x ) . Find
2 3 2
.
dx

Answer: 5 x 4 + 16 x 3 − 18 x 2 − 48 x

Quotient Rules:

3x 2 − x dy
1. Given y = . Find .
2x −1 dx

6x 2 − 6x + 1
Answer:
( 2 x − 1) 2

Chain Rules:

1. Given f ( x ) = (3 x − 2) . Find f ' ( x ) . Answer: 15 (3 x − 2)

5 4

4 2 −2
2. Given f ( x ) = . Find f ' ( x ) . Answer: 8 x ( 2 − x )
2 − x2
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9
10
11
Exponential Functions
ah −1
3.1.1 Estimate the limit of as h → 0 , using technology, for various values of a  0
h
3.1.2 Identify that e is the unique number a for which the above limit is 1

d x
3.1.3 Establish and use the formula (e ) = e x
dx

3.1.4 Use exponential functions of the form Ae kx and their derivatives to solve practical problems

IN CLASS INVESTIGATION 1

A. Explore how Euler’s number e emerges:

1
1. Consider the expression (1 + 𝑡 )𝑡 for 𝑡 > 0. Calculate the value of this expression for:
(Give your answer correct to 4 decimal places)

t 1
(1 + )𝑡
𝑡
10

100

1000

10000

100000

1000000

108

1010

1012

1
2. Hence, find the value of (1 + 𝑡 )𝑡 as 𝑡 → ∞ (as t becomes very large).

12
 𝟏
Note: The limit of (𝟏 + 𝒕 )𝒕 as 𝒕 → ∞ is a special type of irrational number and is called a transcendental
number and rounded to 30 decimal places is 2.718 281 828 459 045 235 360 287 471 357

This number is called Euler’s number (after the Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler) and is denoted e .

𝒂𝒉 −𝟏
B. Estimate the limit of as h → 0, using technology for various values of a> 0.
𝒉

𝑎 ℎ −1
1. Consider now the expression lim ( ℎ
) where 𝑎 > 0. Calculate the value of this expression for:
ℎ→0

a 𝑎ℎ − 1
lim ( )
ℎ→0 ℎ
2

2.5

2.6

2.7

2.71

2.72

2.8

2.9

𝑎 ℎ −1
2. Hence, find the value of lim ( ℎ
) as 𝑎 → 𝑒 (as 𝑎 becomes Euler’s number).
ℎ→0

13
 eh −1
C. Investigate the limit of as h → 0
h

eh −1
1. Consider now the expression . Calculate the value of this expression for:
h

h eh −1
h
2

0.1

0.01

0.001

0.0001

0.00001

0.000001

𝑒 ℎ −1
2. Hence, find the value of lim ( ℎ
).
ℎ→0

14
 𝒅
D. Establish and use the formula 𝒅𝒙 (𝒆𝒙 )

You can find the derivative of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 𝑥 using first principles as follows.

𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ

𝑎 𝑥+ℎ − 𝑎 𝑥
= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ

𝑎 𝑥 (𝑎ℎ − 1)
= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ

𝑥
𝑎ℎ − 1
= 𝑎 lim
ℎ→0 ℎ

Find the derivative of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 by using first principle.

15
Exponential graph
The graph of f ( x ) = e is drawn below.
x

Differentiate Exponential Functions

eh −1
The above investigation suggests that lim ( ) =1.
h→0 h

dy
Thus if y = e , then = e x . The exponential function differentiates to itself!
x

dx

d x
(e ) = e x
dx

Example:
1. Differentiate

(a) y = x + e
2 x

(b) y = 3e
x

Answer: (a) 2 x + e x (b) 3e x

16
 2
+3 x + 4
(c) y = e x

Let u = x 2 + 3x + 4 then y = e
u

du dy
= 2 x + 3 and = eu
dx du

dy dy du
=  (Chain Rule)
dx du dx

= e u ( 2 x + 3)
2
+3 x + 4
= ( 2 x + 3)  e x

From the example,

dy
If y = e
f ( x)
then by the chain rule dx = f ' ( x ) e f ( x)
.

Example:
Differentiate

(a) e 3 x + 4

x 2
−3 x
(b) e

(c) xe 2 x

e4x
(d)
2 + e 3x

(e) 1 − 3e 4 x

2
−3 x
Answer: (a) 3e 3 x + 4 (b) ( 2 x − 3)e (c) e 2 x + 2 xe 2 x
x

( 4e 4 x )( 2 + e 3 x ) − (e 4 x )(3e 3 x ) − 6e 4 x
(d) (e)
(2 + e 3 x ) 2 1 − 3e 4 x

17
18
Growth and Decay
Many growth and decay situations involve some variable, say A , growing, or decaying continuously, according to the
rule of the form

A = A0 e kt

Where A is the amount present at time t ,

A0 is the initial amount (i.e. the amount present at t = 0 ),

and k is some constant dependent on the situation.

• k  0 represents exponential growth

• k  0 represent exponential decay

dA
Since A = A0 e kt , then = kA .
dt

dA
If = kA , then A = A0 e kt .
dt

Graph
Graphs of exponential functions are:

19
Application of Exponential Functions
Example:
1. A color dye with initial concentration of 0.6 units is placed into a tub of water and the rate of change of the dye is

dC
given by = −0.72 C units per minute
dt

Where C = C (t ) is the concentration of the dye at any time t minutes after being placed into the tub.

(a) Find C as a function of t .

(b) Determine the initial rate of change of C .

(c) Calculate the concentration of dye 2 minutes after the dye was placed in the water.

(d) How long does it take for the concentration of the dye to be 0.2 units?

Answer: (a) C = 0.6e −0.72t (b) Decreasing at the rate of 0.432 units/min

(c) C = 0.142 units (d) t = 1.526 minutes

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21
22
23
Trigonometric Functions
Revision on Trigonometry
1.

2.

24
3.

4.

5.

6.

25
7.

8.

9.

26
Trigonometric Functions
d d
3.1.5 Establish the formula (sin x ) = cos x and (cos x ) = − sin x by graphical treatment, numerical estimations
dx dx
of the limits, and informal proofs based on geometric construction

3.1.6 Use trigonometric functions and their derivatives to solve practical problems

3.1.9 Apply the product, quotient and chain rule to differentiate functions such as

1
xe x , tan x , , x sin x , e − x sin x and f ( ax − b ) .
xn

IN CLASS INVESTIGATION 2
𝒅 𝒅
3.1.5 Establish the formula 𝒅𝒙 (𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙) = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙 and 𝒅𝒙 (𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙) = −𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙 by graphical treatment,
numerical estimations of limits, and informal proofs based on geometric constructions.
1. Use your CAS calculator to complete the following tables (𝑥 is in radians). Give answers
correct to 5 decimal places
(a)

𝑥(Radian) cos 𝑥
0.1
0.01
0.001
-0.001
-0.01
-0.1

Hence, find lim cos(𝑥) =

𝑥→0

(b)
𝑥(Radian) 1 − cos 𝑥
𝑥
0.1
0.01
0.001
-0.001
-0.01
-0.1

1−cos(𝑥)
Hence, find lim =
𝑥→0 𝑥
27
(c)
𝑥(Radian) sin 𝑥
𝑥
0.1
0.01
0.001
-0.001
-0.01
-0.1

sin(𝑥)
Hence, find lim =
𝑥→0 𝑥

sin(𝑥)
2. The result for lim can also be determined using geometry.
𝑥→0 𝑥

The diagram shows a sector of a circle OAC, with OA = OC being the radius, and
a central angle ∠ COA of size 𝑥 radians. Triangle OAD is a right-angled triangle.

1 1
Given that the area of triangle OAC =2 𝑟 2 sin(𝑥), the area of sector OAC=2 𝑟 2 (𝑥).

a. Find the area of triangle OAD in term of 𝑟 and 𝑥.

28
b. Clearly: Area of triangle OAC < Area of sector OAC < Area of triangle OAD.
Use result in (a), show that sin(𝑥) < 𝑥 < tan(𝑥)

c. Hence, show that

𝑥 1
(i) 1< < .
sin(𝑥) cos(𝑥)

sin(𝑥)
(ii) lim cos(𝑥) < lim < lim 1 .
𝑥→0 𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0

sin 𝑥
d. Thus, deduce lim
𝑥→0 𝑥

29
 1−cos(𝑥)
3. The result for lim can also be obtained algebraically.
𝑥→0 𝑥

1−cos(𝑥) 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝑥)

a. Rewrite lim as lim [ ].
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥(1+cos 𝑥)

1−cos(𝑥)
b. Hence, find lim .
𝑥→0 𝑥

Given the following: lim (𝑓 ∙ 𝑔) = lim 𝑓 ∙ lim 𝑔

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

𝑓 lim 𝑓
lim ( ) = 𝑥→𝑎
𝑥→𝑎 𝑔 lim 𝑔
𝑥→𝑎

30
Derivative of Trigonometric Function
Derivative of 𝒚 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙
From First Principle

f ( x) = sin x

f ( x + h) − f ( x)
f ' ( x ) = lim
h→0 h
sin( x + h ) − sin x
= lim
h→0 h
sin x cos h + sin h cos x − sin x
= lim
h→0 h
− sin x (1 − cos h ) + sin h cos x
= lim
h→0 h
1 − cos h ) sin h
= − lim sin x ( + lim ( ) cos x
h→0 h h→0 h
1 − cos h sin h
= − sin x  lim ( ) + cos x  lim ( )
h→0 h h → 0 h
= − sin x (0) + cos x (1)
= cos x

Derivative of 𝒚 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙
From First Principle

f ( x ) = cos x
f ( x + h) − f ( x)
f ' ( x ) = lim
h→0 h
cos( x + h ) − cos x
= lim
h→0 h
cos x cos h − sin x sin h − cos x
= lim
h→0 h
cos x cos h − cos x sin x sin h
= lim − lim
h→0 h h→0 h
1 − cos h sin h
= − cos x  lim ( ) − sin x  lim ( )
h→0 h h→0 h
= − cos x (0) − sin x (1)
= − sin x

Thus, If y = sin x If y = cos x

dy dy
Then = cos x Then = − sin x
dx 31dx
Example:
dy 1
1. If y = tan x , prove that = .
dx cos 2 x

2. Differentiate the following:

(a) y = x + cos x
3

(b) y = 2 sin x

(c) y = (cos x + 1)(sin x − 2)

(d) y = sin x
3

32
 (e) y = cos( 2 x − 3)

(f) y = sin( 5 x + 1)

Answer: (a) 3 x 2 − sin x (b) 2 cos x (c) − sin 2 x + 2 sin x + cos 2 x + cos x (d) 3 sin 2 x cos x

(e) − 2 sin( 2 x − 3) (f) 5 cos(5 x + 1)


3. Find the equation of the tangent to the curve y = cos( x) at the point where x = .
4

Answer: The equation of the tangent is 4 x + 4 2 y − 4 −  = 0

33
4. A spring moves so that its end is x cm from the point P at time t seconds, where x = 2 sin( 4t ) .

(a) Find an equation for the velocity of the spring.

(b) What is the initial velocity of the spring?

(c) When is the velocity first equal to zero?

Answer: (a) v = 8 cos( 4t ) (b) 8cm / s (c) The velocity is first 0 at about 0.39 seconds

34
35
36
1

37
The second derivative and application of differentiation
dy
3.1.10 Use the increments formula: y =  x to estimate the change in the dependent variable y resulting from
dx
changes in the independent variable x

3.1.11 Apply the concept of second derivative as the rate of change of the first derivative function

3.1.12 Identify acceleration as the second derivative of position with respect to time

3.1.13 Examine the concepts of concavity and points of inflection and their relationship with the second derivative

3.1.14 Apply the second derivative test for determining local maxima and minima

3.1.15 Sketch the graph of a function using first and second derivatives to locate stationary points and points of

inflection

3.1.16 Solve optimization problem from a wide variety of fields using first and second derivatives

The Increments Formula

dy y
= lim
dx x → 0 x

Where y is the small change in y and x is the corresponding small change in x .

If x is small then

dy y
=
dx x

dy
 y =  x
dx

Example:
1. Differentiate x with respect to x and use the result to find an approximate value for 103 .

Answer: About 10.15

38
2. Find the approximate change in the area of a square when the sides are increased from 15 cm to 15.5 cm.

Answer: Approximate change in the area is 15 cm2

3. Find the percentage error made in the volume of a hot-air balloon of diameter 30 m if no allowance was made for the

stretching of the fabric, resulting in a 2% error in the diameter.

Answer: About 6%
39
40
41
Rate of change
Average rate of change
The average rate of change of y with respect to x is calculated over an interval of time i.e. a  x  b .

f (b ) − f ( a )
If y = f (x ) then the average rate of change is calculated by
b−a

change in y
Average rate of change=rate of change within time interval=
change in x

Instantaneous Rate of change

dy
The derivative is said to be the instantaneous rate of change of y with respect to x .
dx

f ( x + h) − f ( x)
i.e. lim
h→0 h

Instantaneous rate of change=rate of change at a particular moment

=slope/gradient of the tangent line at a point

Over short intervals of time, the average of change is approximately equal to the instantaneous rate of change

Example:
1. A colony of bacteria is increasing in such a way that the number of bacteria present after t hours is given by N where
N = 120 + 500t + 10t 3
(a) Find the number of bacteria present initially
(b) Find the number of bacteria present when t = 5
(c) Find the average rate of increase in the first 5 hours
(d) Find an expression for the instantaneous rate of change of N with respect to t and hence find the rate the colony is
increasing when t = 2 .

dN
Answer: (a) 120 (b) 3870 (c) 750 (d) = 500 + 30 t 2 , 620
dt

42
Tangents

Equation of tangent line: y = mx + c

The linear function through ( x1 , y1 ) with gradient m is given by y − y1 = m( x − x1 ) .

• f ' (b) = mtangent

1
• − = m normal
f ' (b )

Example:
1. Find the equation of the tangent line and normal to the curve y = x + 2 at the point (2, 6).
2

1 13
Answer: Equation of tangent is y = 4 x − 2 ; Equation of the normal is y = − x+ .
4 2
43
Rate of change in economic application
Suppose a firm produces x units of a particular commodity. There are three important functions of x that will interest
the firm.
The cost function, C (x ) . The cost of producing the x units.
The revenue function, R(x) . The income from selling the x units.
The profit function P ( x) = R( x) − C ( x) . The profit from selling the x units.
If R( x)  C ( x) i.e. P( x)  0 → profit
If R( x)  C ( x) i.e. P( x)  0 → loss
If R( x) = C ( x) i.e. P( x) = 0 → breakeven
C dC
Considering the cost function, if the number of units produced increases by 1, i.e. x = 1 , then = .
1 dx
dC
In this way , called the marginal cost, gives the approximate cost of producing one more unit at the stage of
dx
production that has just seen the x th unit produced.
Similarly,
dR
, the marginal revenue, gives the approximate extra revenue brought in by the sale of one more item after the x th
dx
item has been sold.
dP
, the marginal profit, gives the approximate extra profit produced by the sale of one more item after the x th item
dx
has been sold.

Average cost
C ( x)
The average cost of producing x items is given by : .
x

Example:
1. A manufacturing firm produces and subsequently sells x items of a certain product. The total cost of producing these
x items is $C , with C given by C ( x) = 6 x + 10 x + 500 . Use differentiation to determine the approximate cost of
producing one more item at the stage in the production when x = 100 .

Answer: $6.50

44
2. A school drama group intends to sell tickets to the annual production at a price per tickets of $(16 − 0.05t ) .
If t tickets are sold, the cost for running the production is given by C (t ) = 1000 + 5t .
(a) Find the expression for the revenue.

(b) Determine the expression for the total profit if t tickets are sold.

(c) Find the average profit/loss per ticket if 100 tickets are sold.

(d) By how much will the total revenue increase due to the sale of the 101st tickets?

(e) Calculate the marginal profit if 100 tickets are sold.

Answer: (a) R (t ) = 16 t − 0.05 t (b) P (t ) = −0.05 t + 11t − 1000

2 2
(c) Loss of $4 per tickets
(d) Revenue will increase by $6 on the sale of the 101st tickets (e) $1
45
Rectilinear Motion
Rectilinear motion involves the motion of a particle in a straight line.

Displacement is the distance the particle is from the origin as a function of time. Denoted as x (t ) .

dx
Velocity is the rate of change of displacement. i.e. v (t ) =
dt
2
dv d x
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity. i.e. a (t ) = =
dt dt 2

Displacement from O, Differentiate Velocity, Differentiate Acceleration,

x m with respect to x v m/s with respect to x a m / s2

Displacement
• When the particle is on the right of the origin: positive displacement, x  0
• When the particle is on the left of the origin: negative displacement, x  0
• When the particle is at the origin: zero displacement, x = 0

Velocity
• Particle is moving in a positive direction to the right: positive velocity, v  0 . Speed is v
• Particle is moving in a negative direction to the left: negative velocity, v  0 . Speed is v
• Particle stops or changes direction: zero velocity, v = 0

The average velocity of a body over a given interval of time is given by:

change in displaceme nt
Average velocity=
time interval

The average speed of a body over a given time interval is given by:

distance travelled
Average speed=
time interval

Distance Travelled for a  t  b =  v(t ) dt

a

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Example:
A particle is initially at an origin O. It is projected away from O and moves in a straight line such that its displacement
from O, t seconds later is x meters where x = t (12 − t ) . Find:
(a) The speed of the initial projection
(b) The distance the particle is from O when t = 3 and when t = 7
(c) The value of t when the particle change its direction
(d) The distance the particle travels from t = 3 to t = 7

Answer: (a) 12 (b) 27, 35 (c) 6 (d) 10

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Acceleration
• A particle with positive acceleration will either be moving to the right and increasing its speed or moving to the
left and decreasing its speed.
• A particle with negative acceleration will either be moving to the left and increasing its speed or moving to the
right and decreasing its speed.
• Zero acceleration means that the velocity is a constant (uniform velocity).

Example:

Answer: (a)positive (b) positive (c) negative (d) negative (e) positive (f) positive
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Revision on Factorization
Factorize the following expression

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Factorize the following expression (Answers)

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The second derivative and concavity
A function is concave upwards (or convex downwards)
where the second derivative is positive. An arrow
drawn through the curve towards the centre of
curvature will point upwards. It is sometimes called cup
shaped.

A function is concave downwards (or convex upwards)

where the second derivative is negative. An arrow
drawn through the curve towards the centre of
curvature will point downwards. It is sometimes call
cap shaped.

A point of inflection is a point where the concavity of

the function changes.

A horizontal point of inflection is both a stationary

point and a point of inflection.

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Stationary points

Stationary points are located when the first derivative is zero. i.e. f ' ( x ) = 0 .

Type of stationary points:

Local maximum – point C

Local minimum – point A

Horizontal point of inflection – point B

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Classifying Stationary points
There are two methods for determining the nature of the stationary points
1. Sign Test (First Derivative Sign Test)
Sign test determines the slope of the function (positive or negative) either side of where f ' ( x ) = 0 .

x x− x x+
f ' ( x) − 0 + Indicating a minimum turning point
Sketch of
tangent

x x− x x+
f ' ( x) + 0 − Indicating a maximum turning point
Sketch of
tangent

x x− x x+
f ' ( x) + 0 + Indicating a horizontal point of inflection
Sketch of
tangent

x x− x x+
f ' ( x) − 0 − Indicating a horizontal point of inflection
Sketch of
tangent

2. The second derivative test

If f ' ( x ) = 0 and f ' ' ( x)  0 , the stationary point is

concave upwards, so it is a local minimum.

If f ' ( x ) = 0 and f ' ' ( x)  0 , the stationary point is

concave downwards, so it is a local maximum.

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Second Derivative Sign Test – To determine maximum point, minimum point and horizontal
point of inflection
If f ' ( x) = 0 and f ' ' ( x) = 0 then we could have maximum, minimum or horizontal inflection and
would need to investigate further using the second derivative sign test. Second derivative sign
test tells us whether there is a change of concavity before and after the stationary point or not.

If f ' ( x ) = 0 and f ' ' ( x) = 0 , and concavity changes,

there is a horizontal point of inflection.

x=a x=a

If f ' ( x ) = 0 , f ' ' ( x) = 0 and f ' ' ( x)  0 around the

value, there is a local minimum. x=a

If f ' ( x ) = 0 , f ' ' ( x) = 0 and f ' ' ( x)  0 around the

x=a
value, there is a local maximum.

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Global Maximum and Minimum
The global maximum and minimum can be found when a function is defined over a given closed interval. This global
maximum or minimum can occur at the end points or turning points.

The function f (x ) is defined over the interval a  x  b .

▪ Global maximum occurs when x = c .

▪ Global minimum occurs when x = b .

Example:
1. Does y = x have a point of inflection?
4

Answer: y = x does not have a point of inflection.

4

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2. Determine the stationary points and points of inflection for: y = 2 x − 5 x + 7 .
5 4

3 25
Answer: (2, -9) is a local minimum; (0,7) is a local maximum; ( , − ) is the point of inflection.
2 8
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3. Find any stationary points and points of inflection on f ( x ) = x − 3 x − 9 x + 1 and hence sketch the curve.
3 2

Answer: (-1, 6) is a local maximum and (3, -26) is a local minimum; (1, -10) is a point of inflection.
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Optimisation
Calculus is used to determine the optimum solution – the maximum profit, minimum cost or other similar quantities.

Method

1. Draw a diagram if possible.

2. Define the variables.

3. Define the function to be optimized.

4. Use relationships between variables to express the function in terms of one variable.

5. Determine stationary points using

- Calculator or

- Calculus techniques

Solve the equation f ' ( x ) = 0

6. Determine the nature of the stationary point using either

- sign test

- second derivative test

If f ' ' ( x)  0 stationary point is a local minimum

If f ' ' ( x)  0 stationary point is a local maximum

7. If the domain is restricted to a  x  b then check end points for global maximum or minimum

8. State your conclusion in words.

Example:
1. The product of two positive numbers is 40. Find the numbers such that the sum of twice one number and 5 times the
other is a minimum.

Answer: The required numbers are 10 and 4.

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2. The area of a rectangle is to be 50cm 2 . Find the dimensions of the rectangle if its perimeter is to be a minimum.

Answer: Dimensions are 5 2cm  5 2cm

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3. A can of soft drink has a volume of 400cm 3 . Find the height and radius which will minimize the surface area using

calculus methods. Determine the minimum surface area.

Answer: r  3.993 cm ; h  7.986 cm ; minimum surface area  300.53cm 2 .

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ANSWERS

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1

12√3𝑥 − 12𝑦 + 6 − √3𝜋 = 0

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