Chapter 2.

EXPRESSING EFFECT
In previous lessons we’ve shown how to use adverb clauses and modifying adverbial
phrases to express cause and effect, contrast, and condition. The words that introduce adverb
clauses belong to a category of English words known as connectives that join one part of a
sentence to another. Other types of connectives can also be used to express some of the same
ideas that adverb clauses can. The other connectives are :prepositions, transitions
and conjunctions.
In this lesson, we’re going to discuss how these additional connectives can be used to
express cause and effect and purpose.  In the next lesson, we’ll wrap up connectives by looking
at how they are used in expressions of contrast  and condition.

2.1. Key languages: “Because Of” and “Due To”

Adverb clauses introduced by because expresses cause and effect relationships:

Examples 2.1.
Because it was raining, I wore a hooded sweatshirt.
Because of and due to are phrasal prepositions. They express the same cause-effect relationship
as because. However, a preposition is followed by a noun object, not by a subject and a verb:

Example 2.2.
Because of the rain, I wore a hooded sweatshirt.

Due to the rain, I wore a hooded sweatshirt.

Occasionally, you will see due to followed by a noun clause introduced by the fact that. This
occurs primarily in older and very formal writing. Native English speakers rarely use it in
conversations or informal writing:

Example 2.3.
Due to the fact that it was raining, I wore hooded sweatshirt.
Like adverb clauses, phrasal prepositions can also follow the main clause. Note the lack of a
comma in these instances:

Examples 2.4.
I wore a hooded sweatshirt because of the rain.
I wore a hooded sweatshirt due to the rain.
I wore hooded sweatshirt due to the fact that it was raining. 

2.3. Key languages: “Therefore, Consequently, and So”

Transitions connect ideas between two sentences. They are used commonly in formal writing but
rarely in spoken English. The transitions therefore and consequently mean “as a result.” They
occur in the second of two related sentences and can have a variety of positions within the
second sentence.

2.4. Compare the following examples, which all have the same meaning:
Sam was late for work because she overslept.
Sam overslept. Therefore,  she was late for work.
Sam overslept. She, therefore, was late for work.
Sam overslept. She was late for work, therefore.

So  is a conjunction that has the same meaning as therefore. Because it is a conjunction, so  uses a
comma, not a period, to connect two related independent clauses:
Sam overslept, so she was late for work. 

2.5. Key languages: “Such…That” and “So…That”

Such…that and so…that express cause and effect by enclosing other parts of speech. Such…
that encloses a modified noun (such + adjective + noun + that):

Examples2.5.
It was  such a nice day that  I ate my lunch outside.
It was  such a good movie that I saw it a second time.

So…that encloses an adjective or adverb (so + adjective/adverb + that):

Examples 2.6.
The drink was  so cold that it made my teeth hurt.
James speaks so slowly that I lose interest in what he is saying.

You can use so…that with many, few, much, and more to help express quantity:

Sarah’s section of the report contained so many grammar errors that I had to completely
rewrite it.
Mike has so few days off that I rarely get to see him.
Julie makes so much money that she can go out for dinner whenever she wants.
Robert had so little trouble with the assignment that he finished it the day it was assigned.
Native English speakers often omit the that when speaking or writing informally:
I was so hungry (that) I ate an entire pizza for dinner.

Using “So That” to Express Purpose

So that (with no words in between) expresses purpose. It has the same meaning as “in order to”:

Examples 2.7.
I cleaned up the living room in order to enable my roommate to vacuum the floor.
I cleaned up the living room so (that)  my roommate could vacuum the floor.
I cleaned up the living room for a purpose. The purpose was to make it possible for my
roommate to vacuum the floor without having to move things out of the way.
So that is often used instead of in order to when ability is being expressed. Pairing so
that with can/could is the same as saying “in order to be able to”:

Examples 2.8.
I’m going to cash my paycheck so that I can buy groceries.
I cashed my paycheck so that I could buy groceries.

Combining so that with will, would, or a simple present tense verb is the same as saying “in
order to make sure that.” Will  is used in expressing present tense. Would express past tense.
Using a simply present verb in place of will/ would express future tense:

Examples 2.9.
I’ll wear a hooded sweatshirt so that I won’t  get my hair wet.
I wore a hooded sweatshirt so that I wouldn’t get my hair wet.
I’ll wear a hooded sweatshirt so that I don’t  get my hair wet.

Please study the following examples.

2.6. Key language:
Malaria mosquitoes can be controlled by insecticides.

Consequently
Therefore Malaria has now been eradicated in many
As a results of (of this) parts of the World.
Because of this

Exercise 2.1.
After having read the key language above, you can read the following statements. For each item,
write a second statement describing a result or effect which the first statement suggests to you.
Use one of the boxed expressions in each of your answer.
1. Diamonds are the hardest of all materials.
……………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………….
2. It is still not possible to predict when earthquakes will occur.
…………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………
3. Camels can go without water for longer periods than other animals.
……………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………
4. The cost of petroleum has increased enormously in recent year.
……………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………
5. Many people who work in cities are obliged to live in tower blocks.
……………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
6. The number of burglaries committed in Indonesia has increased recently.
 ………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………

2.7. Cause and Effect

Read the following information.

In 1970 about sixty small and medium-sized companies in the United States adopted a
four-day work week. According to the plan, workers work forty hours but instead of the usual
five-day week, they now work only four days. Workers are enthusiastic about the three-day
weekly vacation. According to management, productivity has increased about 18% since the
inception of the new plan. Absenteeism has dropped by 69% and lateness is almost non-existent.

Exercise 2.2.
Write three statements of cause and effect which are true according to the paragraph
above.
Exercise 2.3.
Look at diagram below relating to poverty. Write two or three paragraphs describing
poverty and include a definition of it in your description. Refer to some of the causes and
effects of poverty below.

Causes Poverty Effects

Low wages The state of being very Inadequate accommodation
poor
Unemployment Insufficient food
Irregular employment Inadequate clothing
Death of the wage-earner Insufficient heating
Large families Poor health
Illness Few opportunities
Old ages Amenities
Drink Possessions
Gambling Comforts
Unwise spending

Exercise 2.4.
Write a short essay on one or more of the following:
a. The causes and effects of blindness
b. The causes and effects of drought.
c. The causes and effects of rain.
d. The causes and effects relationship between poverty and illiteracy.