AERONAUTICAL INSTITUTE OF BANGLADESH (AIB)

CHAPTER 9

Flight control (ATA 27)

11.9 FLIGHT CONTROLS...................................................................................................1

11.9.1 Primary controls.....................................................................................................2
11.9.1.1 Ailerons.................................................................................................................2
11.9.1.2 Elevators...............................................................................................................2
11.9.1.3 Rudders.................................................................................................................3
11.9.1.4 Spoilers..................................................................................................................4
11.9.2 Trim Controls...........................................................................................................5
11.9.2.1` Fixed and Adjustable Trim Tabs....................................................................6
11.9.2.2 Fully Powered Flying Control Trim System..................................................6
11.9.3 Active load control..................................................................................................11
11.9.3.1 Active control technology...............................................................................11
11.9.3.2 Advantages of active control technology..........................................................12
11.9.4 High lift devices....................................................................................................13
11.9.4.1 Trailing Edge Flaps...........................................................................................13
11.9.4.2 Leading Edge Flap..............................................................................................17
11.9.4.3 Slats......................................................................................................................18
11.9.5 Lift dumpers.............................................................................................................21
11.9.6 Speeddwsx brakes...............................................................................................22
11.9.7 Flight control system..............................................................................................23
11.9.7.1 Manual/Mechanical flight control..................................................................28
11.9.7.2 Hydraulic/Powered flight control (P.F.C.U’s)..............................................28
11.9.7.3 Pneumatic flight control system.........................................................................34
11.9.7.4 Electrical flight controls..................................................................................38
11.9.7.5 Fly-by-wire flight control system (FCS).......................................................41
11.9.8 Mechanism.............................................................................................................43
11.9.8.1 Artificial feel devices........................................................................................43
11.9.8.2 Artificial feel system............................................................................................47
11.9.8.3 Yaw damper........................................................................................................48
11.9.8.4 Mach trim.............................................................................................................49
11.9.8.5 Rudder limiter.....................................................................................................52
11.9.8.6 Gust locks...........................................................................................................52

Subject Code Subject Name Page

68243 Aircraft Hydraulic and flight control
Only for training purpose
 AERONAUTICAL INSTITUTE OF BANGLADESH (AIB)

11.9.9 Balancing................................................................................................................54
11.9.9.1 Principal of balancing or re-balancing.........................................................54
11.9.9.3 Static Balance....................................................................................................56
11.9.9.4 Dynamic Balance...............................................................................................57
11.9.9.5 Re-balancing procedures................................................................................57
11.9.10 Aircraft rigging....................................................................................................60
11.9.10.1 Rigging checks..................................................................................................64
11.9.11 Stall Warning Systems......................................................................................70
11.9.11.1 Pneumatic stall warning system.................................................................70
11.9.11.2 Electric Stall Warning System......................................................................71
11.9.12 Stall Protection System....................................................................................71
11.9.12.1 System functions............................................................................................71
11.9.12.2 Typical System Components.......................................................................72
11.9.13 Actual Stall protection system........................................................................73
11.9.13.1 Incidence probes.............................................................................................73
11.9.13.2 Nitrogen system..............................................................................................74
11.9.13.3 Automatic ignition..........................................................................................74
11.9.13.4 Stall warning.....................................................................................................74
11.9.13.5 Stall identification...........................................................................................74

Subject Code Subject Name Page

68243 Aircraft Hydraulic and flight control
Only for training purpose
 AERONAUTICAL INSTITUTE OF BANGLADESH (AIB)

11.9 FLIGHT CONTROLS

The flight controls described here consist of the pilot flight control systems. Pilot flight control
systems include all the control surfaces, control and actuation elements, and associated
indicating and warning systems that enable the pilots to control the airplane during flight and
on the ground during takeoff and landing procedures.

Aircraft theory of flight has already been discussed in Module 11.1. We shall now look at
how the Aircraft are equipped with moveable aerofoil surfaces that provide control in flight.
Controls are normally divided into Primary and Secondary controls. The primary flight
controls are:
a. Ailerons
b. Elevators
c. Rudders
d. Spoilers

Because of the need of aircraft to operate over extremely wide speed ranges and weights, it
is necessary to have other secondary or auxiliary controls. These consist of:
a. Trim controls
b. High Lift Devices
c. Speed Brakes and Lift Dump

Note: There is some variation of opinion as to whether spoilers are considered to be primary
controls. The JAR 66 syllabus includes them as primary controls, so that is how these notes
will define them. Both types of controls are illustrated in the following diagram.
Typical Aircraft Flight Controls

Figure 11.9-1 - Primary flight controls (Boeing 777)

Subject Code Subject Name Page

68243 Aircraft Hydraulic and flight control
Only for training purpose
 AERONAUTICAL INSTITUTE OF BANGLADESH (AIB)

11.9.1 Primary controls

11.9.1.1 AILERONS

Ailerons are primary flight controls that provide lateral roll control of the aircraft. They control
aircraft movement about the longitudinal axis. Ailerons are normally mounted on the trailing
edge of the wing near to the wing tip.

Figure 11.9-2 Example of inboard and outboard ailerons (Boeing 747-200)

Some large turbine aircraft employ two sets of ailerons. One set are in them conventional
position near the wing tip, the other set are in the mid-wing position or outboard of the flaps.
At low speeds both sets of ailerons operate to give maximum control. At higher speeds
hydraulic isolate valves will cut power to the outer ailerons so that only the inboard ailerons
operate. If the outer ailerons are operated at high speeds, the stress on the wing tips may
twist the leading edge of the wing downwards and produce ―aileron reversal‖.

11.9.1.2 ELEVATORS

Elevators are primary flight controls that control the movement of the aircraft about the
lateral axis (pitch). Elevators are normally attached to hinges on the rear spar of the
horizontal stabilizer. Fig 11.1 shows the typical location for elevators.

Subject Code Subject Name Page

68243 Aircraft Hydraulic and flight control
Only for training purpose
 AERONAUTICAL INSTITUTE OF BANGLADESH (AIB)

Figure 11.9-3 Elevator (Boeing 737-800)

11.9.1.3 RUDDERS

The rudder is the flight control surface that controls aircraft movement about the vertical or
normal axis. Rudders for small aircraft are normally single structural units operated by a
single control system. Rudders for larger transport aircraft vary in basic structural and
operational design. They may comprise two or more operational segments, each controlled
by different operating systems to provide a level of redundancy.

Subject Code Subject Name Page

68243 Aircraft Hydraulic and flight control
Only for training purpose
 AERONAUTICAL INSTITUTE OF BANGLADESH (AIB)

Figure11.9-4 Rudder

11.9.1.4 SPOILERS

Spoilers are secondary control surfaces used to reduce or spoil the lift on a wing. They
normally consist of multiple flat panels located on the upper surface of the wings. The
diagram below shows the more common configuration. Operation of Spoilers on a Typical
Aircraft.
The spoilers lay flush with the upper surface of the wing and are hinged at the forward edge.
When the spoilers are operated, the surface raises and reduces the lift. The spoilers may be
used for different purposes.

Subject Code Subject Name Page

68243 Aircraft Hydraulic and flight control
Only for training purpose
 AERONAUTICAL INSTITUTE OF BANGLADESH (AIB)

Figure 11.9-5 Example of spoilers (Boeing 737-800)

11.9.1.4.1 FLIGHT SPOILERS

Flight Spoilers are used in flight to reduce the amount of lift. If the pilot operates the controls
left or right to roll the aircraft, the spoilers on the down-going wing move upward to aid rolling
the aircraft. The movement of the spoilers is in proportion to the rate of roll required. On
some aircraft, the spoilers are the primary flight control for rolling. If operating only as flight
spoilers, only the surfaces on one wing will be raised at any one time. The flight spoilers are
normally positioned outboard of the ground spoilers.

11.9.1.4.2 GROUND SPOILERS

Ground Spoilers are only used when the aircraft is on the ground. They operate with the
flight spoilers to greatly reduce the lift on landing. The also reduce the drag after landing to
slow down the aircraft. Ground spoilers will normally be deflected to their maximum position
to give maximum drag on landing.

11.9.2 Trim Controls

The majority of aircraft at some time during a flight, develop a tendency to deviate from a
straight and level attitude. This may be caused by a fuel state change, a speed change, a
change in position of the aircraft's load, or in flap and undercarriage positions. The pilot can
counter this tendency by continuously applying a correcting force to the controls - an
operation, which, if maintained for any length of time, would be both fatiguing and difficult to
maintain. The tendency to deviate is therefore corrected by making minor trim adjustments
to the control surfaces. Once an aircraft has been trimmed back to a 'balanced' flight
condition, no further effort is required by the pilot until further deviation develops.

Subject Code Subject Name Page

68243 Aircraft Hydraulic and flight control
Only for training purpose
 AERONAUTICAL INSTITUTE OF BANGLADESH (AIB)

11.9.2.1` FIXED AND ADJUSTABLE TRIM TABS

11.9.2.1.1 FIXED TRIM TABS

A fixed trim tab is normally a piece of sheet metal attached to the trailing edge of a control
surface. It is adjusted on the ground by bending to an appropriate position that gives zero
control forces when in the cruise. Finding the correct position is by trial and error.
11.9.2.1.2 CONTROLLABLE TRIM TABS

Figure 11.9-6 Controllable Trim Tab

A controllable trim tab is adjusted by mechanical means from the flight deck, usually with
an indication of its position being displayed to the pilot. Most aircraft have trim on the pitch
control and more advanced aircraft have trim on all three axes. Whilst the controls in the
cockpit are by lever, switch etc the actuation can be by mechanical, electrical or hydraulic
means.

11.9.2.2 FULLY POWERED FLYING CONTROL TRIM SYSTEM

As fully powered flying controls are irreversible, i.e. all loads (reactions) are fed via
mountings to structure, trim tabs would be ineffective. To overcome this, electric trim struts
or actuators are used within the input system. These actuators commonly reposition the
"null" position of a self-centering spring device to hold the control input system in a new
neutral position. Thus the main control surface will be held deflected and the aircraft
trimmed.

11.9.2.2.1 RUDDER TRIM SYSTEM

In a typical rudder trim system for a powered system, trim commands from the trim switch
causes an actuator to extend or retract, which rotates the feel and centering mechanism.
This provides a new zero force pedal position corresponding to the trimmed rudder position.
The trim switch is spring loaded to return to neutral. Both positive and negative elements of
the circuit are switched to prevent a trim runaway should one set of switch contacts become
short circuited. The trim indicator is driven electrically by a transmitter in the rudder trim
actuator. The indicator shows up to 17 units of left or right trim. Each unit represents
approximately one degree of rudder trim.

Subject Code Subject Name Page

68243 Aircraft Hydraulic and flight control
Only for training purpose
 AERONAUTICAL INSTITUTE OF BANGLADESH (AIB)

11.9.2.2.2 AILERON TRIM SYSTEM

In a typical aileron trim system for a powered system, trim commands from the trim switches
causes the actuator to extend or retract, which repositions the feel and centering mechanism
null detent. The trim switches must be operated simultaneously to provide an electrical input
to the actuator, as both positive and negative elements of the circuit are switched to prevent
a trim runaway should one set of switch contacts become short circuited. The available
aileron trim provides 15 degrees aileron travel in both directions from neutral.

11.9.2.2.3 TAILPLANE TRIM SYSTEM

Pitch Trimming
Larger transport aeroplanes are trimmed longitudinal by adjusting the position of the
horizontal stabilizer. The stabilizer pivots about its attachments to the rear empennage
structure by driving a screw jack that is controlled from the cockpit, raising or lowering the
leading edge of the stabilizer. The system output is restricted as speed increases so as to
ensure that the empennage structure is not damaged.

Raising the leading edge gives the aeroplane nose-down trim, and lowering the leading edge
trims the aeroplane in a nose-up direction.

The system layout is basically the same on most large aeroplanes. The motors can be
electrically or hydraulically driven, by operating control column switches, or manually by
control stand levers and the trim wheel itself.

For redundancy, different hydraulic systems supply the THS actuator. Some other systems
provide electrical actuators for backup operation. The trimmable horizontal stabilizer (THS)
can be moved either manually or automatically. Manual control is achieved from the cockpit
by the different manual control wheels, switches or suit-case handles. Automatic control is
achieved with signals from the autopilot or Flight Management systems which send signals
direct to the THS-actuator.

During manual movement of the THS an audible signal sounds in the cockpit, so, the pilots
can perceive motion of the system. This audible signal is also used to warn the pilots in case
of dangerous THS runaway.

Automatic Pitch Trim

In the auto-flight mode the command signals from the autopilot are sent to the flight control
computers where auto-trim signals are calculated and sent to the THS actuator.

Although not an autopilot function, large aircraft can have systems installed for pitch - and
center of gravity control. These aircrafts are equipped with incorporated fin (Concorde) or
horizontal stabilizer fuel tanks (Boeing 747) where fuel is transferred to them in cruise flight
or center of gravity control.

This feature makes it possible to transfer a calculated amount of fuel into this tank to keep
the center of gravity in a safe and economic range during the flight. Therefore, excessive
THS pitch angles can be avoided.

Reasons for fitting to transport aircraft:

Subject Code Subject Name Page

68243 Aircraft Hydraulic and flight control
Only for training purpose
 AERONAUTICAL INSTITUTE OF BANGLADESH (AIB)

a. All aircraft benefit from having as large a range of useable center of gravity as possible.
This gives flexibility in cargo loading and allows for fuel usage in a swept wing.
b. Aircraft benefit from a wide speed range. Very simply, when an aircraft is trimmed at a
particular speed, a reduction in speed calls for "up" elevator and an increase in speed calls
for "down" elevator. This would cause extra drag.
c. The need to compensate for center of pressure changes due to slat/flap extension, gear
extension.
d. To reduce trim drag to a minimum to give the optimum performance in cruise.

11.9.2.2.4 VARIABLE INCIDENCE TAILPLANE TRIM SYSTEM

The tail-plane is pivoted at the rear of the center section torsion box and attached to an
actuator forward of the center section. Operation of the actuator raises or lowers the leading
edge of the tail-plane, altering the incidence angle.
The actuator comprises a re-circulating ball screw jack and nut assembly driven by two
hydraulic motors with separate spur gear reduction trains.

Subject Code Subject Name Page

68243 Aircraft Hydraulic and flight control
Only for training purpose
 AERONAUTICAL INSTITUTE OF BANGLADESH (AIB)

Figure 11.9 -7 Variable Incidence Tailplane

Subject Code Subject Name Page

68243 Aircraft Hydraulic and flight control
Only for training purpose
 AERONAUTICAL INSTITUTE OF BANGLADESH (AIB)

Figure 11.9-8 Tail Plane Trim Actuator

Friction brakes ensure that air loads cannot back-drive the actuator when the system is de-
pressurized. The actuator is signaled from one of three sources:
a. Auto-pilot servo
b. Mach trim servo
c. Trim hand-wheel operation.

A cable loop runs from the pedestal in the cockpit, under the cabin floor, and ends at a cable
reduction gearing unit at the tailplane incidence actuator.

Hydraulic Power Supply

Each hydraulic motor is powered from a separate system. In the event of a single hydraulic
system failure, a bypass valve permits that motor to "freewheel" when the system is de-
pressurized.

Position Indication Systems

Geared indicator scales inboard of the cockpit hand-wheels present the demanded position
of the tail-plane. This will be the actual tail-plane incidence with the hydraulic system(s)
pressurized. Actual tail-plane position is continuously displayed on the pilot's instrument

Subject Code Subject Name Page

68243 Aircraft Hydraulic and flight control
Only for training purpose
 AERONAUTICAL INSTITUTE OF BANGLADESH (AIB)

panel, signaled by a position transmitter operated by the tail-plane. External markings on the
structure adjacent to the tail-plane give the approximate position of the tail-plane.

Tail-plane in Motion Warning

Some aircraft types have a tail-plane in motion warning system to alert the pilots of
continuous motion of the tail-plane beyond a certain time period.

11.9.3 Active load control

This system is a relatively new approach to civil aviation, although it has been in use for
some time in military aircraft. It is a complex system that senses disturbances in the air that
may cause both discomforts to passengers and crew, whilst causing extra unnecessary
loading on the airframe.

The gusts that are about to hit the aircraft are sensed either by a tiny pair of vanes on either
side of the nose or by accelerometers mounted inside the nose of the aircraft. These
instantly send a signal, 'bump coming', to the flight control computers, which instantly send a
correcting signal to the elevators that counter the bump and give a smoother ride.
The whole system requires the quick reactions of both the computers and the hydraulic jacks
to be successful. If the aircraft senses a downdraft, the computers instantly signal just the
correct amount of 'up elevator' to counteract the disturbance and leave the aircraft to fly
smoothly on.

11.9.3.1 ACTIVE CONTROL TECHNOLOGY

Active Control Technology (ACT) can be defined as the use of a multivariable automatic
flight control system to improve the maneuverability, dynamic flight characteristics and the
structural dynamic properties of an aircraft by simultaneously driving an appropriate number
of control surfaces and auxiliary force or moment generators in such a fashion that either the
loads which the aircraft would have experienced as a result of motion without an ACT
system are much reduced or the aircraft produces a degree of maneuverability beyond the
capability of a conventional aircraft.

In essence ACT is the use of technology to make an aircraft and its control surfaces operate
in an unconventional manner to affect high maneuverability or to reduce airframe stress.

ACT is nothing new, it has been used on aircraft for many decades but it has increased in
usage with the advent of flight control computers and fly-by-wire systems. The Tristar aircraft
has a system installed that reduces the flight loads on the wings by partially deploying the
spoilers. This changes the lift profile over the wing, bringing the lift closer to the wing root,
which is much stronger. This means that the wing can be lighter and the wing stresses will
be reduced.

Subject Code Subject Name Page

68243 Aircraft Hydraulic and flight control
Only for training purpose
 AERONAUTICAL INSTITUTE OF BANGLADESH (AIB)

Figure 11.9-9: TriStar wing lift profile

Numerous control surfaces, auxiliary force and moment generators can be added to make
the aircraft operate unconventionally. Fighter aircraft and some executive jets may have a
number of such devices fitted to make them more agile. These include:
a. Fore planes which can only move together to give pitch control.
b. Canards, these differ from fore planes as they can also move independently giving more
response in roll.
c. Flaperons which are control surfaces that act as flaps and/or ailerons depending on the
pilots selection. They have the ability to move both up and down independently for roll
control, but can also move simultaneously for takeoff and landing.

Thrust vectoring, mainly used on combat aircraft, but the advantages gained with short
takeoff and landing will mean that some form of vectoring system will be developed for
commercial aircraft in the future.

11.9.3.2 ADVANTAGES OF ACTIVE CONTROL TECHNOLOGY

The employment of Active Control Technology presents numerous advantages both for civil
and military aircraft, namely:
a. The aircraft is more stable in flight
b. The aircraft are highly agile (military only)
c. A more comfortable flight for passengers
d. Reduced fatigue on the aircraft, therefore lighter construction can be utilized.
e. Lighter construction gives better fuel consumption
f. Varying lift profiles means wings can be more streamlined (less drag)
g. It is impossible for the aircraft to be flown beyond its design limitations under normal
conditions.

Conventional aircraft have four forces providing control and movement:

a. Rolling moment
b. Pitching moment
c. Yawing moment
d. Thrust (Drag modulation)

The use of ACT can provide two more additional forces of control and movement:
a. Direct lift force
b. Direct side force

Direct lift force

In order to change altitude a pilot must pitch the nose of the aircraft up, which may cause
him to lose sight of his destination (the runway). Using ACT, the pilot can change altitude by
causing the fore planes and flaperons to operate together increasing the lift on the front and
rear of the aircraft simultaneously. This is known as the direct lift force

Direct side force

The pilot, conventionally, must roll the aircraft to change its flight path in a sideways plane.
ACT allows the aircraft to side step during normal flight by deploying the rudder and the
canards together to pull the nose and tail of the aircraft across in the same direction. This is
known as the direct side force.

Subject Code Subject Name Page

68243 Aircraft Hydraulic and flight control
Only for training purpose
 AERONAUTICAL INSTITUTE OF BANGLADESH (AIB)

11.9.4 High lift devices

High-lift devices are used in combination with airfoils in order to reduce the takeoff or landing
speed by changing the lift characteristics of an airfoil during the landing or takeoff phases.
When these devices are no longer needed they are returned to a position within the wing to
regain the normal characteristics of the airfoil.

High lift devices are fitted to both the leading and trailing edge of the wings, and are used to
create extra lift by altering the camber and shape of the wing. Flaps are used to augment lift
at slow speed. For landing flaps will be gradually fully deployed. For take-off an intermediate
setting is required. A large aircraft cannot take off without the use of flaps, but can land with
a failure of the flap system, but the landing speed is greater and hence so is the stopping
distance.

11.9.4.1 TRAILING EDGE FLAPS

Flaps which only increase the camber have a fixed hinge point and are generally moved by
hydraulic actuators. The trailing edge of this type of flap will move downwards immediately if
a flaps extend‖ selection is made on the flight deck. Flaps which increase both the surface
and the camber have rollers and are installed in specially formed tracks. After a flaps
extend‖ selection the flaps will first move backwards via the rollers and the tracks (increase
of the wing area) followed by a trailing edge that moves down (camber increase).To perform
this combined movement, a system of driving axles and screw spindles or rotary actuators is
used. This system is usually driven by a hydraulic motor or by an electric motor depending
on the type and size of aircraft. A screw type system is often used to prevent flap loads
feeding back to the control system. Such flap system lay-out are similar to slat system lay-
out. For some aircraft, both types of actuation are used. The flaps are operated with the flap
handle on the flight deck. The flap handle can be set to different positions depending on the
flight phase. This enables the pilot to select the most efficient flap position.

Figure 11.9-10 An example of a flap control and drive system

The use of flaps is limited to below 20,000 ft. Each flap selection from up to maximum down
requires a decreasing maximum limiting speed to avoid structural damage. A flap limitations
placard is displayed on the front panel/center console by the flap lever. On modern aircrafts,
where most of the systems are computer controlled and monitored, limitation envelopes are
integrated in the software. If the pilot tries to extend the high lift devices with a speed higher

Subject Code Subject Name Page

68243 Aircraft Hydraulic and flight control
Only for training purpose
 AERONAUTICAL INSTITUTE OF BANGLADESH (AIB)

than the allowed speed for flaps extension, the computer will not allow the extension and
inhibits the operation accompanied by a warning.
There are mechanical gates on the flap selector lever track for the pilot to be reminded of
speed/configuration. The flap lever selector is also part of the take-off warning configuration
system. A warning horn will sound if flaps are not selected for take-off

Example of Flap System – Airbus A320

The flap system installed on the Airbus A320 has the following components:
a. Flap lever (flight deck)
b. Slat/flap control computer (SFCC)
c. Power control unit (PCU) incorporating:
d. Feedback position pick-off unit (FPPU)
e. Directional solenoid valves
f. Enable solenoid
g. Control valve spool
h. Hydraulic motor
i. Power off brake (POB)
j. Torque shaft
k. Torque limiters
l. Wing tip brakes (WTB)
m. Gearboxes – 3 types
n. Steady bearings
o. Actuator assembly
p. Asymmetry position pick off unit (APPU)
q. Flap tracks

Moving the slat flap lever rotates the Command Sensor Unit (CSU), which issues a new
position demand signal to each slat/flap control computer (SFCC). This signal is processed
in flap processing lanes 1 and 2.

The position demand and the actual position from the Feedback Position Pick-off Unit
(FPPU) are compared in the SFCC flap lanes.

If the requested and actual positions are different, each lane generates command signals.
The command signals generated by each lane are compared. If the command signals are in
agreement, drive commands are generated for power control unit (PCU) valve block
activation. Each SFCC controls its related solenoid valve.

Figure 11.9-11 PCU layout (Airbus A320)

Subject Code Subject Name Page

68243 Aircraft Hydraulic and flight control
Only for training purpose
 AERONAUTICAL INSTITUTE OF BANGLADESH (AIB)

The Power Control Unit (PCU) incorporates two hydraulic motors, each one controlled by an
electrically-signal valve block. The flap PCU drives the flap transmission output shafts.

Each PCU contains a valve block includes three solenoid valves. Two of them, called
directional valves, command the control valve spool for retraction or extension, while the
enable solenoid valve controls the Pressure-Off Brake (POB).

The solenoid valves control the movement of the control valve spool. The control valve spool
position determines the amount of fluid that is ported to hydraulic motor in either extension or
retraction direction. The direction of valve spool movement controls the direction of rotation
of the motor. The degree of valve spool movement controls the rotation speed of the motor.

As the extend solenoid is energized, the control valve spool moves from neutral towards the
fully deflected position. The position of the control valve spool is monitored by a Linear
Variable Differential Transducer (LVDT) mounted on one end of the valve block.

The enable solenoid valve is energized to release the POB, and the flaps begin to extend.
With the control valve spool fully deflected, the maximum available fluid flow is directed to
the motors which run at full speed for flap extension.

As the flap approaches the requested position, the retract solenoid is energized permitting
the control valve spool to move back to the neutral position. The control valve spool
movement reduces the fluid flow, which in turn reduces the motor speed.

Power Off Brake

When the flaps reach the requested position, all solenoid valves are de-energized and the
POB is applied. The motor stops since the control valve spool position is set to zero
hydraulic flow to the motor, and the POB is applied to lock the flaps until a new position is
requested.

Torque Shafts
The rotation of the torque shafts drives all gearboxes and rotary actuator input shafts
simultaneously, at the same speed. Steady bearings, attached to the structure, support the
torque shafts where small angular changes are present.

Gearboxes
Three types of one-to-one ratio gearboxes are used in the flap transmission where large
changes in torque shaft alignment are present.

A right angle gearbox changes alignment through 90 degrees for input to track 1 offset
gearbox. A line gearbox transmits the drive along the rear face of the rear false spar. A 19-
degree bevel gearbox aligns the drive with the rear spar.

Actuators
One actuator operates the flap mechanism at each track. It supplies the torque and speed
reduction necessary to drive the flap at the required rate. Each actuator is driven by an offset
gearbox that transmits power from the torque shaft to the plug-in rotary actuator.

Torque Limiters
Each actuator incorporates a bi-directional torque limiter which protects the structure from
overload.
Wing Tip Break

Subject Code Subject Name Page

68243 Aircraft Hydraulic and flight control
Only for training purpose
 AERONAUTICAL INSTITUTE OF BANGLADESH (AIB)

The Wing Tip Brakes (WTBs) stop and hold the transmission if the Slat Flap Control
Computers (SFCCs) detect abnormal operation such as asymmetry, runaway or over-speed.
Once applied, the WTBs can only be reset on the ground, by maintenance action via the
Centralized Fault Display System (CFDS).

APPU
The Asymmetry Position Pick Off Units (APPUs) enable the SFCC to monitor the system for
asymmetry and runaway conditions. One APPU is mounted on the offset gearbox at track 4
in each wing. It gives the flap actual position to the SFCC.

Flap Tracks
Flaps are supported on carriages traveling on straight tracks. A link arm, outboard of each
track, transmits drive from the actuator to the flap. Tracks 2, 3 and 4 are similar. Track 1,
attached to the fuselage, uses a different configuration.

Figure11.9-12 - Example of flap deployment mechanism (Boeing 777-200)

11.9.4.2 LEADING EDGE FLAP

Inboard of the engine(s) the inboard leading edge flaps are Krueger flaps, the remaing
leading edge flaps are of the variable camber type. The inboard flaps consists of Krueger
flaps which greatly increase the aerodynamic efficiency of the wing and hence can only be
located near the wing root or would lead to structural damage of the wing once deployed.
The leading edge flaps can have two positions, extended or retracted.

The command for these positions comes from the flap handle or via the flap computer. Such
leading edge flaps are driven hydraulically, pneumatically or electrically. Leading edge flaps
are fully deployed with the initial selection of the flap lever. This ensures that maximum lift is

Subject Code Subject Name Page

68243 Aircraft Hydraulic and flight control
Only for training purpose
 AERONAUTICAL INSTITUTE OF BANGLADESH (AIB)

gained with minimum drag penalty. Leading edge flaps are normally split into groups, but
operate symmetrically. They are usually grouped in inboard and outboard groups.

Figure11.9-13 - Example of Krueger flap operation

11.9.4.3 SLATS

Generally either a leading edge flap system or leading edge slat system is employed.
However there are exceptions where a leading edge flap system can be designed into a
leading edge slat system for example the Boeing 777. The leading edge slat has a variable
camber leading edge with a slot open once fully deployed. The leading edge slats are fully
deployed on initial selection of the flap lever to ensure maximum lift with minimum drag
penalty. Together with the flaps, the slats are used for lift augmentation. The slats are
installed on tracks which are attached to the leading edge of each wing. The operation of the
slats is usually mechanically by cables, hydro-mechanical or pneumatically.

A hydraulic or pneumatic power control unit (PCU Airbus) or power drive unit (PDU Boeing)
moves the mechanical transmission system which operates the slats on each wing.

Example of Slat System - Boeing 777

The leading edge (LE) slats improve the take-off and landing performance of the airplane.
When the slats extend, they increase the lift of the wing. They also increase the angle of
attack (AOA) at which the wing stalls.

The slats are part of the high lift control system (HLCS). The HLCS electrically controls the
slats with a fly-by-wire system. During take-off and landing, the pilots use the flap lever to
command the slats to extend to the sealed or gapped positions. After take-off, the pilots use
the flap lever to command the slats to retract to the up position. Each wing has an inboard
slat, a krueger flap, and six outboard slats. The slats operate in sequence with the flaps. At
cruise speed and altitude, slat extension is inhibited.

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 AERONAUTICAL INSTITUTE OF BANGLADESH (AIB)

There are six outboard slats, one inboard slat, and one Krueger flap on each wing. The slats
are numbered 1 through 14, left outboard to right outboard.

Figure11.9-14 - Location of slats and krueger flap on Boeing 777

Figure 11.9-15 Boeing 777 leading edge slat components

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These are the components of the slat drive system:

a. Slat primary control valve
b. Slat PDU
c. Torque tubes
d. Torque tube supports
e. Angle gearboxes
f. Driveline offset gearboxes
g. No-back brake offset gearboxes
h. Krueger flap offset gearboxes
i. Rotary actuators
j. Slat main tracks.

Slat Primary Control Valve

The slat primary control valve controls hydraulic power to the hydraulic motor. In the primary
mode, this valve controls the direction and speed of movement of the slat drive system. In
the secondary and alternate modes, this valve prevents hydraulic power to the hydraulic
motor.

Slat PDU
The slat PDU gets hydraulic power through the primary control valve and electric power
through the slat extend/retract relays.

Hydraulic and electric motors on the PDU move the slat drive system. The slat PDU also
contains the slat limit switch which removes electrical power from the electric motor when
the slats move to their limit during operation in the alternate mode.

The gearbox transmits the power from the hydraulic or electric motors to the torque tubes.
The hydraulic motor or the electric motor rotates gears in the gearbox. These gears increase
the torque from the motors.

The gearbox turns the torque tube couplings on both sides of the PDU. These couplings turn
the torque tubes.

During high-speed operation in the primary mode, the gearbox turns the torque tubes at 640
rpm. During low speed operation, the gearbox turns the torque tubes at 128 rpm. During
operation in the secondary and alternate modes, the gearbox turns the torque tubes at 85
rpm.
Torque Tubes
The torque tubes transmit power from the PDU to the slat actuation assemblies.

Torque Tube Supports

The torque tube supports hold the torque tubes in place.

Angle Gearboxes
The angle gearboxes connect torque tubes that are at different angles to each other.

Offset Gearboxes
The driveline offset gearboxes connect torque tubes that are offset from each other. The no-
back brake offset gearboxes transfer power from the torque tubes to the slat rotary
actuators. These gearboxes also help prevent airloads from retracting the slats. The Krueger

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 AERONAUTICAL INSTITUTE OF BANGLADESH (AIB)

flap offset gearboxes transfer power from the torque tubes to the Krueger flap rotary
actuators.
Rotary Actuators
The slat rotary actuators move the slat main tracks. The Krueger flap rotary actuators move
the Krueger flap.

Slat Main Tracks

As the slat rotary actuators turn, the slat main tracks move the slats.

Drooped leading edges

Drooped leading edges are a different design, but are aiming at the same effect, that of
smoothing the air over the top of the wing. They operate in much the same way as most high
lift devices, by screw jack operation with the motive power for the jacks coming from the
hydraulic system.

Figure 11.9-16: Krueger (left) and Drooped (right) Leading Edge Flaps

Krueger flaps
Krueger flaps are, again, a different design for the same effect. These are usually found
fitted to the leading edges of the wing at the inboard sections where the effect of 'slats' or
'drooped leading edges' are not as efficient.

The control surfaces previously described can be considered conventional, but on some
aircraft, a control surface may serve a dual purpose. For example, one set of control
surfaces, the elevons, combines the functions of both ailerons and elevators. Flaperons are
ailerons which can also act as flaps. A movable horizontal tail section is a control surface
which supplies the action of both the horizontal stabilizer and the elevators.

11.9.5 Lift dumpers

These devices are used to spoil lift from the wing after touchdown. This ensures that the
aircraft's weight is fully on its landing gear, which enables the brakes to work at 100% for the
full landing run. If this did not happen, the aircraft would tend to 'float' or ‘bounce‘ at
touchdown, making the brakes inefficient and the risk of skidding much greater.

Lift dumpers are nearly always flat, rectangular panels, hinged at their leading edge and
powered by hydraulics. They can usually be found on the top of the wing, and located about
the maximum thickness, where their deployment would destroy the maximum lift from the
wing.

To ensure that they deploy at the correct time and also without the need for the pilot to select
them, at a very busy time, there is a simple system to deploy them automatically. A set of

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 AERONAUTICAL INSTITUTE OF BANGLADESH (AIB)

switches are fitted to the landing gear which 'make' and indicate weight-on-wheels to several
systems, once the aircraft is completely on the ground. By giving the pilot a "lift dumper
arming" button, he can arm the system, in flight, and know that it will deploy the lift dumpers
at the correct time.

11.9.6 Speed brakes

The use of speed brakes is similar regardless of the aircraft type. If the aircraft is a sailplane
it is so streamlined that it requires high drag when descending and landing in unprepared
fields. A large 400 seat airliner needs to be able to follow Air Traffic Control instructions to
descend and maintain certain speeds and a military jet fighter needs to have very high drag
on approach, permitting the engines to accelerate quickly if the landing is aborted.

All types of speed brake use a variation of the same principle, to put panels of varying
shapes into the airflow, to increase the drag. Some are able to modulate, (vary the amount
of drag to suit the situation), whilst others are just 'IN' or 'OUT'. Some airliners use the same
surfaces on the top of the wing to carry out more than one operation, such as speed brakes
when in flight and needing drag; roll control to augment (or replace) ailerons; or as lift
dumpers to be used after landing.

Figure 11.9-17: Speed brake installation

Light aircraft rarely need speed brakes because of their generally high drag designs. A
reduction in power will produce a satisfactory slowing down of the aircraft. Streamlined
sailplanes, however, usually have vertical panels that project from the wing, top and bottom,
which produce large amounts of drag, enabling steep, slow and safe approaches when
landing.

Military jets have a different need for drag, not only as mentioned during the approach to
landing, but during combat and other operations where fast application of drag with a quick
reduction in speed can have a lifesaving effect.

11.9.7 Flight control system

Three types of control systems commonly used are: (1) The cable, (2) push-pull, and (3) the
torque tube system. The cable system is the most widely used because deflections of the
structure to which it is attached do not affect its operation. Many aircraft incorporate control
systems that are combinations of all three types.

Subject Code Subject Name Page

68243 Aircraft Hydraulic and flight control
Only for training purpose
 AERONAUTICAL INSTITUTE OF BANGLADESH (AIB)

The systems which operate the control surfaces, tabs, and flaps include flight control system
hardware, linkage, and mechanisms. These items connect the control surfaces to the cockpit
controls. Included in these systems are cable assemblies, cable guides, linkage, adjustable
stops, control surface snubber or locking devices, surface control booster units, actuators
operated by electric motors, and actuators operated by hydraulic motors.

(i) Cable Assembly

The conventional cable assembly consists of flexible cable, terminals (end fittings) for
attaching to other units, and turnbuckles. At each regular inspection period, cables should be
inspected for broken wires by passing a cloth along their length and observing points where
the cloth snags. To thoroughly inspect the cable, move the surface control to its extreme
travel limits. This will reveal the cable in pulley, fairlead, and drum areas. If the surface of the
cable is corroded, relieve cable tension. Then carefully force the cable open by reverse
twisting, and visually inspect the interior for corrosion. Corrosion on the interior strands of the
cable indicates failure of the cable and requires replacement of the cable. If there is no
internal corrosion, remove external corrosion with a coarse-weave rag or fiber brush. Never
use metallic wools or solvents to clean flexible cable. Metallic wools imbed dissimilar metal
particles, which cause further corrosion. Solvents remove the internal cable lubricant, which
also results in further corrosion. After thoroughly cleaning the flexible cable, apply corrosion-
preventive compound. This compound preserves and lubricates the cable.

Breakage of wires occurs most frequently where cables pass over pulleys and through
fairleads. Control cables and wires should be replaced if worn, distorted, corroded, or
otherwise damaged.

Figure 11.9-18: Typical breakage points

Lock-clad cable is used on some large aircraft for all long, straight runs. It consists of the
conventional flexible steel cable with aluminum tubing swaged to it to lock the cable inside
the tubing. Lock-clad cable construction has certain advantages. Changes in tension due to
temperature are less than with conventional cable. Furthermore, the amount of stretch at a
given load is less than with conventional cable.

Lock-clad cables should be replaced when the covering is worn through, exposing worn wire
strands; is broken; or shows worn spots which cause the cable to bump when passing over
fairlead rollers.

(ii) Turnbuckles
The turnbuckle is a device used in cable control systems to adjust cable tension. The
turnbuckle barrel is threaded with left-hand threads inside one end and right-hand threads
inside the other. When adjusting cable tension, the cable terminals are screwed into either

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 AERONAUTICAL INSTITUTE OF BANGLADESH (AIB)

end of the barrel an equal distance by turning the barrel. After a turnbuckle is adjusted, it
must be safetied.
(iii) Cable Connectors
In addition to turnbuckles, cable connectors are used in some systems. These connectors
enable a cable length to be quickly connected or disconnected from a system. Figure 11.9-
20 illustrates one type of cable connector in use. This type is connected or disconnected by
compressing the spring.

Figure 11.9-19: Spring type of cable connector.

(iv) Cable guides

Cable guides (figure 11.9-20) consist primarily of fairleads, pressure seals, and pulleys. A
fairlead may be made from a nonmetallic material, such as phenolic or a metallic material
such as soft aluminum. The fairlead completely encircles the cable where it passes through
holes in bulkheads or other metal parts. Fairleads are used to guide cables in a straight line
through or between structural members of the aircraft. Fairleads should never deflect the
alignment of a cable more than 3° from a straight line.

Figure 11.9-20: Cable guides

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68243 Aircraft Hydraulic and flight control
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 AERONAUTICAL INSTITUTE OF BANGLADESH (AIB)

Pressure seals are installed where cables (or rods) move through pressure bulkheads. The
seal grips tightly enough to prevent excess air pressure loss but not enough to hinder
movement of the cable. Pressure seals should be inspected at regular intervals to determine
that the retaining rings are in place. If a retaining ring comes off, it may slide along the cable
and cause jamming of a pulley.

Pulleys are used to guide cables and also to change the direction of cable movement. Pulley
bearings are sealed, and need no lubrication other than the lubrication done at the factory.
Brackets fastened to the structure of the aircraft support the pulleys. Cables passing over
pulleys are kept in place by guards. The guards are close-fitting to prevent jamming or to
prevent the cables from slipping off when they slacken due to temperature variations.

(v) Mechanical linkage

Various mechanical linkages connect the cockpit controls to control cables and surface
controls. These devices either transmit motion or change the direction of motion of the
control system. The linkage consists primarily of control (push-pull) rods, torque tubes,
quadrants, sectors, bell cranks, and cable drums.

Control rods are used as links in flight control systems to give a push-pull motion. They may
be adjusted at one or both ends. View A of figure 11.9-21 shows the parts of a control rod.
Notice that it consists of a tube having threaded rod ends. An adjustable antifriction rod end,
or rod end clevis, attaches at each end of the tube. The rod end, or clevis, permits
attachment of the tube to flight control system parts. The checknut, when tightened, prevents
the rod end or clevis from loosening.

Control rods should be perfectly straight, unless designed to the otherwise, when they are
installed. The bell crank to which they are attached should be checked for freedom of
movement before and after attaching the control rods. The assembly as a whole should be
checked for correct alignment. When the rod is fitted with self-aligning bearings, free
rotational movement of the rods must be obtained in all positions.

It is possible for control rods fitted with bearings to become disconnected because of failure
of the peening that retains the ball races in the rod end. This can be avoided by installing the
control rods so that the flange of the rod end is interposed between the ball race and the
anchored end of the attaching pin or bolt as shown in figure 11.9-22.

Another alternative is to place a washer, having a larger diameter than the hole in the flange,
under the retaining nut on the end of the attaching pin or bolt.

(vi) Torque tubes

Where an angular or twisting motion is needed in a control system, a torque tube is installed.
View B of figure 11.9-21 shows how a torque tube is used to transmit motion in opposite
directions.

Quadrants, bell cranks, sectors, and drums change direction of motion and transmit motion
to parts such as control rods, cables, and torque tubes. The quadrant shown in figure 11.9-
21B is typical of flight control system linkages used by various manufacturers. Figures 11.9-
21C and 11.9-21D illustrate a bell- crank and a sector. View E illustrates a cable drum.
Cable drums are used primarily in trim tab systems. As the trim tab control wheel is moved
clockwise or counterclockwise, the cable drum winds or unwinds to actuate the trim tab
cables.

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 AERONAUTICAL INSTITUTE OF BANGLADESH (AIB)

Figure 11.9-21: Flight control system mechanical linkages.

Figure 11.9-22: Rod end flange interposed between the bearing race and the end of
the attaching bolt.

Subject Code Subject Name Page

68243 Aircraft Hydraulic and flight control
Only for training purpose
 AERONAUTICAL INSTITUTE OF BANGLADESH (AIB)

Figure 11.9-23: Mechanical flight control system

11.9.7.1 MANUAL/MECHANICAL FLIGHT CONTROL

The flight control systems and characteristics can vary greatly depending on the type of
aircraft flown. The most basic flight control system designs are mechanical and date back to
early aircraft. They operate with a collection of mechanical parts such as rods, cables,
pulleys, and sometimes chains to transmit the forces of the flight deck controls to the control
surfaces. Mechanical flight control systems are still used today in small general and sport
category aircraft where the aerodynamic forces are not excessive.

Those aircraft which do not have the manual reversion system may have as many as three
sources of hydraulic power-primary, back-up and auxiliary. Any or all of the primary controls
may be operated by these systems.

11.9.7.2 HYDRAULIC/POWERED FLIGHT CONTROL (P.F.C.U’S)

In large modern aircraft that fly at high speeds, the air loads on the flying control surfaces far
exceed the ability of the pilot to move them manually. To overcome this problem hydraulic
pressure is used to move the control surfaces, a POWERED FLYING CONTROL UNIT or
BOOSTER being used to convert hydraulic pressure into a force exerted on the control
surface.

Subject Code Subject Name Page

68243 Aircraft Hydraulic and flight control
Only for training purpose
 AERONAUTICAL INSTITUTE OF BANGLADESH (AIB)

Figure 11.9-24: Typical flight controls and indicators-flight compartment

Figure 11.9-25: Powered flying control unit

In its simplest form, a P.F.C.U. consists of a hydraulic jack, the body of which is fixed to the
aircraft structure and the ram, via a linkage to the control surface.

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 AERONAUTICAL INSTITUTE OF BANGLADESH (AIB)

To control the P.F.C.U. a servo valve (control valve) is mounted on the jack. The servo
valve, which is connected to the pilot's controls by a system of cables and/or pushrods,
called the input system, directs fluid to either side of the jack piston and directs the fluid from
the other side to return. This flow of fluid will displace the jack ram and as this is connected
to the control surface via an output system of pushrods or cables, the control surface is
moved.

Proportionality
To make the controls "proportional" (i.e. the degree of movement of the jack-ram and hence
the control surface, should be proportional to the degree of movement of the pilot's controls),
a "follow-up linkage" is used. This linkage connects the input system, through a series of
levers to the output system in such a way that the movement of the output system (jack ram)
tends to cancel the input once the desired position is reached and so output movement
ceases. In effect the movement of the jack ram is always trying to re-centre the servo valve
and stop fluid flow in the jack.

Redundancy of hydraulic supplies

Hydraulically powered flight control units usually derive their hydraulic power from the aircraft
hydraulic system. If a PFCU obtained hydraulic power from only one hydraulic supply, a
failure of that hydraulic supply due to an engine shut down, loss of fluid due to a leak, or
failure of a hydraulic pump. The result would be loss of powered control of the aircraft. The
probability of hydraulic failure is too great to allow a system to rely on one hydraulic supply,
so redundancy must be introduced into the flight control system.

As in the previous notes on hydraulic systems, modern large multi-engine aircraft, are
arranged such that the engine driven pumps (and the other types of pumps) supply two or
more independent hydraulic power supply systems.

The following are methods that use that arrangement of hydraulic redundancy to allow failure
of one hydraulic supply and still maintain control of the aircraft.

Subject Code Subject Name Page

68243 Aircraft Hydraulic and flight control
Only for training purpose
 AERONAUTICAL INSTITUTE OF BANGLADESH (AIB)

Figure 11.9-26: Tandem actuator

Tandem PFCU
These are similar to the arrangement shown. They consist of a single jack ram but with two
pistons. These pistons are housed in two co-axial cylinders each of which receives pressure
fluid from separate power supply circuits via their own duplicated servo valves. The servo
valves, which are controlled by the same input system, are carefully set up in the overhaul
workshop to ensure they work in unison. This prevents the two hydraulic pistons working
against each other. With this arrangement a loss of one hydraulic supply will allow the
relevant piston to "free stroke whilst the other piston operates the control surface.

Dual assembly PFCU’S

These are similar to the tandem arrangement but two piston rams are located in cylinders
mounted side by side with the piston rams connected to a common output lever that
transmits the movement to the control surface. The arrangement for the input system, the
duplicated servo valves and hydraulic fluid supply are the same.

Subject Code Subject Name Page

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 AERONAUTICAL INSTITUTE OF BANGLADESH (AIB)

Figure 11.9-27: Dual assembly PFCU

Duplicate/Triplicate PFCU'S
In this arrangement each control surface is operated by two or three separate PFCU'S. For
hydraulic redundancy, each PFCU is powered from separate hydraulic supply circuits. If one
supply system should fail, or if one PFCU should malfunction the effected PFCU can be
switched off. In this event a bypass valve within the PFCU will open interconnecting both
sides of the jack ram. Therefore, as the pilot moves the input and operates the serviceable
PFCU'S, the control surface will move and, "drag" the unserviceable PFCU ram with it. The
open bypass valve will allow fluid to transfer from one side of the ram to the other as the
PFCU "free strokes". Thus control will be maintained by the serviceable PFCU's driving the
control surface, and a hydraulic lock in the unserviceable PFCU is prevented.

In this arrangement each control surface (rudder is shown in the diagram) is split into two or
three independent sections. Each section is operated by its own PFCU. For hydraulic
redundancy, each PFCU is powered from separate hydraulic supply circuits. If one supply
system should fail, or if one PFCU should malfunction the effected PFCU can be switched
of. In this event the PFCU and its control surface segment will be "blown back" to the neutral
position by aerodynamic loads and held by a lock. Thus control will be maintained by the
serviceable PFCU's driving their respective segments of control surface.

All PFCU's are controlled via a single input system to a common input lever connected to all
PFCU servo valves. Therefore if one PFCU malfunctioned it could prevent the operation of
the remaining serviceable PFCU'S. To prevent this the input to the servo valves from the
common input lever is via compressible spring struts or spring boxes. In normal operation
these spring struts/boxes resist compression and allow full control of all PFCU'S. If a PFCU
is unserviceable, pilots input will compress the spring strut to that PFCU but the remaining
spring struts/boxes will resist compression and operate the PFCU servo valves normally.

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Figure 11.9-28: Duplicated control surfaces

Self contained PFCU

A self-contained PFCU consists of a jack-ram powered by its own dedicated integrally
mounted hydraulic “generator" and hydraulic reservoir. The generator is a radial piston pump
arrangement within a slip ring assembly. The slip ring position is control ' led by a servo
valve piston arrangement. With the slip ring held concentric with the piston bank no
movement of the pistons within the rotating piston bank is allowed and no fluid flow will
result. If an input moves the slip ring the rotating bank of pistons will be allowed to "stroke"
and a flow to the PFCU piston will occur and the PFCU ram will move. Movement of the slip
ring in the opposite direction will cause fluid flow to the other side of the piston and the ram
will move in the other direction. The piston bank is rotated by a drive from a 3 phase electric
motor which derives its supply from the aircraft electrical system.

To maintain redundancy this type of PFCU will be duplicated and each may drive a duplicate
and independent (split) control surface as above. As its source of power is electrical, it is
independent of the aircrafts hydraulic system, therefore even with total hydraulic failure,
control can still be maintained. On malfunction of a PFCU, or loss of electric power to that
PFCU, it will lose hydraulic pressure and "blow back" to a neutral position where an integral
lock will hold it. In this event further inputs to the servo valves are absorbed by spring-strut
that allows unhindered operation of the remaining PFCU'S.
To give redundancy of electrical power supply, each PFCU in a "set" (i.e. rudder) gets its
power supply from a different bus bar.

Subject Code Subject Name Page

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Figure 11.9-29: Input systems

Input systems
Generally the input system of the powered flying control system is mainly a cable system
with the related quadrants, pulleys and fairleads with the connections to the control column
and the PFCU input lever by push rods. To guard against loss of control due to cable breaks
the cable system is duplicated. All duplicated runs are routed separately through the aircraft
to avoid one incident damaging both control runs. The cable systems meet at a common
input lever to the PFCU'S.

11.9.7.3 PNEUMATIC FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEM

The following notes describe a typical leading edge flap control system. There are two
modes of operation, primary and alternate. The normal method of operation is by use of the
primary mode and is initiated by use of the flap lever to a selected detent.
On this aircraft there are 28 leading edge flaps, they in turn are divided in two categories,
variable camber (22) off, Kruger (6) off.

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Figure 11.9-30: Wing flight control surfaces

Figure 11.9-31: Leading edge flap system components

Four pneumatic power units in each wing move the flaps up or down, (extend) or (retract).
Air is supplied to the power units from ducts in the leading edge of the wing. The ducts also

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supply air to jets that spray the outboard drive units with hot air for anti-icing. Each drive unit
assembly has two motors, one pneumatic and one electrically powered. Torque developed
by the drive units is supplied to rotary actuators. The actuators move the flaps.

Normal operation is achieved by operation of the flap control lever. Three rotary variable
differential transducers (RVDT‘s) sense movement and signal the Flap Control Unit (FCU),
which control the direction control motors. If pneumatic power is not available the FCU will
switch to electric drive motor operation.

Figure 11.9-32: Leading edge flap system control

Leading edge flap pneumatic drive unit

Purpose
Eight pneumatic drive units (PDU) power the LE flap system. Each power drive unit has both
a pneumatic and an electric drive motor. The pneumatic motor is the primary drive source
and is powered by the leading edge pneumatic manifold. The electric motor is an additional
drive source for use when the pneumatic system is not available.

Leading Edge Flap Drive Unit- operation

i. Pneumatic Drive
The flap lever is used to command FCU operation. The flap control unit signal is passed to
the directional control motor and the shutoff valve. Pneumatic pressure flows from the inlet
duct through the alternate valve (normally open) to the shutoff valve. The shutoff valve
(normally closed) opens to pressurize the regulator and the air Motor brake. Pneumatic
pressure at the regulator opens the butterfly valve and regulates the pressure to the control
valve. Pneumatic pressure at the air motor brake releases the brake. The direction and
speed difference between the direction control motor and the output shaft follow-up gear is
sensed by the differential.
The differential uses the speed differences to position the control valve and maintain PDU
speed. Travel limits are governed by the primary position controller. This translates the

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amount of distance that the nut travels. When the translating nut reaches its travel limit it
stops the direction control motor rotation that, in turn, stops PDU operation.

ii. Electric Drive

The signal to activate the electric drive motor closes the alternate solenoid valve. The
electric motor brake then releases the electric motor drive. The pneumatic brake holds the
sun gear of the planetary gearbox at the air motor output shaft. The electric motor drives the
output shaft through the ring gear of the planetary gear reduction. When the translating nut
in the alternate position controller reaches the end of its travel it opens the electric motor
limit switches. The alternate controller position switches control the electric motor shutdown
in both primary and alternate control modes.

Figure 11.9-33: Leading edge flap drive mechanism components

Operating Times
The approximate leading edge flap extension or retraction times are:
a. Pneumatic operation: 9 seconds
b. Electric operation: 90 seconds

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Electric Drive Motor Control

Primary Mode: in the primary mode the FCU controls the LE flap operation. If the pneumatic
drive motor is not available the FCU will select the electric drive motor. The alternate
controller provides signals to the FCUs for control, monitoring, and indication functions.

Alternate Mode: in alternate mode the electric drive motor is the only method of moving the
flaps. The alternate arming switch arms the system. Flap operation is commanded by using
the rotary alternate control switch located on P-2 in the flight deck.

Figure 11.9-34: Leading edge flap pneumatic drive unit operation

11.9.7.4 ELECTRICAL FLIGHT CONTROLS

Many modern aircraft use electrical inputs to the powered control units. This eliminates the
need for mechanical controls and all of the chains, pulleys, fairleads and linkages associated
with this type of system. This topic is covered in more detail in the Fly By Wire section, but
the following paragraphs illustrate a typical Airbus system.

The electrical flight control computers are designed to ensure a high degree of safety. This is
accomplished by using a high level of redundancy which consists of five EFCS computers
installed in the aircraft, the use of dissimilar redundancy which consists of two types of
computers with each being capable of achieving pitch and roll control along with other
redundant features assuring aircraft control.

Each computer is also composed of one control unit and one monitoring unit. Control and
monitoring software are different and the control and monitoring units are physically
separated.

Monitoring
In each computer, one monitoring channel is associated to a control channel by use of self-
monitored channels. Each computer is able to detect its own failures (microprocessor test,
electrical power monitoring, input and output test). Input monitoring by comparison of signals
of the same type, but sent by different sources, and checking of the signal coherence along

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with permanent cross talk between associated control and monitoring channels, consolidate
and validate information received. This allows permanent monitoring of each channel by its
associated one. Automatic test sequences can be performed on the ground when electric
and hydraulic power is applied (no surface deflection during test).

Side-stick Controller
The side-stick controllers are used for pitch and roll manual control and are shown below.
The side-stick controllers are installed on the captains and first officer's forward lateral
consoles. An adjustable arm-rest is fitted on each seat to facilitate the side-stick control. The
side-stick controllers are electrically coupled.

Figure 11.9-35: Side stick controller

In the case of one pilot wanting to take control of the aircraft (priority), the autopilot
instinctive disconnect button is used to signal the priority system. A visual indication is given
to the pilots to indicate left or right side-stick priority. In autopilot operation the side-stick
controllers remain in neutral position. The autopilot function can be overridden by the pilots
and the autopilot then disengages.

Control Laws
Normal control laws selected for A320 pitch and lateral control are maneuver command laws
with normal acceleration and roll rates used as basic parameters. Inside the normal flight
envelope, the main features are a neutral static stability, short term attitude stability, along
with automatic longitudinal trimming.

The flight characteristics that can be controlled are:

a. The automatic elevator in a turn
b. Lateral attitude hold in a turn
c. Dutch roll damping
d. Turn co-ordination
e. Engine failure compensation.

In addition, protections are provided against extreme attitudes (pitch and roll) excessive load
factors, over-speed, and stall. The load alleviation function (LAF) is accomplished by the
electrical flight control system (EFCS). The LAF is implemented in the elevator and aileron
computer (ELAC) and the spoiler elevator computer (SEC). The control surfaces used are
both ailerons as well as spoilers 4 and 5 (i.e. the outboard pair on both sides) for up gusts.
There are four specific accelerometers that are installed in the forward fuselage station to
provide the electrical flight control computers with vertical acceleration values. These sense

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the up gust and deploy the spoilers to smooth out the normal result of an up gust of wind as
described in the before mentioned example.

Four hydraulic accumulators are installed to provide the extra hydraulic flow needed to
achieve the surface rates and duration of movement required for load alleviation as
illustrated below.

Figure 11.9-36: Airbus A320 load alleviation function

Figure 11.9-37: Digital fly-by-wire flight control system

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 AERONAUTICAL INSTITUTE OF BANGLADESH (AIB)

11.9.7.5 FLY-BY-WIRE FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEM (FCS)

The early generations of flight control systems were mechanically-based. Direct mechanical
linkages were used between the pilot‘s cockpit controls (pitch/roll stick and rudder pedals)
and the control surfaces that maneuver the aircraft, which are for this example: tail plane,
ailerons and rudder. This arrangement is inherently of high integrity, in terms of probability of
loss of aircraft control, and provides us with a very visible baseline for explaining FCS
developments.

Subsequent generations of FCS have been developed on program such as Tornado, Jaguar
Fly-by-wire and the Experimental Aircraft Program, towards the current quadruplex digital fly-
by-wire type, schematically shown in Figure 11.9-33 and used, for example, on Euro fighter
Typhoon. The main emphasis is now on digital computing with the use of inertial motion and
air stream sensor units; the direct mechanical linkages between the cockpit controls and the
control surfaces have been removed and replaced with electrical signaling with direct motion
commands, hence the term “fly-by-wire”. This arrangement provides a significant reduction
in mechanical complexity.

In order to achieve the same level of integrity as that achieved with the earlier mechanical
systems, multiple signal sources and several lanes of computing are necessary to provide
redundancy, these being cross-monitored in order to isolate any failed equipment and to
ensure safe operation. A comprehensive built-in-test capability is also included, to ensure
that the system is “safe to fly” prior to each flight and to identify and locate failures. The
current military aircraft trend is towards triplex redundant architectures with reliance on both
cross-lane and in-lane monitoring to achieve the required level of integrity, and hence the
associated safety of system operation.

The Benefits of Fly-by-wire Technology

The major benefit of fly-by-wire is the ability to tailor the system‘s characteristics at each
point in the aircraft‘s flight envelope. This is achieved by using ‗control laws', which can be
scheduled with flight condition. The introduction of digital computing for aircraft flight control
has allowed complex algorithms to be implemented. These functions allow the performance
benefits offered by Active Control.

Technology to be fully realized and include:

‘Carefree Handling‘ by the:
(i) providing angle of attack control and angle of sideslip suppression, which lead to
automatic protection against stall and departure;
(ii) automatic limiting of normal acceleration and roll rate to avoid over-stressing of the
airframe.

Handling qualities optimized across the flight envelope, and for a wide range of aircraft
stores. Advanced autopilots, providing significant reductions in pilot workload and weapon
system performance benefits. Reduced maintenance costs, resulting from the reduction in
mechanical complexity and the introduction of built-in-test.

In order to realize these benefits it is essential to establish appropriate control law

architecture. This is fundamental to the success of the system and will require good
knowledge of systems equipment engineering and safety, flight dynamics and flight control.

Subject Code Subject Name Page

68243 Aircraft Hydraulic and flight control
Only for training purpose
 AERONAUTICAL INSTITUTE OF BANGLADESH (AIB)

There is however, a significant cost associated with such performance benefits, in terms of
system complexity, but usually, the performance and safety benefits that can be achieved,
easily justify the necessary investment.

Figure 11.9-38: Simple spring box

Figure 11.9-39: ‘Q’ pot unit

11.9.8 Mechanism

11.9.8.1 ARTIFICIAL FEEL DEVICES

With purely mechanical flight control systems, the aerodynamic forces on the control
surfaces are transmitted through the mechanisms and are felt directly by the pilot. This gives
tactile feedback of airspeed and aids flight safety.

When hydraulic actuators are used to operate the controls, hydraulic pressure moves the
control surfaces, thus removing from the pilot‘s controls any control feel. Under these
conditions the pilot would have no idea of the required amount of control surface movement,
to make and hence, would be in danger of over controlling the aircraft To prevent this from
happening, artificial feel units are fitted to these systems, which are designed to give the pilot
control feel, which is proportional to
a. The speed of the aircraft and
b. The amount of control surface movement made.

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68243 Aircraft Hydraulic and flight control
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 AERONAUTICAL INSTITUTE OF BANGLADESH (AIB)

These units vary from a simple spring box as shown in figure 11.9-38 to a ‘Q‘ pot operated
system. Movement of the control column in either direction will compress one or other of the
springs.

A simple ‘Q‘ pot unit is shown in figure 11.9-39. This unit contains a simple piston which is
connected through a double linkage to the control column, so that whichever way the control
column moves, the piston will be pulled forward against Pitot pressure which is admitted to
the forward side of the pot. The rear side of the pot is open to static pressure to enable the
system to calculate dynamic pressure at all altitudes. The idea behind this unit is that the
faster the aircraft flies, the higher will be the Pitot pressure in front of the piston and
therefore the control feel would be proportional to the aircraft‘s speed.

To be effective, these ‗Q‘ pots would have to be very large and so nowadays these units are
used in conjunction with a hydraulic spool valve selector which supplies hydraulic fluid to thy
piston. Figure 11.9-36 below shows a simple ‗Q‘ pot operated feel unit.

Figure 11.9-40: A simple ‘Q’ pot operated feel unit.

Operation
With the forward movement of the aircraft, Pitot pressure is fed to the upper chamber, of the
‘Q‘ pot section of the unit, pushing down the diaphragm. The faster the aircraft flies, the
greater will be the pressure on top of the diaphragm. The diaphragm is connected to a spool
type selector valve, so that downward movement of the diaphragm, opens the pressure port
and partially closes off the return port. Hydraulic fluid admitted to the unit, will then pass to
the forward side of the piston and through a narrow channel to the underside of the spool
valve, to dampen its downward movement. The faster the aircraft flies therefore, the higher
will be the Pitot pressure pushing down on the diaphragm and the greater will be the opening
of the pressure port in the selector. This means that the pressure in front of the piston will
increase, thereby increasing the resistance to further control movement. The return port is
never fully closed, as this would otherwise cause a hydraulic lock to form in the system.

Figure 11.9-41 below shows the two principal units, in any powered flying control system and
their connection to the pilot‘s control column.

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Only for training purpose
 AERONAUTICAL INSTITUTE OF BANGLADESH (AIB)

Figure 11.9-41: Two principal units and their connection to pilot’s control column

Some modem aircraft use P.F.C.U.s where the actuator housing remains attached to the
aircraft structure and the piston shaft operates the controls. A typical unit of this type would
contain a control arm and a control valve, a control surface actuator and an autopilot
actuator. Two L.V.D.T.s (Linear Variable Differential Transformers) one for the autopilot and
one for the control surface actuator are also fitted. The autopilot L.V.D.T. will give an
indication of the autopilot actuator movement; the control surface actuator L.V.D.T. gives an
indication, of the position, of the control surface itself. Two pressure relief valves are fitted in
the autopilot circuit, to permit the pilot to override the autopilot actuator. A typical control unit
is shown in figure 11.9-41.

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Figure 11.9-42: The actuator housing remains attached to the aircraft structure and
the piston shaft operates the controls

Figure 11.9-43: Initial control selection

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 AERONAUTICAL INSTITUTE OF BANGLADESH (AIB)

Figure 11.9-44: Final actuator position

Operation
Movement of the pilot‘s input lever to the left will move the long control aim to the left,
pivoting it about the control surface actuator attachment ball joint and moving the control
valve over to the left. This connects the left hand side of the actuator piston to hydraulic
pressure and opens the right hand side to return. The control surface actuator piston then
moves over to the right, carrying the bottom end of the control arm with it. As it moves, the
control arm now pivoting about its input attachment ball, slowly pulls the control valve back
to its ncutral or shut off position thus creating a hydraulic lock in the actuator and preventing
any further control surface movement.

Should the pilot move the controls again in the same direction, the control arm will reposition
the control valve over to the left again, admitting more hydraulic pressure to the left hand
side of the actuator piston until actuator movement is once again cancelled out by the control
valve. Operation of the control arm will also move the autopilot actuator to the left but as no
hydraulic pressure has been directed to it, it is disengaged.
Figures 11.9-43 and 11.9-44 show the initial control selection just mentioned and the final
actuator position after completion of the follow up cut off point.

11.9.8.2 ARTIFICIAL FEEL SYSTEM

The artificial feel system shown in figure 11.9-45 uses both spring and hydraulic feel. Spring
feel units may be adequate at low speeds, but at higher speeds, greater resistance to
cockpit control movement is needed to prevent overstressing the aircraft structure. The
double cam on the aft elevator control quadrant illustrates the tendency of the artificial feel
system to put the control column into the neutral position. If the pilot moves the control
column he must compress the spring and overcome the force exerted on the hydraulic
piston.

Subject Code Subject Name Page

68243 Aircraft Hydraulic and flight control
Only for training purpose
 AERONAUTICAL INSTITUTE OF BANGLADESH (AIB)

Figure 11.9-45: The artificial feel system using both spring and hydraulic feel

The feel computer provides the hydraulic feel. Pitot pressure is delivered to the top side of
the airspeed diaphragm and static pressure is fed to the other side of the diaphragm. The
diaphragm exerts a downward force on two sets of springs, one on top of the stabilizer
position cam, the other above the metering valve and this force is proportional to the aircraft
speed.

Metered pressure forces exerted against the internal horizontal surfaces of the metering
valve balance each other and tend to hold it in the neutral position. If the metered pressure
exerted against the relief valve at the top of the metering valve is enough to balance the
downward force exerted on it by the diaphragm and the spring, then the pressure inlet port
remains closed. When the airspeed increases, the downward force on the metering valve
increases and overcomes the metered pressure force and this moves the metering valve
down, opening it‘s interior to the hydraulic pressure line until the metered pressure balances
the downward force on the metering valve. The metering valve continually modulates to
compensate for metered pressure bleed to return.

If the pilot moves the control column, he has to force the hydraulic feel piston up into the
cylinder and in so doing overcome the hydraulic force acting on the piston. The force exerted
by the pilot is transferred to the relief valve which opens slightly against Pilot pressure acting
downwards on it and allows hydraulic fluid to bleed to return.

The feel computer also incorporates a load relieving trim system by connecting the
horizontal stabilizer to the relief valve via the stabilizer position cam and the bellows.
Operation of the elevators places a stick force on the pilot‘s controls which needs to be
removed once control movement has been completed. To remove this stick force the pilot
trims the variable incidence stabilizer until the stick force is cancelled and the elevator
returns to the neutral position.

Subject Code Subject Name Page

68243 Aircraft Hydraulic and flight control
Only for training purpose
 AERONAUTICAL INSTITUTE OF BANGLADESH (AIB)

11.9.8.3 YAW DAMPER

Yaw damping is provided on some aircraft to improve the directional stability and turn co-
ordination. When the aircraft yaws due to side air-loads, a hydraulic yaw damper actuator
automatically compensates by generating rudder control inputs. The following notes describe
a typical yaw damper system.

Yaw control
Yaw control is provided by a single piece rudder actuated by three independently supplied
hydraulic servo-jacks. They are signaled via interconnected pedals by a single cable run up
to a spring loaded artificial feel unit connected to the trim screw-jacks. The commands are
transmitted by a single load path linkage fitted with a centering spring device. This holds the
servo-jack inputs in the neutral position should disconnect occur. Rudder travel is limited as
a function of air speed (CAS).

Figure 11.9-46: Airbus A320 Yaw control rudder system

Orders are delivered by the flight augmentation computer (FAC) controlling electric motors
coupled to a variable mechanical stop, as illustrated in the picture below.

Yaw dampening is operative throughout the whole flight envelope. Yaw damper commands
are transmitted via a differential unit. Yaw stability augmentation orders are delivered by the
FACS.

Artificial feel is provided by a spring rod, the zero force position of which is controlled by an.
electrical trim actuator. An automatic reset function initiated by pressing the RESET
pushbutton allows the rudder trim position to be nulled through the FACS. Rudder trim
position is displayed on an indicator adjacent to the trim switch.

11.9.8.4 MACH TRIM

Modern transport aircraft are designed to cruise at high Mach numbers, close to, or at the
speed where shock waves may form on the wing. This is their "critical Mach number". At this

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68243 Aircraft Hydraulic and flight control
Only for training purpose
 AERONAUTICAL INSTITUTE OF BANGLADESH (AIB)

aircraft speed the formation of the shock waves causes shock induced separation and a
movement of the center of pressure forward. This produces a pitch up which must be
countered.

The Mach Trim System is provided to automatically maintain the correct aircraft pitch trim
angle in relation to speed by varying the tail-plane trim. In achieving this function, the system
maintains the same degree of longitudinal stability throughout the operational speed range of
the aircraft.

Figure 11.9-47: Tail plane operating mechanism

Typical Mach Trim system:

The Mach trim system operates within the range from 0.68 IMN (Indicated Mach Number) to
0.84 IMN when the aircraft is above 9000 ft.

The system operates in passive mode when the aircraft is flown with the auto-pilot engaged,
but becomes active if the autopilot is disengaged.

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68243 Aircraft Hydraulic and flight control
Only for training purpose
 AERONAUTICAL INSTITUTE OF BANGLADESH (AIB)

Figure 11.9-48: Typical Mach Trim System

A Mach trim activity light on the pilot's instrument panel flashes intermittently to indicate that
a trimming demand exists. Illumination of the light for a sustained period indicates a runaway
or seized actuator. A Mach trim ON/OFF switch located in the cockpit permits a faulty
system to be isolated.

Controller
The controller is supplied with height and speed inputs from the aircraft pitot static system.
The inputs are used to generate control signals that determine the direction and rate of
rotation of the Mach trim actuator. The controller also provides the 28 volts DC output to
energize the clutch and connect the Mach trim actuator to the tail-plane trim system.

Mach Trim actuator

The actuator is located in the center pedestal in the cockpit, and is connected by a chain
drive to the manual tail-plane trim hand-wheels cross-shaft. A solenoid operated clutch
connects the Mach trim actuator to the drive system. The tail-plane auto-trim actuator
operated by the auto-pilot system is also attached to the Mach trim actuator. The control
system ensures that only one actuator can be engaged at a time.

Operation
With the system selected ON and the auto-pilot disengaged, the Mach trim actuator is
clutched to the tail trim mechanism as soon as the aircraft power supplies are switched on.
The system becomes active as soon as the aircraft flies above 9000 feet and its speed is
within the Mach number range 0.68 IMN to 0.84 IMN.

Subject Code Subject Name Page

68243 Aircraft Hydraulic and flight control
Only for training purpose
 AERONAUTICAL INSTITUTE OF BANGLADESH (AIB)

If the manual tail-plane trim hand-wheels are operated, the Mach trim actuator is declutched
to permit the tail-plane incidence to be changed and the clutch re-engaged when the trim
hand-wheels are released.

11.9.8.5 RUDDER LIMITER

At slow speeds the pilot is able to utilize the full movement of the rudder to enable maximum
control of the aircraft during landing and take-off. As airspeed increases, the same full
movement of the control surfaces would have a much more dramatic aerodynamic effect.
Structural damage could occur if the controls were moved the same amount as at low speed.

The artificial feel systems previously discussed how feel is incorporated into the controls.
Rudder limiting restricts the maximum movement of the rudder as airspeed increases. A
typical system is described here.

‘Q’ LIMITER
The rudder 'Q pot restricts movement as airspeed increases by extending the stepped stop,
which restricts movement of the clawed stop. The clawed stop is connected by rod to one
end of the inner level in the trim unit that restricts the movement of the input lever.
The stepped stop is extended by operation of the rudder 'Q' pot. The 'Q' pot assembly
comprises a cylinder assembly, a sealed piston bolted to a spring-loaded piston rod. The
sealed piston divides the 'Q' pot into two sealed chambers No.1 pitot static and No.2 pitot
pressure. These chambers are supplied from the 'Q' pot pitot head located on the lower left-
hand nose fuselage.

As pressure from the pitot head rises in chamber No.2, the piston moves, compressing the
spring and extending the piston rod and consequently the stepped stop into the clawed stop.

A micro switch is mounted on the 'Q' pot and is operated by a cam on the stop in the
extended position.

11.9.8.6 GUST LOCKS

A gust lock on an aircraft is a mechanism that locks control surfaces in place preventing
random movement and possible damage of the surface from wind while parked. Gust locks
may be internal or external.

A cam on the control quadrant shaft engages a spring-loaded roller for the purpose of
centering and neutralizing the controls with the hydraulic system off (aircraft parked).
Pressure is trapped in the actuators and since the controls are neutralized by the cam and
roller, no movement of the control surfaces is permitted.
Various types of devices are in use to lock the control surfaces when the aircraft is parked or
moored. Locking devices prevent damage to the control surfaces and their linkages from
gusts and high-velocity winds. Common devices used are the:
a. Internal locking brake (sector brake) spring-loaded plunger and
b. External control surface locks.

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68243 Aircraft Hydraulic and flight control
Only for training purpose
 AERONAUTICAL INSTITUTE OF BANGLADESH (AIB)

Figure 11.9-49: Gust lock on a rudder

Internal Locking Devices

The internal locking device is used to secure the ailerons, rudder, and elevator in their
neutral positions. The locking device is usually operated through a cable system by a spring-
loaded plunger (pin) that engages a hole in the control surface mechanical linkage to lock
the surface. A spring connected to the pin forces it back to the unlock position when the
cockpit control lever is placed in the "unlock" position, an over-center toggle linkage is used
on some other type aircraft to lock the control surfaces.

Control surface locking systems are usually so designed that the throttles cannot be
advanced until the control surfaces are unlocked. This prevents taking off with the control
surfaces in the locked position.

A typical control lock for small aircraft consists of a metal tube that is installed to lock the
control wheel and rudder pedals to an attachment in the cockpit. Such a system is illustrated
in figure 11.9-50.

Figure 11.9-50: Typical control lock assembly for small aircraft Control Surface
Snubbers
Hydraulic booster units are used on some aircraft to move the control surfaces. The surfaces
are usually protected from wind gusts by snubbers incorporated into the booster unit. On
some aircraft an auxiliary snubber cylinder is connected directly to the surface to provide
protection. The snubbers hydraulically check or cushion control surface movement when the
aircraft is parked. This prevents wind gusts from slamming the control surfaces into their
'stops and possibly causing damage.

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 AERONAUTICAL INSTITUTE OF BANGLADESH (AIB)

External Control Surface Locks

External control surface locks are in the form of channeled wood blocks. The channeled
wood blocks slide into the openings between the ends of the movable surfaces and the
aircraft structure. This locks the surfaces in neutral. When not in use, these locks are stowed
within the aircraft.

Tension Regulators
Cable tension regulators are used in some flight control systems because there is
considerable difference in temperature expansion of the aluminum air- craft structure and the
steel control cables. Some large aircraft incorporate tension regulators in the control cable
systems to automatically maintain a given cable tension. The unit consists of a compression
spring and a locking mechanism which allows the spring to make correction in the system
only when the cable system is in neutral.

11.9.9 Balancing

11.9.9.1 PRINCIPAL OF BALANCING OR RE-BALANCING

The principles that are essential in the balancing or re-balancing of the control surfaces are
not too difficult to understand if some simple comparison is used For example; a seesaw that
is out of balance may be compared to a control surface that does not have balance weights
installed, as in figure 11.9-51. From this illustration, it is easy to understand how a control
surface is naturally tail (trailing edge) heavy.

Figure 11.9-51: Unbalanced and Balanced condition

It is this out-of-balance condition that can cause a damaging flutter or buffeting of an aircraft
and therefore must be eliminated. This is best accomplished by adding weights either inside
or on the leading edge of the tabs, ailerons, or in the proper location on the balance panels.
When this is clone properly, a balanced condition exists and can be compared to the seesaw
with a child sitting on the short end of the plank.
The effects of moments on control surfaces can be easily understood by a closer
observation and study of a seesaw and two children of different weights seated in different
positions thereon. Figure 11.9-52 illustrates a seesaw with an 80-1b child seated at a
distance of 6 ft. from the fulcrum point of the seesaw. The weight of the child tends to rotate
the seesaw in a clockwise direction until it touches the ground. To bring the seesaw into a

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 AERONAUTICAL INSTITUTE OF BANGLADESH (AIB)

level or balanced condition, a child is placed on the opposite end of the seesaw. The child
must be placed at a point equal to the moment of the child on the left side of the seesaw.

Figure 11.9-52: Moments.

Assume that the child is placed a distance of 8 ft. to the right of the fulcrum point. A simple
formula can be used to determine the exact weight that the child must have to balance or
bring the seesaw into a leveled condition.

To produce a balanced condition of the seesaw (or control surface), the counterclockwise
moment must equal the clockwise moment. Moment is found by multiplying weight time‘s
distance. Therefore, the formula to balance the seesaw is:
W2 X D2 = W1 X D1

Where:
W2: unknown weight of the second child.
D2: distance (in feet) from the fulcrum that the second child is seated (8).
W1: weight of the first child (80 lbs.).
D1: distance (in feet) from the fulcrum that the first child is seated (6).

Finding the weight of the second child is now a simple matter of substitution and solving the
for-mula as follows:
W2 X D2 = W1 X D1 or Ws X 8 = 80 lbs. X 6 or W2 = 480 lbs/8 Therefore W2 = 60 lbs

So the weight of the second child would have to be 60 lbs. To prove the formula:
60 lbs. X 8 ft. =80 lbs. X 6 ft. or 480 ft. lbs. = 480 ft. lbs.

This would result in a balanced condition of the seesaw since the counterclockwise moments
around the fulcrum are equal to the clockwise moments around the fulcrum.
The same effect is obtained in a control surface by the addition of weight. Since most of the
repairs to control surfaces are aft of the hinge center line, resulting in a trailing-edge-heavy
condition, the weight is added forward of the hinge center line. The correct re-balance weight
must be calculated and installed in the proper position.

11.9.9.2 Re-balancing of Movable Surfaces

The material in this section is presented for familiarization purposes only, and should not be
used when re-balancing a control surface. Explicit instructions for the balancing of control
surfaces are given in the service and overhaul manuals for the specific aircraft and must be
followed closely.

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 AERONAUTICAL INSTITUTE OF BANGLADESH (AIB)

Any time repairs on a control surface add weight fore or aft of the binge center line, the
control surface must be re-balanced. Any control surface that is out of balance will be
unstable and will not remain in a streamlined position during normal flight. For example, an
aileron that is trailing-edge heavy will move down when the wing deflects upward, and up
when the wing deflects downward. Such a condition can cause unexpected and violent
maneuvers of the aircraft. In extreme cases, fluttering and buffeting may develop to a degree
that could cause the complete loss of the aircraft.

Re-balancing a control surface concerns both static and dynamic balance. A control surface
that is statically balanced will also be dynamically balanced.

11.9.9.3 STATIC BALANCE

Static balance is the tendency of an object to remain stationary when supported from its own
center of gravity. There are two ways in which a control surface may be out of static balance.
They are called under balance and overbalance.

When a control surface is mounted on a balance stand, a downward travel of the trailing
edge below the horizontal position indicates under balance. Some manufacturers indicate
this condition with a plus (+) sign. Figure 11.9-53A illustrates the under- balance condition of
a control surface.

Figure 11.9-53: Control surface static balances

An upward movement of the trailing edge, above the horizontal position (figure 11.9-53B),
indicates overbalance. This is designated by a minus (—) sign. These signs show the need
for more or less weight in the correct area to achieve a balanced control surface as shown in
figure 11.9-53C.

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68243 Aircraft Hydraulic and flight control
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 AERONAUTICAL INSTITUTE OF BANGLADESH (AIB)

A tail-heavy condition (static under balance) causes undesirable flight performance and is
not usually allowed. Better flight operations are gained by nose heaviness static
overbalance. Most manufacturers advocate the existence of nose heavy control surfaces.

11.9.9.4 DYNAMIC BALANCE

Dynamic balance is that condition in a rotating body wherein all rotating forces are balanced
within themselves so that no vibration is produced while the body is in motion. Dynamic
balance as related to control surfaces is an effort to maintain balance when the control
surface is submitted to movement on the aircraft in flight. It involves the placing of weights in
the correct location along the span of the surfaces. The location of the weights will, in most
cases, be forward of the hinge center line.

11.9.9.5 RE-BALANCING PROCEDURES

a. Requirements
Repairs to a control surface or its tabs generally increase the weight aft of the hinge center
line, requiring static re-balancing of the control surface system as well as the tabs. Control
surfaces to be rebalanced should be removed from the aircraft and supported, from their
own points, on a suitable stand, jig, or fixture (Figure 11.9-54).

Figure 11.9-54: Field type balancing jigs

Trim tabs on the surface should be secured in the neutral position when the control surface
is mounted on the stand. The stand must be level and be located in an area free of air
currents. The control surface must be permitted to rotate freely about the hinge points
without binding. Balance condition is determined by the behavior of the trailing edge when

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 AERONAUTICAL INSTITUTE OF BANGLADESH (AIB)

the surface is suspended from its hinge points. Any excessive friction would result in a false
reaction as to the overbalance or under balance of the surface.

When installing the control surface in the stand or jig, a neutral position should be
established with the chord line of the surface in a horizontal position (figure 11.9-54). Use a
bubble protractor to determine the neutral position before continuing balancing procedures.
Sometimes a visual check is all that is needed to determine whether the surface is balanced
or unbalanced.

Figure 11.9-55: Establishing a neutral position

Any trim tabs or other assemblies that are to remain on the surface during balancing
procedures should be in place. If any assemblies or parts must be removed before
balancing, they should be removed.

b. Methods
At the present time, four methods of balancing (re-balancing) control surfaces are in use by
the various manufacturers of aircraft. The four methods are commonly called the
i) Calculation method
ii) Scale method,
iii) Trial weight (trial and error) method and
iv) Component method.

The calculation method of balancing a control surface is directly related to the principles of
bal-ancing discussed previously. It has one advantage over the other methods in that it can
be performed without removing the surface from the aircraft.

In using the calculation method, the weight of the material from the repair area and the
weight of the materials used to accomplish the repair must be known. Subtracting the weight
removed from the weight added will give the resulting net gain in the mount added to the
surface.

The distance from the hinge center line to the center of the repair area is then measured in
inches. This distance must be determined to the nearest one-hundredth of an inch (figure
11.9-56).

The next step is to multiply the distance times the net weight of the repair. This will result in
an in.-lbs. (inch-pounds) answer. If the in.Ibs result of the calculations is within specified
tolerances, the control surface will be considered balanced. If it is not within specified limits,
consult the manufacturer's service manuals for the needed weights, material to use for
weights, design for manufacture, and installation locations for addition of the weights.

Subject Code Subject Name Page

68243 Aircraft Hydraulic and flight control
Only for training purpose
 AERONAUTICAL INSTITUTE OF BANGLADESH (AIB)

Figure 11.9-56: Calculation method measurements.

The scale method of balancing a control surface requires the use of a scale that is graduated
in hundredths of a pound. A support stand and balancing jigs for the surface are also
required.

Figure 11.9-57: Balancing setup

Figure 11.9-57 illustrates a control surface mounted for re- balancing purposes. Use of the
scale method requires the removal of the control surface from the aircraft.

Subject Code Subject Name Page

68243 Aircraft Hydraulic and flight control
Only for training purpose
 AERONAUTICAL INSTITUTE OF BANGLADESH (AIB)

11.9.10 Aircraft rigging

Control surfaces should move a certain distance in either direction from the neutral position.
These movements must be synchronized with the movement of the cockpit controls. The
flight control system must be adjusted (rigged) to obtain these requirements.

Generally speaking, the rigging consists of the following:

a. Positioning the flight control system in neutral and temporarily locking it there with rig pins
or blocks and
b. Adjusting surface travel, system cable tension, linkages, and adjustable stops to the
aircraft manufacturer's specifications.
c. When rigging flight control systems, certain items of rigging equipment are needed.
Primarily, this equipment consists of tensiometers, cable rigging tension charts, protractors,
rigging fixtures, contour templates, and rulers.

i) Measuring Cable Tension

To determine the amount of tension on a cable, a tensiometer is used. When properly
maintained, a tensiometer is 99% accurate. Cable tension is determined by measuring the
amount of force needed to make an offset in the cable between two hardened steel blocks,
called anvils. A riser or plunger is pressed against the cable to form the offset. Several
manufacturers make a variety of tensiometers, each type designed for different kinds of
cable, cable sizes, and cable tensions.

One type of tensiometer is illustrated in figure 11.9-58. With the trigger lowered, place the
cable to be tested under the two anvils. Then close the trigger (move it up). Movement of the
trigger pushes up the riser, which pushes the cable at right angles to the two clamping points
under the anvils. The force that is required to do this is indicated by the dial pointer. As the
sample chart beneath the illustration shows, different numbered risers are used with different
size cables. Each riser has an identifying number and is easily inserted into the tensiometer.

In addition, each tensiometer has a calibration table (figure 11.9-58) which is used to convert
the dial reading to pounds. (The calibration table is very similar to the sample chart shown
below the illustration.) The dial reading is converted to pounds of tension as follows. Using a
No. 2 riser (figure 11.9-58) to measure the tension of a 5/32-in. diameter cable a reading of
"30" is obtained. The actual tension (see calibration table) of the cable is 70 lbs. Observing
the chart, also notice that a No. 1 riser is used with 1/16-, 3/32-, and 1/8-in. cable. Since the
tensiometer is not designed for use in measuring 7/32- or 1/4-in. cable, no values are shown
in the No. 3 riser column of the chart.

When taking a reading, it may be difficult to see the dial. Therefore, a pointer lock is present
on the tensiometer. Push it in to lock the pointer. Then remove the tensiometer from the
cable and observe the reading. After observing the reading, pull the lock out and the pointer
will return to zero.

To use the chart, determine the size of the cable that is to be adjusted and the ambient air
temperature. For example, assume that the cable size is 1/8-in. in diameter, that it is a 7 x 19
cable, and the ambient air temperature is 85° F. Follow the 85° F. line upward to where it
intersects the curve for 1/8-in. cable. Extend a horizontal line from the point of intersection to
the right edge of the chart. The value at this point indicates the tension (rigging load in
pounds) to establish on the cable. The tension for this example is 70 lbs.

Subject Code Subject Name Page

68243 Aircraft Hydraulic and flight control
Only for training purpose
 AERONAUTICAL INSTITUTE OF BANGLADESH (AIB)

Figure 11.9-58: Tensiometer

Cable rigging tension charts (figure 11.9-59) are graphic tools used to compensate for
temperature variations. They are used when establishing cable tensions in flight control
systems, landing gear systems, or any other cable-operated systems.

ii) Surface Travel Measurement

The tools for measuring surface travel primarily include protractors, rigging fixtures, contour
templates, and rulers. These tools are used when rigging flight control systems to assure
that the desired travel has been obtained.

Protractors are tools for measuring angles in degrees. Various types of protractors are used
to determine the travel of flight control surfaces. One protractor that can be used to measure
aileron, elevator, or wing flap travel is the universal propeller protractor. Notice that this
protractor (figure 11.9-60) is made up of a frame, a disk, a ring, and two spirit levels. The
disk and ring turn independently of each other and of the frame. (The corner spirit level is
used to position the frame vertically when measuring propeller blade angle.)

Subject Code Subject Name Page

68243 Aircraft Hydraulic and flight control
Only for training purpose
 AERONAUTICAL INSTITUTE OF BANGLADESH (AIB)

Figure 11.9-59: Typical cable rigging chart

The center spirit level is used to position the disk when measuring control surface travel. A
disk-to-ring lock is provided to secure the disk and ring together when the zero on the ring
vernier scale and the zero on the disk degree scale align. The ring-to-frame lock prevents
the ring from moving when the disk is moved. Note that they start at the same point and
advance in opposite directions. A double 10-part vernier is marked on the ring.
The procedure to use for operating the protractor to measure control surface travel is shown
at the bottom of figure 11.9-60.

iii) Rigging Fixtures and Contour Templates

Rigging fixtures and templates are special tools (gages) designed by the manufacturer to
measure control surface travel. Markings on the fixture or template indicate desired control
surface travel.

iv) Rulers
In many instances the aircraft manufacturer gives the travel of a particular control surface in
degrees and inches. If the travel in inches is provided, a ruler can be used to measure
surface travel in inches.

Subject Code Subject Name Page

68243 Aircraft Hydraulic and flight control
Only for training purpose
 AERONAUTICAL INSTITUTE OF BANGLADESH (AIB)

Figure 11.9-60: Using the universal propeller protractor to measure control surface
travel.

11.9.10.1 RIGGING CHECKS

The purpose of this section is to explain the methods of checking the relative alignment and
ad-justment of an aircraft's main structural components. It is not intended to imply that the
prose- duxes are exactly as they may be in a particular aircraft. When rigging an aircraft,
always follow the procedures and methods specified by the aircraft manufacturer.
The position or angle of the main structural components is related to a longitudinal datum
line parallel to the aircraft center line and a lateral datum line parallel to a line joining the
wing tips. Before checking the position or angle of the main components, the aircraft should
be leveled.

Small aircraft usually have fixed pegs or blocks attached to the fuselage parallel to or
coincident with the datum lines. A spirit level and a straight edge are rested across the pegs
or blocks to check the level of the aircraft. This method of checking aircraft level also applies

Subject Code Subject Name Page

68243 Aircraft Hydraulic and flight control
Only for training purpose
 AERONAUTICAL INSTITUTE OF BANGLADESH (AIB)

to many of the larger types of aircraft. However, the grid method is sometimes used on large
aircraft. The grid plate (figure 11.9-61) is a permanent fixture installed on the aircraft floor or
supporting structure. When the aircraft is to be leveled, a. plumb bob is suspended from a
predetermined position in the ceiling of the aircraft over the grid plate. The adjustments to
the jacks necessary to level the aircraft are indicated on the grid scale. The aircraft is level
when the plumb bob is suspended over the center point of the grid.

Figure 11.9-61: Typical grid plates

Certain precautions must be observed in all instances. Normally, rigging and alignment
checks should not be undertaken in the open. If this cannot be avoided, the aircraft should
be positioned with the nose into the wind.

The weight and loading of the aircraft should be exactly as described in the manufacturer's
manual. In all cases, the aircraft should not be jacked until it is ensured that the maximum
jacking weight (if any) specified by the manufacturer is not exceeded.

With a few exceptions, the dihedral and incidence angles of conventional modern aircraft
cannot be adjusted. Some manufacturers permit adjusting the wing angle of incidence to
correct for a wing-heavy condition. The dihedral and incidence angles should be checked
after hard landings or after experiencing abnormal flight loads to ensure that the components
are not distorted and that the angles are within the specified limits.

There are several methods for checking structural alignment and rigging angles. Special
rigging boards which incorporate, or on which can be placed, a special instrument (spirit
level or clinometers) for determining the angle are used on some aircraft. On a number of
aircraft the alignment is checked using a transit and plumb bobs or a theodolite and sighting
rods. The particular equipment to use is usually specified in the manufacturer's manuals.

When checking alignment, a suitable sequence should be developed and followed to be

certain that the checks are made at all the positions specified.

Subject Code Subject Name Page

68243 Aircraft Hydraulic and flight control
Only for training purpose
 AERONAUTICAL INSTITUTE OF BANGLADESH (AIB)

The alignment checks specified usually include:

a. Wing dihedral angle
b. Wing incidence angle
c. Engine alignment
d. Horizontal stabilizer incidence
e. Horizontal stabilizer dihedral
f. Verticality of the fin
g. A symmetry check

i) Checking Dihedral
The dihedral angle should be checked in the specified positions using the special boards
provided by the aircraft manufacturer. If no such boards are available, a straight edge and a
clinometer can be used. The methods for checking dihedral are shown in figure 11.9-58.

It is important that the dihedral be checked at the positions specified by the manufacturer.
Certain portions of the wings or horizontal stabilizer may sometimes be horizontal or, on rare
occasions, anhedral angles may be present.

Figure 11.9-62: Checking dihedrals

Figure 11.9-63: A typical incidence board

ii) Checking Incidence

Incidence is usually checked in at least two specified positions on the surface of the wing to
ensure that the wing is free from twist. A variety of incidence boards are used to check the
incidence angle. Some have stops at the forward edge which must be placed in contact with
the leading edge of the wing. Others are equipped with location pegs which fit into some

Subject Code Subject Name Page

68243 Aircraft Hydraulic and flight control
Only for training purpose
 AERONAUTICAL INSTITUTE OF BANGLADESH (AIB)

specified part of the structure. The purpose in either case is to ensure that the board is fitted
in exactly the position intended. In most instances, the boards are kept clear of the wing
contour by short extensions attached to the board. A typical incidence board is shown in
figure 11.9-64.

When used, the board is placed at the specified locations on the surface being checked. If
the incidence angle is correct, a clinometer on top of the board will read zero, or within a
specified tolerance of zero. Modifications to the areas where incidence boards are located
can affect the reading. For example, if leading-edge deicer boots have been installed, this
will affect the position taken by a board having a leading edge stop.

iii) Checking Fin Verticality

After the rigging of the horizontal stabilizer has been checked, the verticality of the vertical
stabilizer relative to the lateral datum can be checked. The measurements are taken from a
given point on either side of the top of the fin to a given point on the left and right horizontal
stabilizers (figure 11.9-64). The measurements should be similar within prescribed limits.
When it is necessary to check the alignment of the rudder hinges, remove the rudder and
pass a plumb bob line through the rudder hinge attachment holes. The line should pass
centrally through all the holes. It should be noted that some aircraft have the leading edge of
the vertical fin offset to the longitudinal center line to counteract engine torque.

Figure 11.9-64: Checking fin verticality

iv) Checking Engine Alignment

Engines are usually mounted with the thrust line parallel to the horizontal longitudinal plane
of symmetry. However, this is not always true when the engines are mounted on the wings.
Checking to ensure that the position of the engines, including any degree of offset, is correct
depends largely on the type of mounting. Generally, the check entails a measurement from
the center line of the mounting to the longitudinal center line of the fuselage at the point
specified in the applicable manual.

v) Symmetry Check
The principle of a typical symmetry check is illustrated in figure 11.9-65. The precise figures,
tolerances and checkpoints for a particular aircraft will be found in the applicable service or
maintenance manual.

On small aircraft the measurements between points are usually taken using a steel tape.
When measuring long distances, it is suggested that a spring scale be used with the tape to
obtain equal tension. A 5-lb. pull is usually sufficient.
Where large aircraft are concerned, the positions where the dimensions are to be taken are
usually chalked on the floor. This is done by suspending a plumb bob from the checkpoints,

Subject Code Subject Name Page

68243 Aircraft Hydraulic and flight control
Only for training purpose
 AERONAUTICAL INSTITUTE OF BANGLADESH (AIB)

and marking the floor immediately under the point of each plumb bob. The measurements
are then taken between the centers of each marking.

Figure 11.9-65: A typical method of checking aircraft symmetry

In order for a control system to function properly, it must be correctly adjusted. Correctly
rigged control surfaces will move through a prescribed arc (surface-throw) and be
synchronized with the movement of the cockpit controls.
Rigging any system requires that the step-by-step procedures be followed as outlined in the
aircraft maintenance manual. Although the complete rigging procedure for most aircraft is of
a detailed nature that requires several adjustments, the basic method follows three steps:
a. Lock the cockpit control, bellcranks, and the control surfaces in the neutral position.
b. Adjust the cable tension, maintaining the rudder, elevators, or ailerons in the neutral
position.
c. Adjust the control stops to limit the control surface travel to the dimensions given for the
aircraft being rigged.

The range of movement of the controls and control surfaces should be checked in both
directions from neutral.

The rigging of the trim tab systems is performed in a similar manner. The trim tab control is
set to the neutral (no trim) position, and the surface tab is usually adjusted to streamline with
the control surface. However, on some aircraft the trim tabs may be offset a degree or two

Subject Code Subject Name Page

68243 Aircraft Hydraulic and flight control
Only for training purpose
 AERONAUTICAL INSTITUTE OF BANGLADESH (AIB)

from streamline when in the "neutral" position. After the tab and tab control are in the neutral
position, adjust the control cable tension.

Pins, usually called rig pins, are sometimes used to simplify the setting of pulleys, levers, bell
cranks, etc., in their neutral positions. A rig pin is a small metallic pin or clip. When rig pins
any not provided, the neutral positions can be established by means of alignment marks, by
special templates, or by taking linear measurements.
If the final alignment and adjustment of a system are correct, it should be possible to
withdraw the rigging pins easily. Any undue tightness of the pins in the rigging holes
indicates incorrect tensioning or misalignment of the system.

After a system has been adjusted, the full and synchronized movement of the controls
should be checked. When checking the range of movement of the control surface, the
controls must be operated from the cockpit and not by moving the control surfaces. During
the checking of control surface travel, ensure that chains, cables, etc., have not reached the
limit of their travel when the controls are against their respective stops. Where dual controls
are installed, they must be synchronized and function satisfactorily when operated from both
positions.

Trim tabs and other tabs should be checked in a manner similar to the main control surfaces.
The tab position indicator must be checked to see that it functions correctly. If jackscrews
are used to actuate the trim tab, check to see that they are not extended beyond the
specified limits when the tab is in its extreme positions.

After determining that the control system functions properly and is correctly rigged, it should
be thoroughly inspected to determine that the system is correctly assembled, and will
operate freely over the specified range of movement. Make certain that all turnbuckles, rod
ends, and attaching nuts and bolts are correctly safe tied.

11.9.11 Stall Warning Systems

11.9.11.1 PNEUMATIC STALL WARNING SYSTEM

This system is common on light aircraft. In this system a plenum chamber is mounted in the
wing leading edge. This is covered and sealed by an adjustable plate that acts as part of the
leading edge. The plate is adjusted so that in normal flight attitude a slot in the plate
coincides with the stagnation point of the wing. The plenum chamber is connected by tube to
a horn/reed assembly in the cabin.

As the angle of attack is increased the slot in the adjustable plate effectively moves up from
the stagnation point into an area of progressively lower air pressure. The slot is so
positioned that it reaches a low pressure area sufficient to draw air through the horn/reed
assembly which will emit a noise and alert the pilot to an impending stall.

Subject Code Subject Name Page

68243 Aircraft Hydraulic and flight control
Only for training purpose
 AERONAUTICAL INSTITUTE OF BANGLADESH (AIB)

Figure 11.9-66: Small aircraft- Pneumatic stall warning system

11.9.11.2 ELECTRIC STALL WARNING SYSTEM

This is typical of a system fitted to larger aircraft. This is a simple system that employs a
micro-switch (transducer), operated by a vane. The transducer is mounted in the wing
leading edge such that the operating vane is at the stagnation point during normal flight.
Therefore no air-loads are imposed on the vane and it is not deflected from its null position.

As the aircraft angle of attack increases the transducer operating vane effectively moves up
and away from the stagnation point. The air-loads on the vane will increase until at a set
angle of attack they overcome a spring pressure to deflect the vane and close the micro-
switch contacts. This completes a circuit to illuminate a warning light and sound a warning
horn. This should occur just prior to reaching the stall.

These systems are found on relatively simple or small aircraft. Larger and more complex
aircraft generally require a more sophisticated system that will do more than just warn of
impending stall. This is termed a stall protection system.

11.9.12 Stall Protection System

11.9.12.1 SYSTEM FUNCTIONS

a. Stall Warning - As with the previous system this tells the pilot that he is approaching a stall
condition.
b. Stall Identification - This detects an imminent stall and automatically takes action to
prevent the stall occurring, i.e. the stick is automatically pushed forward by the system. This
may be achieved by a hydraulic or pneumatic jack acting on the elevator control system.
c. Auto Ignition - In some aircraft, particularly rear engine aircraft, disturbed airflow entering
the intakes may cause the engines to flame out near or at the stall. To prevent this an auto
ignition circuit may be initiated on a stall warning/identification condition to prevent this.
Flap/Slat/Krueger Flap Modulation - As flap, slat and Krueger flap position affect the stall

Subject Code Subject Name Page

68243 Aircraft Hydraulic and flight control
Only for training purpose
 AERONAUTICAL INSTITUTE OF BANGLADESH (AIB)

angle the stall protection system may include the monitoring of their position and delay the
initiation of stall warning.

Figure 11.9-67: Electric Stall Warning System

11.9.12.2 TYPICAL SYSTEM COMPONENTS

a. Stall Warning Sensors - There are several designs in use. They may be mounted on the
main-planes or side of the fuselage. They are normally duplicated, each providing a signal to
a duplicated system.
b. Stall Warning Computer - Receives signals from the sensors and initiates warnings or
control movements.
c. Stick Shaker - The Main stall warning device. An electrically driven, out of balance rotor
which shakes the control column when a stall warning condition is detected.
d. Stick Pusher - A hydraulic or pneumatic ram which pushes the control column forward
when a stall identification condition is sensed. It may usually be over-ridden by higher than
normal pilot force.
e. Ground/Flight Sensing - To prevent unwanted operation of the system on the ground a
circuit through the landing gear weight switches disarms the stall protection system on the
ground.
f. Test - A pre-flight test facility is built into the system.
g. Mach Sensing - Speeds over the aircraft critical Mach number may cause high speed stall
or flame out. To prevent this, an input to the computer from Mach switches or the air data
computer may be included to give a stall warning at high Mach numbers.

Subject Code Subject Name Page

68243 Aircraft Hydraulic and flight control
Only for training purpose
 AERONAUTICAL INSTITUTE OF BANGLADESH (AIB)

11.9.13 Actual Stall protection system

The following is the description of an actual system used on a large passenger aircraft.
The stall protection system provides the following during the various phases of approach to
the stall:
a. Automatic ignition on all four engines.
b. Stall warning by the operation of a stick shaker on each control column.
c. Stall identification by the sounding of a klaxon for each system, allowed by operation of a
ram to move the control columns forward.

11.9.13.1 INCIDENCE PROBES

Four slotted conical probes, are mounted, two on either side of the forward fuselage, and
project into the air stream. Each probe can rotate about its own axis through 50º in pitch, 4º
of which are above fuselage datum. The probe detects the direction of airflow and transmits
to the computer unit a voltage, picked off from potentiometers, proportional to the angle
between the airflow and the fuselage datum.

When the aircraft angle of incidence is steady, pressure acts equally on the two probe slots,
but as the angle of incidence changes, differential pressures are set up which, applied to the
opposite sides of a paddle wheel, cause the wheel to rotate the probe until the pressures are
again equal, i.e. the direction of flow bisects the angle between the slots.

Figure 11.9-68: Ferranti Probe Stall Warning System

Ice protection for the probes is provided by heaters supplied from the No 1 and No 2
essential 28 volt dc supply. The left probe heaters are controlled by the first pilot's pressure
head heater switch and the right probe heaters by the No 2 autopilot pressure head heater
switch.

The heater supplies are monitored by separate ammeters on the engineer's engine panel.
When the aircraft is on the ground the current is limited by a resistor in series with the power
supply.

11.9.13.2 NITROGEN SYSTEM

Nitrogen is stored at 1,500 psi in a reservoir. Nitrogen is piped via a stop valve to a pressure
reducing valve and non-return valve to a low pressure reservoir. Gauges monitoring the high

Subject Code Subject Name Page

68243 Aircraft Hydraulic and flight control
Only for training purpose
 AERONAUTICAL INSTITUTE OF BANGLADESH (AIB)

and low pressure are on the right sill panel and forward roof panel respectively. A relief valve
in the low pressure line vents at 52 psi. to prevent too great a pressure build-up in the
system.

Low pressure nitrogen is fed to solenoid valve A and from there through solenoid B to a
control ram which operates on the control column linkage. A dump valve operated from a
STALL DUMP VALVE lever on the center console is coupled to this part of the circuit, and
when the lever is set to DUMP, pressure in the line is released and prevents further
operation of the stick pusher until the lever is reset.

11.9.13.3 AUTOMATIC IGNITION

Automatic ignition is signalled from the lower two of four Ferranti-type probes located on
each side of the forward fuselage. It is switched on at a predetermined incidence, which is
modified by slat position and Mach number and remains on as long as the incidence is at or
above this value. Indication of igniter operator is shown on the engine start panel. The
system is brought into operation earlier whenever the slats are in or whenever 0.74M is
exceeded. The system, which is physically shared with, but electrically isolated from the stall
identification system, consists of two computer units, two Mach switches and two angle of
incidence probes. One of the two igniters on each engine is coupled to its associated
computer, thus providing a completely duplicated and independent system.

11.9.13.4 STALL WARNING

The stall warning function is provided by two duplicated systems, No 1 and No 2, each
containing a computer unit, a lift rate modifier, an angle of incidence probe, and a stick
shaker motor. Stall warning is signalled by the upper two of the four fuselage mounted
probes. One probe is dedicated to shaker system. The warning is signalled at a
predetermined incidence which is modified by a combination of flap position, slat position
and rate of change of incidence. It remains in operation as long as the incidence is at or
above this value.

One stick shaker is mounted on each control column and is connected to respective
computer unit and lift rate modifier, thus providing duplicated and independent indication of
stall warning.

11.9.13.5 STALL IDENTIFICATION

Stall identification is provided by two duplicated systems, No 1 and No 2, each containing a

lift rate modifier a solenoid operated valve, interlock relay and delay unit, a warning horn and
an angle of incidence probe which is shared with, but electrically isolated from, the auto-
ignition system.

Identification of a stall is signalled by the two fuselage mounted probes which signal auto-
ignition. The signal occurs at a predetermined incidence set at a level that is always above
the stall warning value. This predetermined incidence is modified by, a combination of flap
positions, slat position and rate of change of incidence. The stall, identification system
operates only if armed by a prior stall warning signal, and remains in operation as long as
the incidence is at or above the modified level. The system reverts to normal operation once
the stall warning signal is cancelled by resuming normal flight.

Subject Code Subject Name Page

68243 Aircraft Hydraulic and flight control
Only for training purpose
 AERONAUTICAL INSTITUTE OF BANGLADESH (AIB)

Figure 11.9-69: Stall Protection System

When the stick shakers operate, a priority circuit receives signals from each of the computer
units of the stall warning system. The first signal received is passed to the stall identification
interlock relays to arm the solenoid valves circuit.

The signal from the stall identification probes is fed to the appropriate computer unit, and
when the signal reaches a particular value, the unit supplies a 28 volt dc output. The value of
the signal can be changed by combinations of the flap and slat position compensation. The
signal is passed through the lift rate modifier so that a quick rate of change of the probe
angle causes an advanced signal, provided that has been preceded for 0.7 seconds by a
stick shaker signal.

The computer unit output is passed through a priority circuit to the stall identification relay in
the interlock circuit. Providing the sequence is correct, this completes the circuit to the
solenoid valves that open to allow nitrogen to the rams that extend to move the control
column forward. The warning horn in each system sounds when the respective stall warning
and stall identification computer units both signal, which is simultaneous with control column
movement.

Both solenoid operated selector valves are opened by a stall identification signal. The
opening of each valve is indicated by the associated red light on the overhead panel, and
the subsequent movement of the ram is indicated by the STALL IDENT amber light adjacent
to the airspeed indicators on each pilot's panel also coming on.

The system is pneumatically powered from an HP nitrogen bottle that feeds the stick pusher
ram through a reducing valve, an LP reservoir and the two solenoid-operated selector
valves. A gauge on the forward roof panel indicates the pressure in the low pressure
reservoir and another on the right sill panel indicates the pressure in the HP bottle. Minimum
HP pressure for flight is 500 psi. When pressure falls to 32 PSI, the LP red light on the
forward roof panel comes on.

Subject Code Subject Name Page

68243 Aircraft Hydraulic and flight control
Only for training purpose