Experiment 4: Mechanical Testing – Tensile and Torsional Testing

Objective
The primary objective of this investigation is to conduct a standard tensile test for determining the
stress-strain behavior of a material sample (mild steel or aluminum) and to analyze the results of the
tensile test to find the mechanical/material properties of the sample.

Abstract
The mechanical properties of a material are directly related to the response of the material when it's
subjected to mechanical stresses. Since characteristic phenomena or behavior occur at discrete
engineering stress and strain levels, the basic mechanical properties of a material are found by
determining the stresses and corresponding strains for various critical occurrences. A wealth of
information about a material's mechanical behavior can be determined by conducting a simple tensile
test in which a cylindrical or flat specimen of uniform cross-section is pulled until it ruptures or
fractures into separate pieces. The original cross sectional area, Ao, and gage length, lo, are measured
prior to conducting the test and the applied load and gage displacement are continuously measured
throughout the test using computer-based data acquisition. Based on the initial geometry of the
sample, the engineering stress-strain behavior (stress-strain curve) can be easily generated from which
numerous mechanical properties, such as yield strength and elastic modulus, can be determined.
Universal testing machines, which can be hydraulic or screw based, are generally utilized to apply
the test displacement/load in a continuously increasing (ramp) manner according to ASTM
specifications.

Background
The mechanical properties of a material are related its' behavior when subjected to continuously
increasing elongations up to rupture/fracture. A thorough understanding of a material's mechanical
properties is required for engineers if catastrophic failures are to be avoided. The Tensile Test is a
common standard test and is a valuable method of determining important mechanical properties of
engineering materials. The procedural details of the test vary for different material types, but tensile
tests are generally conducted at room temperature at relatively slow loading rates although various
temperatures and loading rates may be required for the determination of material behavior under
specific conditions.

The output of a standard tensile test is load versus displacement data. Since load-displacement
characteristics are dependent on specimen size, for example it will require twice the load to produce
the same elongation if the cross-sectional area of the specimen is doubled. Load-displacement data is
routinely converted to engineering stress-strain data. For axial loading, Engineering Stress, , is
defined by the well known relationship
𝑃
𝜎= 𝐴 (1)
𝑜

where, P is the instantaneous load applied perpendicular to the specimen cross section, in units of
pounds force (lbf) or Newton’s (N), and Ao is the original cross-sectional area of the specimen before
any load is applied (in2 or m2). The units of stress are generally kips per square inch (kpsi) or
megapascals (MPa). Engineering Strain, , along the loading axis of an uniaxially loaded sample is
defined according to
𝑙 −𝑙 ∆𝑙
𝜀 = 1𝑙 𝑜 = 𝑙 (2)
𝑜 𝑜
in which lo is the original length before any load is applied and li is the instantaneous length.
Engineering strain is unitless, but inches per inch or meters per meter are often used; the value of
strain is clearly independent of the units system applied. Strain may also be expressed as a percentage,
in which case the strain value is simply multiplied by 100.
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MSE 359/METE 357, Materials/Metallurgical Laboratory I, Materials Engineering Department, KNUST, Kumasi
In Tensile Testing, the test specimen is deformed, usually until complete rupture or fracture occurs,
with a gradually applied increasing tensile load that is applied uniaxially along the longitudinal axis
of the specimen. Normally the test specimen is circular, but rectangular specimens can also be used.
Each specimen is of a specific shape and dimensions that should be in accordance with ASTM
(American Society for Testing and Materials) specifications for standardization. During testing,
deformation is confined to the narrow center region which has a uniform cross section along its length.

Figure 1 - Typical Ductile Material Stress-Strain Diagram. [Flinn & Trojan, 1992]

Definitions
1. Proportional Limit (SPL) - The Proportional Limit is the maximum stress at which stress and
strain remain directly proportional. The proportional limit is determined from the stress-strain
diagram by drawing a straight-line tangent to the curve at the origin and noting the first
deviation of the curve from linearity. Because the proportional limit depends on the precision
of the measurement instrument it is not widely used in engineering calculations.

2. Elastic Limit (SEL) - The Elastic Limit is the maximum stress that the material can withstand
without causing permanent deformation. An exact determination of the elastic limit requires
loading to successively higher stresses followed by unloading and measurements to detect
permanent deformation. Its actual value is, like the proportional limit, dependent on
instrument precision. Due to this and the difficulty in its determination, its’ engineering
usefulness is limited.

3. Yield Strength (SYS) - The Yield Strength is the stress at which a material exhibits a specified
limiting permanent set. Below the elastic limit, the stress-strain relationship in loading and
unloading are identical for practical purposes. Therefore, it is not necessary to unload a
specimen in order to determine the yield strength. Rather, a line parallel to the initial straight-
line portion of the curve is constructed. The construction line is displaced from the origin of
the curve by an amount equal to the specified permanent set. The stress at the intersection of
the parallel line with the stress-strain curve is the yield strength. The offset most commonly
used is 0.2% strain or 0.002 in/in or mm/mm. The yield strength is a practical measure of the
limit of elastic action. It is always greater than the elastic limit and is only minimally sensitive
to measurement instrument precision.

4. Ultimate or Tensile Strength (SUL) - The Ultimate Strength, also referred to as the Tensile
Strength, is calculated by dividing the maximum load sustained by the specimen by the
original cross-sectional area of the specimen.

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MSE 359/METE 357, Materials/Metallurgical Laboratory I, Materials Engineering Department, KNUST, Kumasi
5. Fracture or Rupture Strength (SRU) - The Rupture Strength (ductile behavior), also referred
to as the Fracture Strength (brittle behavior), is determined by dividing the load sustained at
rupture by the original cross-sectional area of the specimen. This load will be less than the
maximum load because the cross section of the specimen is reduced drastically after the
maximum load is reached. The reduction of cross-section produced has an "Hour-Glass" shape
and is known as necking or necking down.

6. Modulus of Elasticity (E) - The Modulus of Elasticity is a measure of material stiffness and
is termed Young’s Modulus for tensile loading. The Modulus of Elasticity, E, is the constant
of proportionality between stress, , and strain, , at stresses below the proportional limit:
𝜎
𝐸 = 𝜀     
The Modulus of Elasticity is found by measuring the slope of the straight-line portion of the
stress-strain curve:
( 1   2 )
E (4)
(1   2 )

7. Modulus of Toughness (UT) - The Toughness of a material refers to the ability of the material
to absorb energy up to the point of rupture. The Modulus of Toughness is determined by
measuring the area under the stress-strain curve. This is not an exact indication of toughness
because the specimen does not strain uniformly over its length, and hence does not absorb
energy uniformly throughout its volume. The units of toughness are determined by
multiplying stress by strain.

8. Modulus of Resilience (Ur) - The Resilience of a material refers to the amount of elastic
energy, which a material can absorb. The Modulus of Resilience is determined by measuring
the area under the elastic portion of the stress-strain curve or by the expression:
2
1 SPL
UR  (5)
2 E
9. Percent Elongation (%EL) - The Percent Elongation refers to the elongation at rupture and
can be expressed as:
l 
%EL  100  (6)
lo 
Where li represents total elongation and equals = lf - lo.

10. Percent Reduction in Area (%RA) - The Reduction in Area refers to the reduction in cross-
sectional area at rupture and can be expressed as:
A 
%RA  100 f  (7)
 A o 
Where Af represents total reduction in area; Af = Ao - Af.

11. Ductility - The Ductility of a material refers to the ability of a material to deform plastically
before fracturing. Ductility is usually evaluated by considering values of Percent Elongation
or Reduction in Area.

12. True Strain* (TR) - True Strain is the change in length divided by the Instantaneous Length
and can be simply determined as:
   
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MSE 359/METE 357, Materials/Metallurgical Laboratory I, Materials Engineering Department, KNUST, Kumasi
13. True Stress* (TR) - True Stress is the applied load divided by the Instantaneous cross-
sectional Area and can be simply determined as:
  
*True Strain & True Stress should be applied when SYS of a material is exceeded.

Figure 2 - Schematic stress-strain curve illustrating the determination of the tangent and
secant moduli. [Callister, 1991].

For some materials (e.g., concrete, gray cast iron) the initial elastic portion of the stress-strain
curve is non-linear as depicted in Figure 2 where it is impractical to determine a standard
modulus of elasticity. Furthermore, the modulus of elasticity is restricted to the initial linear
portion of a standard stress-strain diagram and is invalid beyond this region. For non-linear
behavior, either the Tangent or Secant Modulus is generally utilized.

14. Tangent Modulus (ET) - The Tangent Modulus is taken as the slope of the stress-strain curve
at a specified stress level.

15. Secant Modulus (Es)- The Secant Modulus represents the slope of a secant drawn from the
origin to a point at a specified stress level of the stress-strain curve.

16. Strain Hardening - Following yielding, additional load may be applied which results in a
stress-strain curve that continuously rises up to SUL indicating that the material is becoming
stronger. When loaded beyond the yield point, ductile materials plastically deform and are
subjected to cold working; this is referred to as Strain Hardening. In this range, the material’s
elastic region increases, but its’ ductility decreases.
Strain hardening is generally modeled using the expression
   
Where N is the Strength Constant, and n is the Strain Hardening Coefficient.
Taking the logarithm of both sides:
 
TR TR) should result
in a straight line with a slope n (strain hardening exponent). The strength constant from the

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MSE 359/METE 357, Materials/Metallurgical Laboratory I, Materials Engineering Department, KNUST, Kumasi
 plastic region data is equivalent to the elastic modulus for the elastic region and has similar
units.

Alternatively, given the true stress and strain values for two data points within the plastic
region of stress-strain curve, the values can be plugged into Equation 11 generating two
equations that can be solved simultaneously for the Strength Constant (N) and the Strain
Hardening Coefficient (n).

17. Necking - When a specimen is loaded beyond its’ ultimate strength the cross-sectional area
begins to decrease in a localized region instead of over its' entire length creating a so-called
"neck" which rapidly forms in this region as the specimen elongates. Since the cross-sectional
area within this region is continually decreasing, the localized stress rapidly increases causing
further localized elongation up to rupture.

Testing Equipment
In Tensile Testing, loads are generally applied either mechanically with screw drives or hydraulically
with pressurized oil in one of the two types of readily available Universal Testing Machines. The
mechanical method of applying loads has the advantage of providing a convenient means of
accurately controlling the rate of deformation. The hydraulic systems are generally preferred because
of their higher load capacities and lower cost; furthermore, the hydraulic systems have been
significantly improved with the introduction of digital control loops thus the accuracy of hydraulic
systems are no longer vastly inferior to the mechanical systems. The general term which encompasses
both machine types is "Universal Testing Machine"; the term is used because the machine can be
adapted to test in tension, compression, flexure and bending.

The Avery hydraulic tensile testing machine available for tensile testing at the mechanical engineering
department at KNUST is a servohydraulic system where the load is applied by a hydraulic pump
which controls the flow of oil into a cylinder thereby controlling the position of the piston within the
cylinder. The cross-head can be moved between tests to accommodate specimens of various size, but
the cross-head and table are fixed during testing. The machine is digitally controlled and can be
operated in the Load, Position or Strain mode. Load, Position and/or Strain can all be simultaneously
monitored by the system regardless of the control mode. A data acquisition system has been
connected to the Instron controllers and readouts of Load from the Load Cell and Deflection (Strain)
from the Extensometer can be continuously sampled during testing. The test specimen is held in grips
which are attached to the cross-head and piston. The oil in the cylinder is controlled by means of
coarse and fine - load and unload valves. In Tensile Testing, proper grip alignment eliminates bending
loads and assures that the specimen is subjected to axial loads only. If bending loads are exerted on
the test specimen then stresses will not be uniform across the thickness.

A Load Cell is a device based on a strain-gaged beam with a mounted wheatstone bridge. The load
signals are actually strain readings calibrated to appropriate loading levels. Extensometers are devices
that specifically measure deflection. Extensometers are also strain-gauge based and electronically
transmit strain-gauge output which is calibrated based on deflection. During Tensile Testing, the Load
Cell and mounted Extensometer will send analog electronic signals to the Instron control tower; both
of these can be routinely sampled by the data acquisition system and loaded into a spreadsheet file.
The data can be retrieved, converted to stress versus strain data, and the resulting stress-strain diagram
can be easily generated. Various material properties can then be determined utilizing the resulting
stress-strain diagram.

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MSE 359/METE 357, Materials/Metallurgical Laboratory I, Materials Engineering Department, KNUST, Kumasi
Lab Procedure
1) Test a mild steel specimen on Avery Hydraulic tensile testing machine and Batty extensometer.
2) Take readings of load in ½ ton increments against extensometer reading.
3) At the yield point, remove the extensometer (to prevent damage) and take further readings of
load against extension using divider set at 0.05 increments.
4) Continue until specimen fractures.

Lab Requirements
Each lab section will be given a standard tensile test specimen composed of either a mild steel or a
low-grade aluminum alloy.
1. Determine and document the following: both the original and final dimensions of the test
specimen, the gage length of the extensometer, the loading rate, the Date, the Time, and the
person(s) who collected the data.

2. Conduct a standard tensile test collecting Load, Displacement and Strain (Extensometer) data.

3. Prior to leaving the lab session:

a. Measure and record the final dimensions of the test specimen focusing on the final
diameter at the constricted rupture.
b. Visually examine the fracture surfaces of the specimen and briefly describe the salient
features.

4. Develop a data file in a graphing or spreadsheet program (Excel, etc.) indicating the Load,
Displacement and Strain (Extensometer) data columns. Then, develop the following columns
in addition to the data columns:
 Engineering Stress
 Engineering Strain
 True Stress
 True Strain

5. Develop and present the following Plots:

 Load versus Displacement for the entire displacement range.
 Engineering Stress versus Engineering Strain for strain values from 0 to 0.006.
 Engineering Stress versus Engineering Strain for the entire strain range tested.
 True Stress versus True Strain for the entire strain range tested.

6. Determine the following for the specimen tested noting the proper units for each: 0.2% Offset
Yield Strength, Ultimate Strength, Rupture Strength, Modulus of Elasticity, Modulus of
Toughness, Modulus of Resilience, Percent Elongation, Percent Reduction in Area, Tangent
Modulus at  = 250 MPa and the Secant Modulus at  = 250 MPa.

7. Based on two suitable data points well separated from each other in the plastic region,
calculate the Strength Constant and Strain Hardening Coefficient for the tested material.

8. The usual dividing line between ductile and brittle behavior is about 5 percent elongation.
Materials having less than 5 percent elongation at rupture are said to be brittle. Was the test
specimen brittle or ductile according to this definition? Did the sample exhibit strain-
hardening behavior? Did you observe necking of the sample? Briefly explain and describe.

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MSE 359/METE 357, Materials/Metallurgical Laboratory I, Materials Engineering Department, KNUST, Kumasi
9. Briefly comment on the values obtained for the Elastic Modulus, Yield Strength, Ultimate
Strength and Toughness of the test specimen as compared to values of various comparable
materials found in the literature. Is the test material comparatively strong? Is it stiff? Is it
tough?

10. Briefly discuss the differences between the Engineering Stress versus Engineering Strain and
the True Stress versus True Strain Diagrams for the test specimen. Briefly explain why the
two plots are different. When is the use of Engineering Stress versus Engineering Strain
invalid?

Homework
1. Briefly explain how the 0.2% Offset Yield Strength is determined.
2. Why is Yield Strength generally used as a practical measure of the limit of elastic action?
3. Sketch the expected tensile stress versus strain curves for the following:
a. A ductile metal with significant plastic deformation prior to rupture.
b. A high-strength metal with minimal ductility.
c. A glass sample.
4. What is the difference between Engineering Stress and True Stress?
5. What is the difference between Toughness and Resilience?
6. When are the Tangent and/or Secant Modulus generally used?
7. What is Strain Hardening and why do ductile materials Strain Harden?
8. Why is Load versus Displacement data generally converted to Stress verses Strain data?
9. What problems do you foresee if a Universal Testing Machine is misaligned when a Tensile
Test is conducted?
10. Briefly describe the physical phenomenon that generally occurs when a ductile tensile test
sample reaches its’ ultimate strength.

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MSE 359/METE 357, Materials/Metallurgical Laboratory I, Materials Engineering Department, KNUST, Kumasi