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CHAPTER ONE

Globalization

LEARNING OUTCOMES

This chapter will enable you to:

l Explain the nature of globalization l Explain the importance of globalization for

organizations and countries
l Assess the pace and extent of globalization
l Analyse the factors inhibiting globalization
l Analyse the factors driving and facilitating
globalization
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4 GLOBAL CONTEXT

Case Study Globalization and Dell

The globalization process involves the establishment of eco- its machines in its own plants but outsources the supply of
nomic, political, social, and technological links among coun- many components such as motherboards and CD/DVD drives to
tries. This case illustrates how one company, Dell, got involved other companies and, as a result, is heavily reliant on foreign
in, and profited from, the process of globalization. It shows: suppliers like Samsung of South Korea, Infineon of Germany,
how Dell took advantage of the freeing up of cross-border Foxconn in China, the Dutch firm Phillips, Nokia in Finland, and
trade and investment to set up a global supply chain across Sony of Japan. The whole production operation from the design
five continents and to penetrate foreign markets; how it to assembly stage can involve a dozen countries. The Dell
had to adjust its products to different country contexts and Notebook illustrates the complex global nature of Dell’s supply
how its production methods have been influenced by foreign chain. The machine was designed by Dell engineers in Texas
firms. and Taiwan and assembled in Malaysia from parts made in
China, the Philippines, Germany, Singapore, Costa Rica, Israel,
India, Thailand, and Mexico.
The Company
Dell’s production system aims to minimize the number of
Dell, based in Texas, is the world’s second largest manufacturer components held in stock. It does this by applying principles of
of personal computers and has grown very fast. In the ten years lean manufacturing and just-in-time production first employed
up to 2007, sales increased from US$5 billion to US$57 billion. by Japanese manufacturers such as Toyota.
Profits are around the £3 billion mark. The company sells over
100,000 computers every day, most of them direct to the final
Selecting Locations
customer via the internet.
Dell’s decisions about where to locate are driven by the desire
to minimize costs and to extend the build-to-order, direct sales
The Global Supply Chain
model around the world. Dell has taken advantage of the reduc-
To manufacture its products, Dell coordinates a global produc- tion and removal of barriers to trade and investment to locate in
tion network that spans the five continents of North and South regions and sites that best meet its needs. Given the necessity
America, Europe, Asia, and Australasia. Dell assembles most of to have production and support capabilities in the major
markets, the company selects specific locations based on a
combination of factors including the quality of labour and its
cost—the company located in Ireland where labour cost were
less than in most other members of the EU—now it is consider-
ing locating to one of the new EU member states in Eastern
Europe, such as the Czech Republic, where workers are well-
educated but much cheaper and less strongly unionized than in
other EU countries; the quality of transport and telecommun-
ications infrastructure—its sites in Tennessee are located close
to major roads and to a Federal Express distribution centre—the
availability, quality, and cost of telecommunications bandwidth
are also factors, especially for call centres and data centres;
access and proximity to markets—Malaysia is centrally located
for markets in the Asia-Pacific region; government incentives—
Ireland offered a low corporate tax rate, support in finding land,
Source: www.dell.com building facilities, and training employees and per capita ‹
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CHAPTER ONE GLOBALIZATION 5

‹ grants for each employee; avoiding barriers such as tariffs ment is largely centralized in the USA and the same base prod-
that would make Dell’s products uncompetitive—locating in ucts are sold worldwide, Dell has to customize its products for
Brazil and China not only gave good access to the South different regional and country markets with appropriate power
American and Chinese markets but also got around tariffs that supplies, keyboards, software, and documentation.
would make Dell imported products too expensive.
As Dell moved beyond its home market in the USA, it had to Sources: Thomas Friedman (2005), The World is Flat: Brief History of
adapt its business activities and organizational structure to the the Globalized World in the 21st Century, London: Allen Lane;
different markets in which it operates. While product develop- www.dell.com; Thomson 1 Banker Analytics

Introduction
How is it that a teenager in the UK can press a key on his computer and immediately bring
chaos to Houston, the biggest US seaport? Why do bar owners in Southern Spain rub
their hands with glee when another low cost airline is set up in the UK? Why is it that
a plane crashing into a building in New York can cause hotels in London to drop their
prices or a Belgian airline to go bankrupt? Why should an outbreak of peace in the Middle
East be good news for European gas consumers, in the form of lower gas bills, but bad
news for BP and Shell shareholders? Why should a fall in the value of the US dollar lead to
higher unemployment in Germany, or the collapse of Communism cause a rise in unem-
ployment among steel workers in South Wales? How is it that a decision by an obscure
bureaucrat in Brussels causes the giant US multinational, General Electric to abandon its
US$40 billion takeover of the electronics firm, Honeywell or that an industrial dispute in
Belgium results in British workers getting more training?
These are all examples of globalization—a major theme of the book. They show that
events in one corner of the globe can have a major impact on others, sometimes good,
sometimes bad. Business operates in a world where globalization is going on at an accel-
erating rate. As globalization progresses, it confronts business with significant new
threats and opportunities in the external environment to which it has to respond.
So globalization is important for business, but what is it and why is it so important?

The Process of Globalization

Globalization involves the creation of linkages or interconnections between nations. It is
usually understood as a process in which barriers (physical, political, economic, cultural)
separating different regions of the world are reduced or removed, thereby stimulating
exchanges in goods, services, money, and people. Removal of these barriers is called
liberalization.
As these exchanges grow, nations, and the businesses involved, become increasingly
integrated and interdependent. Globalization promotes mutual reliance between coun-
tries. Globalization can have many advantages for business such as new markets, a wider
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6 GLOBAL CONTEXT

choice of suppliers for goods and services, lower prices, cheaper locations for investment,
and less costly labour. It can also carry dangers because dependence on foreign suppliers
and markets leaves businesses vulnerable to events in foreign economies and markets
outside their control.
Take the examples of Spain and Italy and their dependence on foreign countries for
their energy supplies: they illustrate how important the interlinkages brought about by
globalization can be, and what can happen when things go wrong. Since the 1980s, nat-
ural gas has become increasingly important in Spain as a source of energy. Spain itself
produces an insignificant amount of oil and coal. As a result it depends on foreign sup-
pliers for 99% of its natural gas requirements which is growing by 15% per annum. Three
quarters of its gas supply comes from three African countries, Algeria, Nigeria, and
Libya. These countries are potentially unstable both politically and economically. This
leaves Spain’s power stations and four million Spanish consumers very vulnerable to any
instability with their African suppliers (see the International Atomic Energy Authority
web site www.iaea.org; and Isbel).
Italy is dependent on cross-border supplies of electricity from Switzerland. In 2003
major sections of the Italian economy were brought to a standstill. What happened? A

Mini Case The Global Environment and Business

This case illustrates the importance of external factors for organ- pass on to customers some of the higher raw material costs in
izations. It shows how a company’s performance can depend on the form of higher prices but was facing aggressive price com-
a whole range of forces in the global environment. Factors such petition from rivals in low-wage countries. The global demand
as the state of the global economy, events in foreign currency for energy was increasing but the company was apprehensive
markets, changes in the price of oil, and the activities of foreign that growing concerns about global warming would lead to
competitors can have important effects on competitiveness, tougher regulations on carbon dioxide emissions which could
sales, costs, and profits. make their power stations uncompetitive.
Evonik is a multinational company based in Germany. It has Sales rose by 2% compared with the previous year. However,
activities in the chemicals, energy, and real estate sectors, the hike in raw material costs caused by the increased price of
operates in more than 100 countries, and is one of the world’s oil, combined with the weakness of the US dollar and competi-
largest producers of specialist chemicals. It employs around tive price pressures, left the profit margin unchanged.
40,000 workers and has a turnover of just over A14 billion.
In 2007 the company reported that the global economy was Source: Evonik Annual Report 2007
growing, but more slowly than in the previous year. The
strongest market growth was registered in China, India, and Now go to the Evonik web site (www.evonik.com), find the
Russia, while growth in the USA, Japan and the Eurozone had latest annual report and read the section entitled ‘Manage-
faltered. The high oil price, the strength of the euro, and the ment Report’. Make a list of the external forces cited there
weakness of the US dollar and the yen were having adverse and identify how they have affected the company’s recent
effects on company earnings. The company had managed to performance.
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CHAPTER ONE GLOBALIZATION 7

tree in the Swiss Alps, uprooted by a strong gust of wind, had fallen on to a power line
causing massive economic disruption. It left 57 million people in Italy without electricity.
The entire country, with the exception of the island of Sardinia, was affected. Transport
ground to a halt with tens of thousands of people left stranded on trains. Planes were
unable to take off and traffic lights ceased operating. Hospitals were forced to use emer-
gency generators, telephones and televisions went dead, and cars were unable to get out of
electronically controlled garages. Shops were reduced to accepting nothing but cash and
giving hand-written receipts because their electronic tills were not working.
Globalization also poses a threat insofar as it removes protection from domestic pro-
ducers by opening up their markets to foreign competitors. In 2005, under pressure from
domestic textile producers, the authorities in both the EU and the USA imposed restric-
tions on imports of cheap textiles from China.
Nations may also find that globalization causes them to specialize in producing those
goods and services in which they are relatively more efficient. While this could generate
benefits from economies of scale in production, it could also create dependence on a
smaller range of products, and leave their economies more vulnerable to external events.

Globalization is not Global (yet)

Globalization is something of a misnomer because most foreign trade and investment
takes place within and between the three great economic blocs:

• Western Europe dominated by EU member states;

• NAFTA comprising the USA, Canada, and Mexico; and
• Japan.

They are called the triad. Other parts of the world tend to play only a minor role. The
majority of world trade takes place either within each triad member or between the blocs.
However, most of this trade is internal i.e. NAFTA is not heavily dependent on trade with
either the EU or with Japan.
This situation is reflected in the strategies pursued by big multinational companies.
These organizations focus their strategies on the bloc where they produce. More than 90%
of cars produced in Europe are sold there and a similar situation exists in North America
(more than 85%) and Japan (more than 93%). This is also the case for steel, heavy electrical
equipment, speciality chemicals, energy, transportation, and services (Rugman 2002).
This concentration of trade in their own bloc is largely due to the size of their markets.
Globally, rich countries make up less than a fifth of the world population but consume
more than four fifths of the goods produced (World Bank 2005).
The number of countries making up the triad has changed over time. For example,
membership of the EU increased to 27 in 2007 with the entry of ten Eastern European
countries, Cyprus, and Malta. The USA is also pushing hard for the incorporation of Latin
American countries with its proposal to set up the Free Trade Area of the Americas
(FTAA).
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8 GLOBAL CONTEXT

Although the triad still accounts for over 50% of world exports and imports, its pre-
dominance is under threat from China whose share of world trade in manufacturing has
grown very rapidly. China has become the second largest trader after Germany and ahead
of the USA (World Trade Organization 2007).
The triad is also dominant in investment, but even here its position is under challenge
from emerging countries such as China and India. This aspect is dealt with in the next
section.

The Indicators of Globalization

There are three main economic and financial indicators of globalization, these are:

• international trade in goods and services

• the transfer of money capital from one country to another
• the movement of people across national borders.

Of the three, international trade and foreign investment are the most important. Each of
the three indicators will be examined in turn.

International Trade
International trade means that countries become more interconnected through the
exchange of goods and services, that is, through imports and exports. Between 1950 and
2006, world trade grew 27-fold in volume terms, three times faster than world output
growth (WTO 2007). We can conclude from this that importing and exporting is becom-
ing an ever more crucial component of global and national economic activity.
As can be seen in Figure 1.1, merchandise trade grew very quickly in the second half of
the 20th century, particularly in manufactures which increased tenfold between 1950 and
1975. While the rate of growth subsequently fell, it was still very rapid. In the 1990s, world
exports grew on average by almost 7% per annum with services exports growing even
faster than those of goods. In the six years up to 2006, trade in both goods and services
grew by about 10% on an annual basis but then growth started to tail off, slowing to
between 4 and 5% by 2008 (www.wto.org). Over the same period, developing countries
increased their share of merchandise trade to around one quarter (World Trade
Organization 2007).
Multinational companies (MNCs) are major traders and account for a large proportion
of international trade, with significant proportions accounted for by trade between sub-
sidiaries within the same company. So for example, Ford makes gearboxes in its factory
in Bordeaux and exports them to its assembly plants in other European countries.
Around one half of US manufactured exports and more than 60% of its imports flow
within MNCs. International trade has increased more rapidly than global output which
has been increasing by around 3% per annum.
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CHAPTER ONE GLOBALIZATION 9

Figure 1.1 International trade by product group

(Volume indices 1950–100) Log scale

10,000
Average annual percentage change – 1950–2006
5,000
Total exports 6.0
Manufactures 7.5
2,500 Manufactures
Mining products 4.0
Agricultural products 3.5
Fuels and mining products
1,000

500
Agricultural products
250

100
1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
Source: WTO

Learning Task

Examine Figure 1.1.

1. Compare and contrast the rates of growth of world exports of manufactures in the period between
1950 and 1975 with the period up to 2006. Try to come up with some explanations for the different
rates of growth.
2. Since the mid 1980s the growth of exports of fuels and mining materials has accelerated. What link
could there be between this growth and the rapidly expanding Chinese and Indian economies?

Some economies are particularly dependent on international trade. According to the

World Trade Organization (WTO), exports and imports together amount to more than
two thirds of China’s Gross Domestic Product (the total value of a country’s output of
goods and services), more than half for the UK, but only around one quarter for the USA
(http://stat.wto.org). Furthermore, the UK depends on customers in only two countries,
the USA and Germany, for almost a third of its exports of goods. Events in those
economies are outside the control of UK business but could have a major impact on it.
For example, a rapid and simultaneous expansion of both economies would be very
good news for sales of British manufactures but a recession, on the other hand, would
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10 GLOBAL CONTEXT

mean a significant fall in turnover and profits. Dependence is also reflected in particular
industries. For example, 65% of domestic demand for chemicals in the UK is satisfied by
foreign suppliers. At the same time, the UK chemical industry is very dependent on
foreign customers because their orders account for more than two thirds of sales (Annual
Abstract of Statistics 2004).

Financial Flows
Foreign Indirect Investment
The second main driver is the transfer of money capital across borders.
This can take two forms. The first, Foreign Indirect Investment (FII, or Portfolio Invest-
ment), occurs where money is used to purchase financial assets in another country. These
assets could comprise foreign stocks, bonds issued by governments or companies,
or even currency. Thus, UK financial institutions such as HBOS and Barclays often
purchase bonds or company shares quoted on foreign stock exchanges such as New York
or Tokyo. Purchasers buy them for the financial return they generate. This activity
has been increasing very rapidly—in the 1990s such trading was expanding at more
than 20% per annum, helping to bring about an increased integration of financial
markets. Growth faltered after the East Asian financial crisis of the late 1990s but picked
up again in the new century. The interlinkages created by FII were demonstrated in
2006 when it was estimated that foreign financial institutions held more than 10% of the
US$8 trillion in outstanding US residential mortgages in the form of mortgage-related
securities. This left them vulnerable to the downturn in the US housing market which
started in 2007 and led to a world-wide credit crunch (International Monetary Fund 2006)
(see the section on financial crises in Chapter Nine and the end of chapter case study in
Chapter Four).
Activity on the foreign exchange market is enormous. The average daily turnover
worldwide in 2001 was US$1.4 trillion with most business taking place in the main finan-
cial centres of the triad: New York, London, and Tokyo. By 2007, turnover had more than
doubled to US$3.2 trillion. Only a very small proportion of currency trading is associated
with the financing of trade in goods and services—most goes on the buying and selling of
financial assets (Bank of International Settlements 2007).

Foreign Direct Investment

The second form of capital movement is Foreign Direct Investment (FDI). FDI occurs
when a firm establishes, acquires, or increases production facilities in a foreign country.
MNCs are responsible for foreign direct investment and the massive increase that has
occurred in FDI in the last 50 years.
The distinguishing feature between FII and FDI is that MNCs not only own the physical
assets but also wish to exercise managerial control over them.
Countries can receive inflows of investment but they can also be sources of investment.
The major recipients of FDI are the developed countries, mainly because of their large
and affluent markets. In 2006, rich countries received around 60% of FDI inflows whilst
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CHAPTER ONE GLOBALIZATION 11

Figure 1.2 Inward FDI Flows US$m

1,600,000

World
1,400,000 Developed economies
Developing economies
1,200,000

1,000,000

800,000

600,000

400,000

200,000

–
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
Source: based on UNCTAD data

they accounted for the vast majority—between 80 and 90% of the outflows (UNCTAD
2007; World Bank 2008a; Figure 1.2).
FDI grew spectacularly in the 1990s but declined steeply after 2000 due to weak growth
of the world economy. The decline was halted in 2003/04. By 2006 it was once again
approaching the peak of US$1.4 trillion reached in 2000.
In 2006 rich countries received just over 60% of FDI inflows with the USA being the
most favoured location, particularly for firms from Western Europe and Asia. Developing
economies accounted for the remaining 40%—with China, Hong Kong, and Singapore
being the largest recipients (UNCTAD 2007).
FDI thus largely involves MNCs in rich countries investing in production facilities in
other rich countries. The developing countries and Eastern Europe, having smaller and
less lucrative markets, play only a minor part. Where FDI does take place in poor coun-
tries it is often to exploit natural resources such as oil or other minerals, to take advantage
of cheap labour or, sometimes, to penetrate a market. China is favoured by foreign
multinationals because labour is cheap and there is great market potential. Firms like
Volkswagen, Toyota, Caterpillar, and Tesco have invested there to take advantage of cheap
resources or to exploit the market.
According to UNCTAD (2007) there are some 78,000 multinational companies, with
around three quarters of a million foreign affiliates. While the vast majority are based in
Figure 1.3 The world’s top 25 non-financial TNCs, ranked by foreign assets, 2005a (Millions of dollars and number of employees)

Ranking by: Assets Sales Employment No. of affiliates

Foreign TNI II Corporation Home economy Industry Foreign Total Foreign Total Foreign Total TNI Foreign Total
assets (Per cent)

1 70 42 General Electric United States Electrical & electronic equipment 412,692 673,342 59,815 149,702 155,000 316,000 50.1 1184 1527

2 8 94 Vodafone Group PLC United Kingdom Telecommunications 196,396 220,499 39,497 62,428 51,052 61,672 82.4 77 210
9780199213993_001_035_CH01.qxd

3 85 72 General Motors United States Motor vehicles 175,254 476,078 65,288 192,604 194,000 335,000 42.9 91 158

4 16 61 British Petroleum Company PLC United Kingdom Petroleum expl./ref./distr. 161,174 206,914 200,293 253,621 78,100 96,200 79.4 417 602

5 29 80 Royal Dutch/Shell Group United Kingdom, Netherlands Petroleum expl./ref./distr. 151,324 219,516 184,047 306,731 92,000 109,000 71.1 507 964

6 38 43 ExxonMobil United States Petroleum expL/ref/distr. 143,860 208,335 248,402 358,955 52,920 84,000 67.1 258 331
1/15/09

7 64 95 Toyota Motor Corporation Japan Motor vehicles 131,676 244,391 117,721 186,177 107,763 285,977 51.8 141 391
b
8 79 56 Ford Motor United States Motor vehicles 119,131 269,476 80,325 177,089 160,000 300,000 47.6 201 285

9 27 55 Total France Petroleum expl./ref./distr. 108,098 125,717 132,960 178,300 64,126 112,877 72.5 401 567
9:00 AM

10 94 36 Electricite de France France Electricity, gas and water 91,478 202,431 26,060 63,578 17,801 161,50 32.4 218 276

11 73 51 France Télécom France Telecommunications 87,186 129,514 25,634 61,071 82,034 203,008 49.9 175 243

12 51 54 Volkswagen Germany Motor vehicles 82,579 157,621 85,896 118,646 165,849 345,214 57.6 199 279
Page 12

13 63 74 RWE Group Germany Electricity, gas and water 82,569 128,060 23,390 52,081 42,349 85,928 52.9 248 432

14 53 88 Chevron Corp. United States Petroleum expl./ref./distr. 81,225 125,633 99,970 193,641 32,000 59,000 56.8 106 234

15 77 73 E.ON Germany Electricity, gas and water 80,941 149,900 29,148 83,177 45,820 79,947 48.8 367 639

16 24 52 Suez France Electricity, gas and water 78,400 95,085 39,565 51,670 96,741 157,639 73.5 440 613

17 87 59 Deutsche Telekom AG Germany Telecommunications 78,378 151,461 31,659 74,230 75,820 243,695 41.8 266 382

18 40 47 Siemens AG Germany Electrical & electronic equipment 66,854 103,754 64,447 96,002 296,000 461,000 65.3 877 1177

19 12 70 Honda Motor Company Limited Japan Motor vehicles 66,682 89,923 69,791 87,686 126,122 144,785 80.3 141 243

20 11 17 Hutchison Whampoa Hong Kong, China Diversified 61,607 77,018 24,721 31,101 165,590 200,000 80.8 75 83

21 67 38 Procter & Gamble United States Diversified 60,251 135,695 38,760 68,222 69,835 138,000 50.6 269 345

22 47 37 Sanofi-Aventis France Pharmaceuticals 58,999 102,638 18,901 34,013 69,186 97,181 61.4 142 181

23 89 77 ConocoPhillips United States Petroleum expl./ref./distr. 55,906 106,999 48,568 179,442 15,931 35,591 41.4 68 125

24 60 32 BMW AG Germany Motor vehicles 55,308 88,316 44,404 58,105 25,924 105,798 54.5 142 175

25 49 96 Nissan Motor Company Limited Japan Motor vehicles 53,747 97,661 59,771 83,440 89,336 183,356 58.5 54 172

Source: UNCTAD, World Investment Report 2007

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CHAPTER ONE GLOBALIZATION 13

rich countries, there are an increasing number of MNCs to be found in poor economies,
two examples are: Tata of India and Hong Kong’s Hutchison Whampoa.
Big MNCs are the most important foreign direct investors. Figure 1.3 shows the 25
biggest global companies ranked by the value of their foreign assets. The list is dominated
by companies based in the advanced economies. Seven are US companies, 14 are Western
European (6 German, 5 French, 2 British and 1 Anglo/Dutch), and three are based in Japan.
Many of the largest companies are extremely international in their operations. Oil com-
panies like ExxonMobil, BP, Shell, and Total, and others such as Vodafone, and Procter and
Gamble, all generate more than 50% of turnover from foreign sales. Wal-Mart, the world’s
biggest retailer has expanded its foreign activities very rapidly. In the late 1990s Wal-
Mart’s sales from its foreign subsidiaries grew six fold. By 2007, it was employing more
than half a million workers in over 3,000 stores in 14 countries, and across four continents
(www.walmartstores.com).
However, the reality is that only a few of the 500 MNCs that dominate international
business have a genuinely global presence. Most focus primarily on sales within their part
of the triad. So American MNCs focus their strategy on North America, European com-
panies on Western Europe, and Japanese MNCs on Asia. Rugman (2002) has found that
many MNCs find it difficult to maintain profitable foreign operations.

Greenfield and Brownfield Investment

MNC investment overseas can be broken down into greenfield and brownfield invest-
ment. Greenfield investment involves the establishment of completely new production
facilities, such as Ford setting up its new car factory near St Petersburg in Russia.
Brownfield investment entails the purchase of already existing production facilities—the
acquisition of Asda, the British supermarket chain, by Wal-Mart, is an example of
brownfield investment. MNCs have undertaken massive brownfield investment. In 2000
they were involved in around 11,000 cross-border mergers to a value of more than
US$1.1 trillion, two to three times greater than the figures for 1995. However, after 2000
there was a significant drop in merger activity to around US$380 billion by 2004 (see
Figure 1.4). Merger activity then started to pick up so that by 2006 the total had reached
some US$880 billion. The main purchasers were rich country MNCs, but companies from
China, India, and Russia also played a prominent role. Consumer goods, services includ-
ing financial services, energy, and basic materials were all major areas of activity. The
biggest acquisition was the US$32 billion takeover of Arcelor, the European steel firm, by
Mittal, originally Indian but now based in the Netherlands (UNCTAD 2007).
Another example of cross-border flows of money are migrant remittances. Migrants
often send money to their home countries and the total amount has grown over time.
They totalled some US$318 billion in 2007 with India, China, and Mexico as the three
largest recipients, each receiving more than US$20 billion. The USA was the biggest
source, sending some US$42 billion in 2006 (www.worldbank.org). Remittances are a
vital source of foreign currency for some poor countries—Albania, Morocco, Jordan, and
El Salvador are countries whose remittances from abroad equate to 10% or more of their
GDP (Ratha et al. 2008).
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14 GLOBAL CONTEXT

Mini Case Cross-Border Mergers & Acquisitions—A Minefield

This case looks at the issues confronted by firms going in for conducted very differently in Japan than in the USA. Such
cross-border mergers. differences relate to the rules around corporate governance*,
As we can see from Figure 1.4 there have been huge waves of the power of shop floor workers, job security, differences in the
cross-border mergers and acquisitions (M&As) indicating their legal and regulatory environment, and customer expectations.
popularity with business as a way of gaining competitive advant- It is hardly surprising, says Finkelstein, that cross-border
age. Such mergers have become a fundamental tool of business mergers are a potential minefield.
strategy. However, a number of studies have shown that the However, despite the evidence, cross-border M&As continue
majority of these M&As are not successful. For example, a 2006 to be popular amongst businesses. The respondents in the
survey of business in North America, Europe, and Asia by the Accenture survey, whilst recognizing the problems of integrat-
consultancy firm, Accenture, found most firms had not achieved ing different cultures, still saw cross-border M&As as an essen-
the expected cost and revenue gains from cross-border M&As. tial part of their competitive strategy.
One notable example of the problems encountered in cross-
border M&As was the acquisition of the American firm Columbia * corporate governance refers to the systems by which companies
Pictures by Sony. Five years after paying a handsome premium are directed and controlled particularly at the highest level of the
for the company, Sony had to write down the value of its assets organization.
in Columbia by a massive US$3.2 billion. Many of the problems
encountered by Sony reflect the issues to be confronted by Sources: Accenture, Globalization and the Rise of Cross-Border
firms involved in cross-border mergers. These include coming Mergers and Acquisitions; Sydney Finkelstein, Cross Border Mergers
to terms with a very different business culture. Business is and Acquisitions available at www.tuck.dartmouth.edu

Figure 1.4 Cross-border M&As US$m

1,400,000

World
1,200,000 Developed economies
Developing economies
1,000,000

800,000

600,000

400,000

200,000

1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006

Source: UNCTAD, World Investment Report 2007
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CHAPTER ONE GLOBALIZATION 15

Migration
The globalization of markets has not been paralleled by the liberalization of labour flows.
While globalization has led to the dismantling of barriers to trade in goods, services, and
capital, barriers to cross-border labour movements are not falling as fast. Nevertheless,
migration between developing and developed countries has continued. Flows of
migrants are greatest to two triad members, North America and Europe—while Asia,
Latin America, and Africa are major sources. The US population includes 38 million
people born abroad (World Bank 2008b). That is the official figure, however the US
authorities estimate that some 5 million people are living in the USA without permission,
and the number is growing by more than quarter of a million each year.
According to the UN, the number of migrants (people currently residing for more than
a year in a country other than where they were born) lies between 185 and 192 million—
which is around 3% of the world’s population. This meant that the migrant population
had more than doubled in 25 years. Europe had most migrants with 56 million, Asia had
50 million, and Northern America 41 million. Almost one of every 10 persons living in
the more developed regions is a migrant. In contrast, only one of every 70 persons in
developing countries is a migrant. This increase in numbers has occurred despite the fact
that during the last 30 years of the 20th century migration had become steadily more
difficult—particularly for people in developing countries wanting to enter Europe.
OECD (2007) figures show that migrants constitute a significant proportion of the
population in some countries. In Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Luxembourg, and
Switzerland the percentage is close to or exceeding 20%. The USA, along with certain
European countries such as Austria, Germany, the Netherlands, and Sweden, has a per-
centage of immigrants at around 12%. It also found that the percentage exceeded 10% of
the total population in Greece and Ireland, while it was about 10% in the UK. None of
these compares with the Middle Eastern State of Qatar where more than three quarters of
the population are migrants. Care needs to be taken regarding the accuracy of migration
statistics because countries differ in their definition of ‘migrant’ and clandestine migrants
are unlikely to be picked up by official statistics.
People move for a variety of economic, social, and political reasons. They may move
voluntarily to find work, to earn higher wages, to study, or to reunite with their families.
Widening inequalities in income and job opportunities increase the pressures to move.
Movement may also be stimulated by employers in developed countries actively recruit-
ing labour from abroad. The economic boom of the late 1950s and the 1960s caused
countries like Germany, France, and the UK to run short of labour. Initially, they looked
to other European countries that had been slower to industrialize—including Italy,
Portugal, and Spain. In addition, some countries drew on their colonial ties. France turned
to North Africa, and the UK to the Caribbean, and the Indian sub-continent. Germany, on
the other hand, recruited short-term contract workers from countries adjacent to
Western Europe, notably Yugoslavia and Turkey. Over this period net immigration for
Western Europe reached around 10 million. European economies started to falter in the
late 1960s and governments effectively closed the doors to migrants with the oil shock of
1973 when OPEC increased recessionary pressures by quadrupling the price of oil. At the
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16 GLOBAL CONTEXT

start of the new century, the attitudes of certain governments towards migration have
changed, as shortages of skilled workers have emerged. For example, the USA, UK, and
Germany are starting to look much more favourably on the entry of workers with high
levels of education and skills in areas such as IT.
Migration may also be involuntary where people, often in large numbers, are forced to
migrate by political instability and violations of human rights—as we have seen for exam-
ple in Zimbabwe and the Balkans. Natural disasters, such as hurricanes, earthquakes, and
floods can also force people to move. Global warming is expected to cause extensive
flooding in coastal areas of South East Asia which will cause large waves of migration.
Large short term movements of people also occur as a result of executives going on for-
eign business trips, students involved in study abroad, and tourism. In 2004, France, the
most popular tourist destination, received more than 79 million tourists, the USA around
51 million, and China 50 million. Some small countries are heavily dependent on tourism
for their income. In the Caribbean countries of St Lucia, Antigua, and the Bahamas,
tourism contributes more than 30% to their GDP (UNWTO 2007).

Learning Task Wal-Mart and the Movement of Labour

The American retail giant Wal-Mart has half a million employees worldwide manning some 3,000 stores
which are visited by 138 million shoppers each week.
Not only does Wal-Mart go in for large amounts of FDI in its globalization activities, it also attracts
labour across borders. It was reported that more than 300 illegal workers had been arrested at 61 Wal-
Mart stores in the USA as part of an investigation into contract cleaning crews at the world’s largest
retailer. The investigation involved allegations that a contractor had recruited illegal immigrants,
mainly from Eastern Europe.

Source: The Observer, 26 October 2003; Financial Times, 24 October 2003

1. What are the advantages to Wal-Mart of employing illegal migrants to clean its stores?
2. What dangers might Wal-Mart face by taking on such workers?

Globalization is All-Pervasive
Although globalization is often seen as an economic phenomenon involving trade and
investment, it also has many other cultural and social dimensions. Held (1999) argues that
globalization is all-pervasive. He defines globalization as:
the widening, deepening and speeding up of worldwide interconnectedness in all
aspects of contemporary social life, from the cultural to the criminal, the financial to
the spiritual (p 2).

As Held observes, globalization is not confined to economic life but also influences many
other areas of society. And he contends that each of these areas is becoming more deeply
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CHAPTER ONE GLOBALIZATION 17

affected by the phenomenon. Cultural life involving the attitudes, behaviour, and values
that are characteristic of a society, can be influenced by the process. Globalization can
influence culture through the transfer of knowledge, ideas, and beliefs across national
borders.
Mass media, such as television and film, illustrate how culture has been influenced by
globalization. American programmes such as The Simpsons, Heroes and Friends are watched
worldwide. In Germany, in 2002, around one in four TV programmes was made in the
USA while in Italy it was 15%. Similarly, US films like The Matrix and Charlie’s Angels are
widely shown around the world. In Mexico roughly four out of every five films shown are
produced in US studios. The collapse of communism in Eastern Europe and the arrival of
cable and satellite system opened up more markets to US media companies. However,
commentators such as Tunstall (2008) see a challenge to the American TV and film indus-
try from the growing capacity of China and India to become global media players, and the
increasing competition from Latin America.

Learning Task

One of the authors, while on holiday in Spain, looked at the films showing in cinemas in Catalonia. This
is what he found:

Country of Origin of Films on Show in Catalonia

Total on show: 59
Number made in:
USA 28
Spain 10
Spain with other countries 3
Other countries 18

Source: La Vanguardia, 4 August 2003

Examine the table and answer the following questions:

1. What conclusions can be drawn regarding the cultural interconnectedness of Spain with other
countries?
2. How do you explain the position of the USA?

Now look at the film listings for your town or local area and work out to what extent it is connected
with foreign countries. You could, if you wish, carry out a similar exercise on television programmes to
see how many are of foreign origin.

Diet is another area influenced by globalization. In France, the consumption of fast

food such as hamburgers, and soft drinks like Coca Cola has increased and this is
attributed by some commentators to the globalization of fast food chains like McDonalds
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18 GLOBAL CONTEXT

and Burger King. The movement of people can also have an impact on diet. In the second
half of the 20th century, many migrants came to the UK from India and Pakistan. With
over 8,000 Indian restaurants in the UK, now almost all British towns and cities have an
‘Indian’ and it is claimed that the favourite meal, when eating out, is curry.
Another obvious route for transfer of culture across borders is through education.
Universities in the USA, Western Europe, and Australia have enthusiastically embarked
on campaigns to recruit students from abroad. Some have also gone in for FDI by setting
up education facilities in other countries or have established partnerships with foreign
colleges. The EU, through its Erasmus and Socrates programmes, has created large num-
bers of students studying in other member states. In a further move to facilitate the move-
ment of students and workers across borders, more than 40 European countries have
initiated a programme of reform of their university systems. The idea is to standardize the
structure of university studies with degrees taking from three to four years and the intro-
duction of a common system of assessment, the European Credit and Transfer System.
Another conduit for such transfers is through the world of work. For example, the UK
and the USA have been favoured locations for Japanese car companies, in other words,
capital has been moved to these countries from Japan. The movement of capital across
national borders brings with it different ways of working such as Just-in-Time where
suppliers deliver raw materials and components immediately before they are needed in
the manufacturing process, or quality circles where small groups of employees meet
together to identify how production could be improved. Domestic firms have, in turn,
been influenced by this, e.g. Nissan has persuaded suppliers to alter their production
methods. And Nissan’s rivals such as General Motors, Ford, and Chrysler, finding their
market shares slipping because of their inability to compete with the Japanese, have
responded to the threat by introducing some of their working methods. As a result, in the
UK and USA, car industry working methods have become similar to those in Japan.
Another example concerns McDonalds setting up in Moscow in partnership with the City
Council. It had to devise a strategy for dealing with a Russian workforce that had a reputa-
tion for being surly and slovenly. McDonalds introduced expatriate managers and train-
ing programmes to show the Russian staff how things should be done. Moscow City
Council officials could not believe that the employees in the fast food outlet were Russian
because they were so friendly.
The globalization process can also be seen in sport, where football players like David
Beckham and Cristiano Ronaldo cross borders to play abroad. There has also been a rush
of foreign direct investment into the English premier football league. Chelsea is owned by
a Russian businessman, while Liverpool and Manchester United were acquired by US
tycoons. Manchester United is promoted and known worldwide—it is marketed as an
international brand and there is a lucrative trade in Manchester United team kits and other
products outside the UK (for an interesting analysis of how cricket became globalized
see Kaufman 2005). Furthermore, many of the top teams in England are now managed by
foreigners.
A further impact of globalization is on health. A new treatment for disease, discovered
in one country, can be quickly transferred to others, helping to limit the spread of disease
and improve the quality of health care. On the other hand, diseases may also spread more
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CHAPTER ONE GLOBALIZATION 19

quickly as people move across borders, e.g. the outbreak and spread of Severe Acute
Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) in 2003.
SARS originated in Southern China. It then spread very quickly to other Asian
countries, as well as Europe, North America, and Canada, which had over 300 cases.
Illness can also be spread through trade. In 2004 it was found that poultry farmers in
Vietnam and Thailand had contracted the virus associated with avian flu. The infection
spread to other countries through cross-border trade in poultry and the movement of
migratory birds.
With regard to crime: globalization, by removing barriers to movement, can make it
easier for criminals to operate in other countries. Criminals can move more easily across
borders, as can pornography, prostitution, and illegal substances such as drugs. Large
amounts of cocaine are produced in Colombia and gangs there ensure that the drug finds
its way to users in the USA. The Russian mafia is involved in trafficking women for the vice
trade in Amsterdam. Communications technology facilitates the electronic movement
across borders of money generated by these illegal activities into countries where the
criminals can portray it as being derived from a legitimate source. Or they may move the
money to countries where the laws regulating such money laundering activities are
deficient.
Religion, or the spiritual dimension as Held calls it, is another area that is globalized.
Major churches, for example the Catholic, Anglican, Muslim, and Jewish churches all
operate multinationally and have been spreading their values over large parts of the world
for the last 2,000 years. In the UK the established churches, such as the Church of England,
are in decline in contrast to evangelical churches which have their roots in the USA and,
ironically, have their roots in English Puritanism.

The Drivers of Globalization

In 1983 Theodore Levitt claimed:
Gone are accustomed differences in national or regional preferences. Gone are the days
when a company could sell last year’s model—or lesser versions of advanced products
—in the less developed world. Gone are the days when prices, margins and profits were
generally higher than at home.
Although he was overstating the case he was making the point that technology,
through communication, transport, and travel was driving the world towards conver-
gence. In the business world the process of competition would drive firms to seek out
these markets and force down prices by standardizing what was sold and how it was made
in an effort to cut costs and to maintain profit. International competition is not a new
business phenomenon, nor is FDI or international trade but, as we have seen in the first
section, the process of globalization appears to be accelerating. The organization of trade
is also different, with much of it taking place between and within large multinational
organizations across borders which are increasingly irrelevant. It is supported by inter-
national organizations and agreements which did not exist a century ago.
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20 GLOBAL CONTEXT

The process is also embracing an increasing number of countries, as the free market
ideology is accepted as the dominant economic philosophy. The countries of South East
Asia, Latin America, India, Central and Eastern Europe, and even China have one by one
bowed to the power of market forces.
The big MNCs have not been passive participants in this process. They are usually to be
found at the forefront, pushing governments to open up their economies by removing
barriers to trade and investment. Indeed, Rugman (2002) argues that their managers are
the real drivers of globalization. MNCs encourage governments through pressure groups
such as The European Round Table (ERT) which was set up by MNCs from 17 countries. It
brings together leaders of around 45 of the biggest MNCs with a combined turnover of
around US$1400 billion, employing about 4 million people worldwide. It was instrumen-
tal in promoting the idea of a single market for the EU and is very keen to integrate the for-
mer communist countries and the developing nations into a globalized system (see the
ERT web site at www.ert.be). Similarly, the National Association of Manufacturers in the
USA has pressed for markets to be opened up from Cape Horn, the southernmost tip in
South America, to Alaska.
Competition then, is one of the dominant drivers in the process of globalization of the
world economy. If your competitors are globalizing and capturing new growth oppor-
tunities, scale efficiencies, and gaining invaluable knowledge of global operations then
you are likely to cease to exist or be forced into small domestic market niches unless you
follow suit.
There are other drivers, although some might be more correctly labelled as ‘facilita-
tors’. In the next sections we look at the forces driving the globalization of business, the
facilitating factors, and those forces which act as barriers, helping to keep business ‘local’.

Political/Regulatory
Governments have taken steps to remove barriers to trade and the movement of finance
through international organizations such as the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
(GATT) and its successor organization the World Trade Organization (WTO) and they
have also set up free trade areas, customs unions, or common markets.
• Free trade area—member states agree to remove tariffs and quotas on goods from
other members of the area. Members have the freedom to set the level of tariff
imposed on imports of goods from non-members of the area.
• Customs union— this is a free trade area but with the addition that members agree
to levy a common tariff on imports of goods from non-members.
• Common market—this is a customs union but with the addition that member states
agree to allow free movement of goods, services, capital, and labour.
There have been major reductions in the barriers to movement, particularly for goods
and capital brought about by liberalization. These have been brought about multilaterally
through negotiations in international institutions such as the General Agreement on
Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and its successor organization, the WTO, or bilaterally between
individual governments. Governments help bring about increased economic and polit-
ical interlinkage by signing treaties setting up regional trade areas (RTAs) such as the
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CHAPTER ONE GLOBALIZATION 21

North Atlantic Free Trade Area (NAFTA) with the involvement of the USA, Canada, and
Mexico where barriers to movement such as tariffs and quotas are abolished among the
members. Other examples are, The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)
incorporating 10 countries in South East Asia, and Mercosur comprising four countries
in South America. The number of RTAs rose dramatically from about 30 in 1990 to 380
in 2007 (www.wto.org). The WTO expected that more than half of all trade would be con-
ducted inside RTAs by 2005. While such bodies do promote integration among the mem-
bers they often limit integration with non-members by maintaining barriers against
imports from them.
Sometimes governments push integration further by agreeing to the establishment of
customs unions which comprise a free trade area plus a common import tariff against
non-members. Or they may set up a common market where there is complete freedom of
movement for goods, services, capital, and people. One result of this removal of barriers
to the movement of people in the EU is that someone in southern Spain could drive
to Lapland without necessarily having to stop at a single border. Some members of the
EU have taken the integration process even further by removing currency as a barrier by
agreeing on the introduction of a common currency, the euro. Economic integration
often then leads on to political integration. So EU member states are subject not only to
EU laws but also to common policies in areas such as agriculture, the regions, and social
policy.
Changes in political regimes have also helped reduce barriers, e.g. the collapse of com-
munism in the late 1980s and early 1990s led to Eastern European countries becoming
more interconnected economically, politically, and militarily particularly with Western
Europe and the USA. Many of the former communist countries have joined NATO and
the EU. China has opened up its economy to foreign investors and has joined the WTO.
Governments, particularly in poorer countries in Asia, Africa, and Latin America,
anxious to promote economic development, facilitate the movement of capital into
their countries by setting up export processing zones (epz) where MNCs can invest, pro-
duce, and trade under favourable conditions. China has 15 zones employing 40 million
people. Kenya has 45 zones, while Honduras has 24. MNCs are usually given financial
incentives to invest and often they are allowed to import goods and produce output free
of tax. The International Labour Organization (Boyenge 2007) estimated that, in 2006,
there were nearly 4,000 epz employing around 66 million people. There are also many
free trade zones or freeports which are supposed to act as entrepots and be used for stor-
age purposes.

Technological
Improvements in communications and reductions in transport costs have facilitated the
movement of goods, services, capital, and people. Modern communications technology
makes it easier for businesses to control far-flung empires. It further allows people to con-
nect and interact over long distances, and with transport becoming easier and cheaper,
goods and people are able to travel long distances quickly and at a relatively low cost.
According to BA, the cost of flying has halved in 25 years and the cost of flying the Atlantic
has fallen even faster, by half in 10 years (The Observer, 9 November 2003).
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22 GLOBAL CONTEXT

The internet and cheaper telephony not only make it easier for MNCs to control their
foreign operations but also for migrants to maintain links with their countries of origin.
Furthermore, it has been a major force in integrating the world’s financial markets. A
trader in a bank in New York can use the computer to monitor movements in share prices,
interest rates, and currency rates in all the major financial markets and can respond by
buying and selling almost simultaneously. Vast amounts of money can be transferred
across borders at the press of a button.
In 1930, it cost more than a week’s average wage in the UK for a three minute telephone
call from London to New York. Now it costs a fraction of the average hourly wage and
some commentators believe that technology and competition will halve the cost of calls
almost every year over the first years of the 21st century. Demand for telecommunica-
tions has increased very rapidly. In the UK there were 45 lines per 100 inhabitants in 1990
but more than 58 a decade later, while in Latin America the number tripled. It took over a
century to 1997 to reach one billion telephone subscribers but only another nine years to
add a further three billion subscribers (Gray 2008).
The growth in demand for telecommunications services has recently been driven by
the development of the cellular technology associated with mobile phones. Another fac-
tor, the internet, has revolutionized telecommunications. It has become a very cheap and
reliable method of communicating text, data, and images and it is also being increasingly
used for voice communication. The number of people in the world with internet access
grew more than tenfold from less than 100 million in the mid 1990s to over 1 billion
in 2006 with China having around 131 million users and India 68 million. However,
although their numbers are huge, the proportion of people with internet access is lower in
these countries compared with the rich countries of North America and North Western
Europe (Computer Industry Almanac at www.c-i-a.com).
India is a good example of a country that has benefited from the impact of advances in
communications technology. It has a ready supply of relatively cheap educated labour
and has become an increasingly popular location for call centre jobs. This has come about
as a result of the advances in communication technology which have significantly
reduced the costs and improved the quality and reliability of telephony. The cost of a one
minute phone call from India to the USA is just over 20 cents and around 15 cents to the
UK. Consequently, there has been a movement of jobs from the UK and the USA to South
East Asia. More than half of the world’s top 500 companies outsource either IT or other
business processes to India.
Technology can also have the effect of reducing movements of people. Improvements
in the costs and quality of video links may mean that business executives do not need to
attend meetings abroad. They can be virtual travellers interacting electronically through
teleconferencing with fellow managers in other countries.

Economic
In many modern industries the scale of investment needed for research and development
(R&D) and production facilities can mean that the size of a single domestic market is
insufficient to support that industry. The production of electronic components requires
high levels of investment in both R&D and the manufacturing process, and this drives
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CHAPTER ONE GLOBALIZATION 23

firms to go global. This is especially so when product life cycles are shortening, increas-
ing the pressure to recover investment quickly. Competitive pressures on costs also push
firms to reduce product lines and to expand globally to seek every possible saving from
economies of scale in R&D, manufacturing, and marketing.
The desire to cut costs can be seen in the aluminium industry. Aluminium is a relatively
expensive metal to produce as it takes a lot of electricity to turn ore into metal. This is why
aluminium firms locate their smelters in locations with access to cheap energy. Other
industries will seek out cheap sources of labour. In the footwear industry, which uses
relatively simple technology and is therefore labour intensive, labour costs represent
about 40% of total costs. Hourly wages in some countries are very low. For example,
in manufacturing, those in China are just 3% of those in the USA. As a result manufactur-
ing has been relocating to countries with low labour costs such as China and India
(Bureau of Labour Statistics at www.bls.gov).
Firms may globalize because they have outgrown their domestic market and in any
case, the pace of growth in mature, developed economies for many industries is relatively
modest. To maintain a rate of growth required by capital markets will mean for most of
the world’s leading companies that they must seek opportunities beyond their domestic
borders.
The case of Wal-Mart is a very good example of this. Up to 1991 Wal-Mart was a purely
American based company. Then it embarked on a joint venture with another retailer,
Cifra, in Mexico. In just 11 years it developed 1,170 (27% of the total) stores outside the
USA. Some commentators argued that it needed to do this in order to survive, to meet
capital market requirements and the expectations of its own employees whose wealth
was tied to a share purchase plan, the value of which depended on the growth prospects
of the company (Gupta and Govindarajan 2004).
The rapid improvements in technology and the consequent reduction in communica-
tion and transport costs have enabled people to experience other societies’ lifestyles first
hand or through the medium of TV and film or the internet. This has led to a convergence
in tastes which MNCs have been quick to exploit by creating global brands such as Coca
Cola, Levi, Sony, Nike, and McDonalds. This has been called the ‘Californiazation’ or
‘McDonaldization’ of society (Ohmae 1985; Ritzer 2004, respectively).
Global companies mean global customers. Global customers require basic supplies of
input materials, global financial and accounting services, and global hotel chains to house
travelling executives. Dealing with one supplier of a standard product or service has many
advantages for the global buyer; lower purchase costs, a standard product of consistent
quality, lower administration costs, and more opportunities for cooperation with suppliers.
For example, Japanese banks became more global following the globalization of
Japanese car manufacturers (an important customer).

Barriers to Globalization
Despite the fast pace of globalization, it remains the case that goods, services, capital, and
people move more easily within nations than across borders. Trade between regions
within nations is generally much higher than trade across borders even when adjusted for
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24 GLOBAL CONTEXT

income and distance levels. This occurs even when trading restrictions appear to be low,
for example, between Canada and the USA. This suggests that there remain important
barriers to globalization. Rugman (2002) argues that government regulations and cul-
tural differences divide the world into the three blocs of the triad.

Government Regulation
Legal and regulatory barriers can hinder the flow of goods and services and the movement
of capital and people.

Tariffs and Subsidies

There remain numerous tariffs on imports of goods. Rich countries impose particu-
larly high tariffs on goods coming from poor countries. As can be seen from Figure 1.2,
the EU and the USA levy high tariffs on imports of agricultural products and textiles
while tariffs imposed on goods from other rich countries are lower. On average the tariffs
on poor countries’ exports are four or five times higher. Such differences in tariffs
help to explain why trade tends to take place within and between the rich countries of the
triad.
It is not only rich countries who apply tariffs to imports. Poor countries impose
tariffs as well and usually they are higher than rich country tariffs. India applies an
average tariff of over 30% on imports of industrial products while the figure for Brazil is
14%.
Subsidies can take the form of financial grants or tax concessions and are often given
to protect domestic firms from foreign competition. In the 27 individual member states of
the EU, state assistance in 2006 amounted to about a50 billion, or just above 0.4% of EU
GDP. Much of this assistance goes to firms operating in agriculture, fisheries, and trans-
port but substantial amounts have also been given to firms in manufacturing and finance
(EU Commission 2008).
Protectionist devices such as tariffs and subsidies are particularly prevalent in agricul-
ture. They are often used by rich countries to protect their farmers. In 2004, OECD coun-
tries subsidised their farmers to the tune of US$380 billion. The USA, the EU, and Japan
are amongst the biggest subsidisers. Taking the EU as an example, it protects its farmers in
a variety of ways. It guarantees them high prices. It ensures that the guaranteed price is
maintained by imposing tariffs on imports of agricultural produce. Surplus production,
which would put downward pressure on prices, is either bought up by the EU authorities
and put into storage, or is exported at a subsidised price. In the EU, each farmer receives
around US$1,000 for each cow and a total of around US$133 billion a year is spent sup-
porting farmers. American cotton farmers receive more in subsidies than the value of the
cotton they produce (OECD).
These tariffs and subsidies make it difficult for poorer countries to sell their agricultural
produce in rich country markets. However, subsidies can also be used to promote global-
ization. In export processing zones they are often used to attract foreign investors.
Governments in the rich countries usually give financial assistance to poor countries.
Frequently, such aid is used to promote the interests of domestic firms. This is done
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CHAPTER ONE GLOBALIZATION 25

by requiring the recipients to buy goods and services produced by firms in the donor
country irrespective of whether they give best value for money. The US Agency for
International Development requires that recipient countries must purchase goods and
services from US companies. While that integrates the recipient economies with that of
the USA it does freeze out non-US companies.

Controls on Capital
Controls on capital can take the form of either controls on inflows or outflows of foreign
direct and indirect investment.
Big steps have been made in liberalizing the movements of capital. However, some
countries have been more amenable to this than others. Thus India and South Korea
have been reluctant to remove restrictions on capital inflows, and Japan has one of the
most closed financial systems of all the advanced countries. Sometimes countries impose
capital controls in times of economic crises. For example, when the South East Asian
economy went into crisis in the second half of the 1990s, Malaysia responded by
introducing controls on movements of short-term capital out of the country. It may
be that countries are also reluctant to accept inflows of foreign direct investment where
it involves sectors they regard as strategically important such as the basic utilities of
gas, electricity, and water that are essential to everyone. France, for example, has shown
itself very reluctant to open up certain sectors such as energy to foreign control and the
USA and the EU are not prepared to cede control of their airline companies to foreign
organizations. US law prevents foreign firms from buying more than 24.9% of an
American airline (the corresponding figure for the EU is 49%).

Public Procurement
Government departments, nationalized industries, public utilities in telecommunica-
tions, gas, and water often spend large amounts of public money purchasing goods and
services. Public procurement in the EU equates to 16% of GDP or a1,500 billion, in coun-
tries such as Sweden and Greece it accounts for more than 4% of their GDP. In the UK the
government spends around £18 billion annually on the purchase of goods and services.
Consequently, governments are very important customers for firms, particularly those
producing goods and services for the defence, health, and education sectors. When issu-
ing contracts, governments will often favour domestic producers over their foreign rivals
even when domestic firms are more expensive.
An unusual illustration of discriminatory public procurement occurred after the inva-
sion of Iraq by the coalition forces in 2003. The USA declared its intention only to give
contracts for the rebuilding of Iraq to US companies and to firms based in countries that
had supported the war.

Border and Immigration Controls

Border controls affect trade in goods. They can require the filling in of export/import
forms and customs officers stopping vehicles and checking goods at the frontier. This can
take time, add to traders’ transport costs and make goods less competitive in the foreign
market.
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26 GLOBAL CONTEXT

Many barriers remain to the movement of people. These include stringent visa require-
ments, quotas, requiring employers to search for a national employee before employing a
foreign one, and refusal by the authorities to accredit foreign educational and vocational
qualifications.
Most countries in the triad have laws controlling the entry of foreigners. US immigra-
tion laws make it difficult for people to enter the USA to find work or to study and the
policy got stricter after September 11, particularly for people from Muslim countries
in the Middle East. The USA permits around 675,000 immigrants each year. The law is
aimed at keeping down the entry of unskilled workers, and attracting skilled workers and
professionals.
The EU and Japan both control immigration, although these controls are under review
given concerns that low birth rates and the aging of the population will cause shortages of
workers. Migrants are seen as one part of the answer to this because they tend to be young
and have a higher fertility rate than the indigenous population.

Technological
Technical standards and regulations can be formidable barriers. There are thousands
upon thousands of different technical specifications relating to goods and services which
can effectively protect domestic markets from foreign competition and consequently
restrict trade. The EU has tried to deal with this through its Single Market programme. It
uses the principle of mutual recognition whereby countries accept products from other
member states so long as they do not constitute a danger to the consumer. But some prod-
ucts such as electric plugs, light bulbs, and televisions do not lend themselves to this
approach. Even if member states were to recognize each other’s standards, the
Continental two-prong plug could not be sold in the UK where the three-pin plug is the
norm. Companies in the service sector can also be hampered by the myriad of technical
standards and requirements. Financial institutions such as banks may find it difficult to
use the internet to sell their services in foreign markets because countries may lay down
different solvency requirements, or different levels of liquidity for financial institutions
operating in their territory. Regarding rail transport, countries have different electrifica-
tion and signalling systems making it difficult for foreign train companies to enter and
compete with domestic rail firms.
Different national policies towards what are called intellectual property rights (IPRs)
could constitute barriers as well. IPRs relate to ideas and knowledge that are an increas-
ingly important part of trade. They can take a number of forms, for example, the inven-
tion of new products and production processes, brand names, logos as well as books and
films. Firms who own these argue that they should have the legal right to prevent others
from commercially exploiting them. However the extent of protection and enforcement
of these rights vary widely around the world. Some countries such as China and Malaysia
do not offer the firms creating the ideas and knowledge much protection against counter-
feiting. By all accounts it is very easy in Malaysia to obtain counterfeit versions of western
music CDs, DVDs of popular firms made in the USA, and designer goods branded with
the names of Versace, Louis Vuitton, and Rolex. Firms owning these IPRs argue that the
lack of protection stunts their trade and FDI in those countries.
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CHAPTER ONE GLOBALIZATION 27

Cultural and Geographical Distance

Culture
Cultural distance can constitute an important barrier. This can take the form of differ-
ences in language, religious beliefs, race, national and regional tastes, and social norms
and values which regulate what is regarded as acceptable behaviour and attitudes—these
differences can constitute major impediments to globalization. Culture can be an import-
ant influence on consumer behaviour, work culture, and business practices. Thus,
McDonalds cannot sell Big Macs in India because to Hindus the cow is sacred, nor can it
assume that staff in Eastern Europe will have the same attitudes to work as its workers in
the USA. Moreover, business practices may vary widely between countries. In China, for
example, business culture is based on personal connections, as opposed to the Anglo-
Saxon approach which places more value on getting the contract rather than on develop-
ing relationships. This means that companies have to take important cultural differences
into account and to decide how to respond.
A classic example of a company failing to grasp the importance of culture was
News International when it tried to enter the Asian market through its purchase of
StarTV. The plan was to transmit US, English-language film and television programmes
to the 5% of the population that was wealthy, educated, and had English as a second
language. The neglect of cultural differences was costly for the company because it ended
up making big losses. It only became successful when it recognized the cultural differ-
ences and started to make locally produced programmes in languages from Hindi to
Mandarin.
Some goods and services are more sensitive than others to cultural differences.
Ghemawat (2001) did some research on the impact of culture and found that products
such as meat, cereals, tobacco, and office machines had to be adapted to local cultures,
whereas firms producing cameras, road vehicles, cork and wood, and electricity did not
need to adapt their products—or were under less compulsion to do so.

Corruption
Another area where cultural distance can cause problems for firms, concerns the issue of
corruption. In some countries, in Africa and the Middle East for example, it is the norm
for firms to reward individuals who help it to get business. However, in other countries
such behaviour would be seen as corrupt and as such, would be deemed illegal. The
prospect of prosecution in their home countries might deter firms from trading with, and
investing in, countries where such behaviour is the norm.
Transparency International surveys show the degree of corruption as perceived in
different countries by business people, academics, and risk analysts. The ratings range
between 10 (highly clean) and 0 (highly corrupt). Rich countries, although not free of cor-
ruption, tend to get high scores. The ranks of the most corrupt are dominated by poor
countries such as Bangladesh, Nigeria, Haiti, and Azerbaijan.
Firms generally find it much easier to operate in countries where the culture is similar
to that of their home base. Cultural differences can be a significant barrier to globalization
and ignoring them can be very costly (see Ghemawat 2001).
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28 GLOBAL CONTEXT

Mini Case Cultural Distance—Domino’s Pizza

This case illustrates how companies wishing to profit from glob- toppings are squid, crab, shrimp, and pineapple, whereas in Brazil
alization have to take into account cultural differences in taste pizza lovers go for mashed bananas and cinnamon. In Japan,
and eating habits. mayonnaise, potato, maize, and bacon are the preferred options.
The US firm Domino’s Pizza is the world’s second largest Mexicans favour chorizo sausage and jalapeno peppers.
pizza chain with over 8,000 outlets in 55 countries across five Domino’s has found, simply by changing the toppings, that
continents. As it expanded around the world, the company pizza is acceptable to consumers all round the world. But there
found that it had to adapt both the product and the service to can still be cultural complications. In India, the fact that Hindus
appeal to local consumers. cannot eat meat from cows meant Domino’s had to replace
Icelanders prefer their pizza topped with fish while the pepperoni with a spicy chicken sausage. Most pizzas sold there
French go for goat’s cheese and lardons. In Taiwan, the favourite are vegetarian. In Japan, where no word for pepperoni existed,
they introduced it.
Domino’s was able to export the idea of home delivery
almost everywhere but not to China. In the capital, Beijing,
Domino’s had to fit tables in its restaurants. People in China,
paying for a prepared meal, want to have somewhere to sit and
eat it. Delivery can also be challenging in some markets. In
Tokyo, where buildings are numbered not in sequence along
streets but according to the date they were constructed,
Domino’s outlets each have a full-time employee whose job is
to find locations on the map and tell drivers where to go.

Source: Financial Times, 26 November 2003; www.franchise-inter-

national.net; http://money.cnn.com
Source: www.dominos.co.uk

Learning Task

Some goods and services are more sensitive than others to cultural differences. Ghemawat did some
research on the impact of culture and found the following:

More Sensitive Products Less Sensitive Products

Meat Cameras
Cereals Road vehicles
Tobacco Cork and wood
Office machines Electricity

Discuss and advance explanations for Ghemawat’s findings.

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CHAPTER ONE GLOBALIZATION 29

Geography
Geographical distance can also be a barrier. It has been shown that the more distance
there is between countries, the less will be the trade between them (Ghemawat 2001).
Geographical distance can make trade difficult particularly for firms producing goods
that are low in value but high in bulk, such as cement or beer. The cost of transporting
cement or beer over long distances would be prohibitive. Fragile or highly perishable
products like glass and fruit may suffer similar problems. Firms can respond to the barrier
posed by geographical distance in various ways. Brewers have responded either by taking
over a foreign brewer or by granting a licence to firms in foreign markets to brew their
beer. Thus barriers to one aspect of globalization, trade, result in globalization in another
form, investment or licensing. Historically, geographical distance is likely to have
declined in importance as transport has become cheaper and techniques for carrying
fragile or perishable products more effective.
It would be unwise to assume that globalization is an unstoppable process and that bar-
riers are continually being removed. Important barriers remain, and old barriers can be
reintroduced. Early in the new century, for example, the US Government, under pressure
from steel producers who were concerned about cheap imports, reintroduced tariffs of
up to 30% on steel imports. This, in turn, provoked threats of retaliation, sometimes
called tit-for-tat protectionism, from the EU, Japan, and several other countries, against
US exports. In addition, new barriers can appear: where several companies are competing
to develop a new product, the first to do so may establish its technical specifications as a
standard for the new product which then acts as a barrier to trade.

The Benefits and Costs of Globalization for Business

Globalization can comprise major changes in the external environment of business. On
the one hand, it creates opportunities for business, particularly for the big MNCs who are
in the best position to take advantage. On the other hand, it can pose threats for business
as well. We examine the benefits and costs in turn.

The Benefits for Business

The removal of barriers to trade or investment can open up markets to businesses that
were previously excluded giving them the possibility of higher revenues and growth. The
activities of car producers and tobacco firms in South East Asia illustrate this. As their tra-
ditional markets in North America and Western Europe have matured, General Motors,
Ford, Volkswagen, Toyota, and others have all looked to the fast-expanding markets of
South East Asia as a source of growth. China, with its rapidly growing car market, has
been a particularly favoured location for car industry investment. Similarly, big tobacco
firms such as Imperial Tobacco and Gallaher have formed partnerships with Chinese firms
to produce and market their products to the 350 million smokers in China. Similarly, the
fall of communism gave banks from the USA and Western Europe the opportunity to move
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30 GLOBAL CONTEXT

into the former Communist bloc countries and, in many countries such as the Czech
Republic, Bulgaria, and Croatia, have ended up controlling a majority of banking assets.
Globalization may give business access to cheaper supplies of final products, compon-
ents, raw materials, or to other factors of production such as labour which lowers their
costs and makes them more competitive. It is hardly surprising that firms such as HSBC,
Tesco, ebookers, and BT have been relocating activities to India where graduates can be
employed for around 14% of the corresponding salaries in the USA or the UK. The rela-
tively low cost of IT professionals has also resulted in the biggest computer firms estab-
lishing operations in India. Similarly, China is not seen by Western MNCs simply in terms
of its market potential but also as a very cheap source of supply. B&Q, the large chain of
DIY stores, not only has stores in China but also sources US$1 billion/£600 million worth
of products from China for its outlets in Europe. And UK firms such as pottery producer,
Waterford-Wedgwood, domestic appliance maker, Kenwood, and pram manufacturer,
Silver Cross have relocated production to China where there is an abundant supply
of labour whose wages are less than one tenth of those of corresponding British workers
(The Guardian, 19 November 2003).
Barrier removal may also allow firms to obtain previously denied natural resources. For
many years Saudi Arabia was unwilling to give foreign firms access to its energy deposits.
The Saudi authorities had a change of heart and Shell has signed a deal allowing it to
explore for gas. With the collapse of communism Western firms have been vying to get a
stake in the vast natural resource deposits of former republics in the Soviet Union such as
Kazakhstan and Azerbaijan.

The Costs for Business

When firms globalize it means that they are opening themselves up to an environment
that is more complex and risky. They are confronted by new sets of factors in the form of
different political regimes, laws and regulations, tax systems, competition policies, and
cultures. In extreme cases, they may find that the host government seizes their investment
or takes discriminatory action against them. For example, the Egyptian Government confis-
cated a hotel property, claiming that it was on holy ground. In Ecuador, the Government
cancelled an American logging firm’s concession and gave it to the nephew of the president.
Fraport, the international airport operator based in Frankfurt, had significant difficult-
ies in the Philippines when it built an airport terminal in Manila. Fraport poured US$384
million into completing the terminal and had to write off US$345 million in debts
incurred through the project. Fraport’s problems arose when a new government came
into power in the Philippines and promptly cancelled the contract without negotiation.
According to the company, the government repeatedly broke its contractual obligations
and ignored normal legal procedures. In the company’s view the investment had been
expropriated. Fraport admitted that it failed fully to understand how politics work and
how Philippine people think.
Thus we can see that globalization not only generates benefits but also costs. It is likely
to pose problems for inefficient firms previously protected by barriers from foreign com-
petition. National airlines such as Lufthansa, or telecommunications companies like
France Telecom found it difficult to face up to the more intense competition engendered
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CHAPTER ONE GLOBALIZATION 31

Mini Case Globalization and Football

This case shows the impact of globalization on the supply of However, the exodus reached new proportions in the 21st cen-
scarce resources, in this case, talented footballers, to Brazilian tury. In 2004 alone, 850 players left the country for hard currency
football clubs. contracts making Brazil the world’s biggest exporter of footballers.
Brazilian football fans have long lamented the loss of their It is hardly surprising that the national team comprises many
football stars as their best players leave for big contracts abroad. foreign-based players. Kaka plays for AC Milan, Gilberto Silva for
While Brazil’s diplomats complain about unfair farm trade at Arsenal, and Robinho for Real Madrid (more recently, Manchester
the World Trade Organization, at home the country’s sports fans City). The attraction for foreign clubs is that Brazilian players
complain about the impact of globalization on their favourite cost less than local footballers of equivalent talent.
pastime—football. The trend is taking its toll on attendances at football matches
Arguably one of the largest sources of football talent in the in Brazil where an average match attracts fewer than 8,000 sup-
world, Brazil itself has hardly any stars left. Fans and officials porters compared with 35,000 in Britain’s Premier League.
blame global capitalism. Brazil is a developing economy and is As the head of a Brazilian fan club put it, ‘Brazil has the best
poor relative to its European counterparts. Its football clubs are football in the world but we are losing all our top players, we
in dire financial straits, so the best Brazilian players have been feel betrayed.’
seeking greener grass in Europe.
The process is not new. Brazilian football icons went abroad Sources: The Economist, 20 January 2005; Financial Times, 15
long before Pele was lured to the New York Cosmos in the 1970s. September 2003

Source: www.istockphoto.com
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32 GLOBAL CONTEXT

by the liberalization of civil aviation and telecommunications in the EU. Often the endan-
gered businesses will pressurize governments to leave the protective barriers in place or to
reintroduce the barriers previously removed—the US steelmakers being a good example
of the latter. It may also be a particular threat for the less competitive small and medium-
sized enterprises. Removal of the barriers may allow the entry of new competitors from
abroad or it may permit existing customers to switch their custom to foreign suppliers
who are cheaper or who can offer better product quality. British apple growers have suf-
fered in this way—the big supermarket chains in the UK have transferred a large propor-
tion of their custom away from domestic suppliers to foreign apple growers in places like
Chile, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa. Weaker domestic firms may find that
their access to factors of production is threatened (see mini case on Brazilian Football for
an example of this).
Globalization can also cause problems insofar as it raises the dependence of plants and
firms on foreign markets and suppliers. As a result of NAFTA, more than 3,000 plants
(called maquiladoras) were set up along the Mexico/USA border employing some
1,300,000 workers, producing goods for the North American market. They accounted for
half of Mexico’s exports. The dependence of so much output and so many jobs on the
USA left those plants vulnerable to events in the US economy. When US consumers
stopped buying, as the recession hit in 2001, the maquiladoras also began shedding work-
ers. The Mexican Government estimates that over 400,000 jobs disappeared in the pro-
cess. In the Mexican border towns they now say that when the US economy catches cold,
Mexico gets pneumonia (Rosen 2003).
Globalization raises another issue for firms trading in goods and services and invest-
ing in productive activities abroad. Such firms prefer to operate in an environment where
the financial and macroeconomic systems are stable and predictable. However, there is
evidence that the economies of developing economies, whose financial systems have
integrated with the rest of the world, are more subject to greater instability than other
developing countries (Prasad et al. 2003). So it seems that the increasing integration
of financial markets allows enormous sums of money to be moved effortlessly across
borders leaving financial markets more vulnerable to instability, and the world financial
system more prone to violent fluctuations in exchange rates and interest rates. Such
fluctuations can pose a major risk to business costs, revenues, and profits. This was seen
in 1992 when sterling, after it was forced to leave the ERM, fell by over 40% against the
Japanese yen. Another example occurred during the financial crisis in the late 1990s when
vast sums of money were moved out of South East Asia causing the exchange rates of
countries like Thailand and Indonesia to collapse (see end Case Study Chapter Nine).

l CHAPTER SUMMARY
In this chapter we have explained the nature of globalization as a process through which barriers between
nations are reduced. Nations thereby become increasingly interdependent, although we point out that
most of this interdependence is between members of the triad, with the rest of the world playing a minor
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CHAPTER ONE GLOBALIZATION 33

role. The dominance of the triad is being challenged by the emergence of China, India, and Russia as world
economic powers. Increased interdependence is indicated by increases in exchanges across borders of
goods and services, financial capital, and people.
We also make the point that globalization is not just about economic exchanges but has a cultural and
social dimension. The media, our diet, education, work practices, sport, health, crime, and religion all
demonstrate the impact of globalization.
The main drivers of globalization are identified as competition, reduction in regulatory barriers,
improvements in technology, saturated domestic markets, the desire to cut costs, and the growth of
global customers. There still remain important barriers to the process including regulation, technology,
and cultural and geographic distance.
Globalization presents both opportunities and threats to business. On the one hand it presents access
to new and bigger markets and to different and cheaper sources of raw materials, components, and labour.
On the other the environment is more complex and less stable.
It is this environment and the implications for business that this book will explore. In the next chapter
we will look at the global economy and explain in more depth some of the topics discussed in this chapter.

l REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is globalization?
2. How fast is globalization occurring?
3. Where is globalization mainly taking place? Why should that be the case?
4. Identify the main:
• indicators of globalization
• drivers of globalization
• facilitators of globalization
5. What are the important barriers to globalization?
6. Outline the main advantages and disadvantages for business of globalization.

Case Study Globalization—Losers and Winners

The EU Sugar Regime In addition, the regime gave preferential treatment to 18 for-
mer European colonies in Africa, the Caribbean, and the Pacific.
For almost 40 years the EU protected its sugar farmers from for- They were allowed to export, each year to the EU, 1.3m tons of
eign competition. It did this by guaranteeing its farmers a price raw sugar at fixed prices.
which was three times higher than the price on the world mar- Brazil, Thailand, and Australia complained to the WTO claim-
ket. The price level was maintained by setting quotas and tariffs ing that the regime broke the WTO rules by subsidising exports.
on sugar imports. Any surpluses produced were sold to markets The WTO investigated and found in favour of the complainants.
outside the EU at the world price. Firms processing the sugar When the decision was announced shares in EU sugar refiners
beet were also guaranteed a minimum price for sugar. such as Tate & Lyle, and Associated British Foods, which ‹
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34 GLOBAL CONTEXT

‹ owns British Sugar in the UK, and the Spanish company Ebro their economies. In Guyana, for example, sugar production
Puleva fell sharply. accounted for nearly one fifth of the whole economy and
Then the EU Commission announced its intention to reform employed around 35,000 people.
fundamentally the sugar regime to bring it into line with global On the other hand, the proposals were welcomed by coun-
trade rules. The EU Commission proposed that guaranteed tries such as Australia, Brazil, and Thailand and by producers of
prices for growers and processors would be cut by up to 42% biscuits, cakes, chocolate, and confectionery.
over a three-year period. Farmers and firms unable to make
money from sugar production would be offered compensation Sources: http://europa.eu; www.bbc.co.uk; Financial Times, 29
to leave the industry. April 2005; The Guardian, 1 July 2005
The reform came under immediate attack from French and
Irish farmers and left processors fearful for their livelihoods.
Questions
Sudzucker, the biggest sugar refiner in the EU, also criticized
the proposed cuts in the guaranteed price. Ten countries, 1. Explain how the sugar regime acted as a barrier to trade in
including Greece, Spain, Ireland, Hungary, and Italy, requested sugar.
a slower and smaller price cut. 2. Give reasons why share prices of processing firms fell as a
The Commission estimated that the reforms could force 7,500 result of the WTO ruling.
beet farmers and 29,000 industrial workers out of the industry
3. Why is the EU proposing to reform the regime?
and around 40 processing plants could be closed. It said that
4. Explain why 10 EU countries asked for slower and smaller
sugar production was likely to be drastically reduced in Ireland,
price cuts.
Greece, Italy, and Portugal and to fall significantly in Denmark,
Finland, and Spain. In the more efficient producers such as the 5. Why did countries like Brazil welcome the EU proposals?
UK, France, and Germany production was unlikely to change. 6. Give reasons why sweet producers were happy with the
The Africa, Caribbean, and Pacific group of countries said that reform proposals.
the reduction in price would have a devastating effect upon

Online Resource Centre

www.oxfordtextbooks.co.uk/orc/hamilton_webster/

Visit the supporting online resource centre for additional material which will help you
with your assignments, essays and research, or you may find these extra resources
helpful when revising for exams.

l FURTHER READING
For a discussion of the debates and controversies around globalization see:

l Held, D. and McGrew, A. (2007) Globalization/Anti-Globalization: Beyond the Great Divide, 2nd edn.
Cambridge: Polity

For an examination of the various theories around globalization and how the world economy has been
transformed by MNCs, states, and interest groups see:

l Dicken, P. (2007) Mapping the Changing Contours of the World Economy, 5th edn. London: Sage
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CHAPTER ONE GLOBALIZATION 35

The next book discusses the relationship between globalization and climate change, terrorism, energy
supply, population, and business:

l Moynagh, M. and Worsley, R. (2008) Going Global: Key Questions for the 21st Century. London: A&C
Black

The following article looks at the globalization of a particular sport, cricket:

l Kaufman, J. and Patterson, O. (2005) ‘Cross-National Cultural Diffusion: The Global Spread of Cricket’.
American Sociological Review, Vol 70, No 1, February

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Ghemawat, P. (2001) ‘Distance Still Matters: The Hard Ratha, D., Mohapatra, S., Vijayalakshmi, K. M. and Xu,
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