Geotechnical Engineering—

A Historical Perspective
Braja M Das
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• The development of Geotechnical
Engineering up to about 1700 A.D. was
through experimentation without
scientific character.
• Galileo and Descartes made references
to the idea of speed and distance
moved without stating what it meant.

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Growth of Early Civilization along Some Major Rivers
Egypt Mesopotamia China India
River Nile Tigris and Huang Ho Indus
Euphrates (Yellow River)
Annual
250 200 500 250
rainfall (mm)
African lakes Mountains of Kunlun Hindu Kush &
Source
& Abyssinia Armenia Mountains Himalayas
Flood rise (m) 5–7 5 4–7 4–5
Percentage
0.17 0.75 1 to 2 0.43
silt
Clay with up Calcareous
Type of soil Loess Fine clay
to 20% sand loam
Gradient 1:13,000 1:26,000 1:35,000 1:7,000

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Dikes dating back to about 2000 B.C. were built in the
basin of the Indus to protect the town of Mohenjo Daro
(in Pakistan after 1947). During the Chan Dynasty in
China (1120 B.C. to 249 B.C.), many dikes were built
for irrigation purposes. There is no evidence that
measures were taken to stabilize the foundations or
check erosion caused by floods.

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Around that time, ancient Greek civilization
used isolated pad footings and strip-and-
raft foundations for building structures.

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• Beginning around 2750 B.C., the five most important
pyramids were built in Egypt in a period of less than a
century (Saqqarah, Meidum, Dahshur South, Dahshur
North, and Cheops). This posed formidable challenges
regarding foundations, stability of slopes, and
construction of underground chambers.
• These pyramids were built as tombs of the country’s
pharaohs and their consorts.

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 Major Pyramids in Egypt
Pyramid/Pharaoh Location Reign of Pharaoh
Djoser Saqqara 2630--2612 B.C.
Sneferu Dashur (North) 2612—2589 B.C.
Sneferu Dashur (South) 2612—2589 B.C.
Sneferu Meidum 2612—2589 B.C.
Khufu Giza 2589---2566 B.C.
Djedefre Abu Rawash 2566—2558 B.C.
Khafre Giza 2558—2532 B.C.
Menkaure Giza 2532—2504 B.C.
As of 2008, a total of 138 pyramids have been discovered in Egypt.

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A view of the pyramids at Giza.

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With the arrival of Buddhism in China during the
Eastern Han Dynasty in 68 A.D., thousands of
pagodas were built. Many of these structures were
constructed on silt and soft clay layers. In some
cases, the foundation pressure exceeded the load−
bearing capacity of the soil, thereby causing
extensive structural damage.

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One of the most famous examples
of soil−bearing−capacity−related
problems in the construction of
structures in the pre-18th Century
era is the Leaning Tower, began in
1173 A.D. when the Republic of
Pisa (Italy) was flourishing and
continued in various stages for
over 200 years.

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The Leaning Tower of Pisa weighs about 15,700
metric tons and is supported by a circular base having
a diameter of 20 m. The tower has tilted in the past to
the east, north, west, and, finally to the south. Recent
investigations showed that weak clay layer existed at
a depth of about 11 m below the ground surface
compression, of which caused the tower to tilt. It
became more than 5 m out of plumb with the 54 m
height (about a 5.5 degree tilt).

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The tower was closed in 1990 because it was feared
that it would either fall over or collapse. It recently
has been stabilized by excavating soil from under the
north side of the tower. About 70 metric tons of earth
were removed in 41 separate extractions that
spanned the width of the tower. As the ground
gradually settled to fill the resulting space, the tilt of
the tower eased. The tower now leans 5 degrees. The
half-degree change is not noticeable, but it makes
the structure considerably more stable.

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The stabilization plan was overseen by a commission
of 13 members hired by the “Opera della Premaziale
Pisana.” This commission of 13 included Professor
John B. Burland (UK), Professor Michele Jamiolkowski
(Poland), and Professor Salvatore Settis (Italy).

Professor John Burland took the lead of this 30-million

Euro project to its successful completion.

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Professor John Burland

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GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING−18th CENTURY AND
AFTER
1. Pre-Classical Soil Mechanics ─ 1717−1775
2. Classical Soil Mechanics−Phase I ─ 1776−1856
3. Classical Soil Mechanics−Phase II ─ 1856−1910
4. Modern Soil Mechanics ─ 1910−Present 15
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Pre-Classical Soil Mechanics

Empirical earth pressure theories based on natural

slope and unit weight of earth fill material
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Henri Gautier (1660-1737)

French engineer and scientist;

author of the first book on bridge
building. His Treastise on Bridges
appeared in 1716 and remained
the standard work on bridge
building for some 70 years.

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Henri Gautier
Paris − Dissertation, 1717

In the chapter on retaining walls, Gautier classified

soil as:

Soil γ (lb/ft³) Natural slope

Clean dry sand 115 31°
Ordinary earth 85 45°
Compacted clay

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Henri Gautier (continued)

Gautier studied natural slopes of soil and angle of

repose to formulate design procedures of retaining
walls.
• Clean dry sand and earth — 31°
• Ordinary earth — 45°
• Unit weight of sand — 18.1 kN/m³
• Unit weight of ordinary earth — 13.4 kN/m³

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Bernard Forest de Belidor (1694 – 1761)

• A professor of mathematics at the

military college at La Fère, saw
active service as an engineer
during the War of Austrian
Succession and then settled in
Paris.
• His fame rests primarily on
Architecture Hydraulique (1737–
53), in four volumes, covering
engineering mechanics, mills and
water wheels, pumps, harbors,
and sea works.
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Bernard Forest de Belidor
Paris (1729)

In his textbook, de Belidor classified soil for foundation

problems as:
(a) Rock (d) Soft earth
(b) Sand (e) Clay
(c) Ordinary earth ( f ) Peat

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As a follow−up to Gautier, de Belidor proposed a
theory for lateral earth pressure.
He proposed a soil classification system

Classification Unit weight (kN/m³)

Rock ──
Firm or hard sand; compressible sand 16.7 − 18.4
Ordinary earth (dry locations) 13.4
Soft earth (primarily silt) 16.0
Clay 18.9
Peat ──

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 Earth Pressure on Retaining Walls
de Belidor (textbook), 1729

A C

Earth Fill
H
1/2 H ² Natural
slope
 = 45o
B

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Following de Belidor, many earth pressure theories
were developed and summarized by J. M. Mayniel
(1808).

─ From Archives of Corps du Génie

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Francois Gadroy (1705−1759)

An officer in the Corps du Génie, he served in The

Netherlands, was promoted to Captain at Valenciennes
in 1747 and later became chief engineer at Brest.

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Francois Gadroy, Chief Engineer
Brest, France (1746)

• Existence of slip plane behind retaining walls

• First results of model tests

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Typical Features Observed in a Retaining
Wall Failure

Natural slope
(c. 45o)
Slip plane
Earth Fill
64o

de Belidor, 1729 (Textbook)

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Model Tests

Line of rupture

Natural slope
3 in. (31o)
Sand
57o

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Jean Rodolphe Perronet (1708-1794)

French architect and structural

engineer, known for his many stone
arch bridges. His best known work is
the Pont de la Concorde.
Chief engineer of the Ponts et
Chaussées and director of the Ecole
Polytechnique from its inception in
1747.
Member of the Academy of Sciences
and Fellow of the Royal Society.

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Jean Rodolphe Perronet
Director of Ecole Polytechnique, Paris (1769)

• Slope stability
• Intact ground and fill
• Introduction of water into slope
(seepage analysis)

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C LASSICAL S OIL M ECHANICS , P HASE I
1776 − 1856
Dominated by:
c = 0 assumption
“cohesion”  strength of clay
Era of Coulomb to Rankine 31
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Charles Augustin de Coulomb (1736-1806)

He is best known for developing what

is now known as Coulomb’s law, the
description of the electrostatic force
of attraction and repulsion.
Graduated from military engineering
school at Mézières; served in France
and abroad from 1762 to 1781; and
settled in Paris.

Coulomb leaves a legacy as a pioneer in the field of

geotechnical engineering for his contribution to retaining wall
design. His name is one of the 72 names inscribed on the
Eiffel Tower. 32
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Charles Augustin de Coulomb
France (1776)

The theory of earth pressure and the generalized wedge

theory, related to geotechnical engineering, propounded
by him still form the basis of engineering practice.

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GASPARD-CLAIR-FRANÇOIS-MARIE-RICHE,
BARON DE PRONY (1755 – 1839)

Distinguished civil engineer; held

position of Chair of Mechanics at
the Ecole Polytechnique.

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G. C. F. M. R. PRONY
PARIS

Textbook: Nouvelle Architecture Hydraulique,

Vol. 1, Paris, 1790

• Led to acceptance of Coulomb’s theory.

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Jacques Fredéric Francais (1775−1833)

Studied at the Ecole Polytechnique; served as an

army engineer from 1801 and, in 1811, became
professor of fortifications and surveying at Metz
Military College.

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Jacques Fredéric Francais
France − 1820

• Extended Coulomb’s theory to active earth

pressure of a cohesive fill

• Short−term stability of excavated clay slope

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Claude−Louis Marie Henri Navier (1785−1836)
• Professor of applied mechanics at
Ecole des Ponts et Chaussées. From
1831 also at Ecole Poly-technique;
member of the Academy of Sciences
• Formulated the general theory of
elasticity in a mathematically useable
form (1821).
• Major contribution remains the
Navier−Stokes equations (1822),
central to fluid mechanics.
His name is one of the 72 names inscribed on the
Eiffel Tower. 38
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 Placement of the 72 names of
French scientists, engineers, and
mathematicians that are engraved
on the Eiffel Tower in recognition of
their contributions in the building of
the tower.

Location of the names

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Claude−Louis Marie Henri Navier
Paris ─ 1833

Indirect mention of long−term c = 0

hypothesis for slope in intact ground

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Alexandre Collin (1808 − 1890)

• Graduated from the Ecole

Polytechnique and was appointed
as a Ponts et Chaussées engineer
on the Canal de Bourgogne in
1833.
• From 1855 he worked at Orleans
as Engineer-in-Chief of the Loire.
He wrote on many engineering
subjects including hydrology and
grouting.

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Jean Victor Poncelet (1788 − 1867)

After serving as army engineer,

he became professor of
mechanics at Metz in 1820 and
at the Sorbonne from 1837. A
member of the Academy of
Sciences, he is distinguished for
his work in applied mechanics
and hydraulics.

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Jean Victor Poncelet
Paris (1840)

• Correct solutions for linear wedge theory for

active and passive pressure (c = 0)
• Sloping wall, sloping backfill, wall friction
• First introduction of ϕ symbol
• First analysis of ultimate bearing capacity

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WILLIAM JOHN MACQUORN RANKINE (1820−1872)
• Professor of engineering at Glasgow
University. His teaching and writings
exerted a strong influence on British
engineering education and practice.
The Manual remained a standard
textbook well into the 20th century.
• His work on earth pressures and the
stability of retaining walls was a
notable advance in soil mechanics,
particularly his paper “On the
Thermodynamic Theory of Waves of
Finite Longitudinal Disturbance.”
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WILLIAM JOHN MACQUORN RANKINE’S
EARTH PRESSURE THEORY (1857)

Soil  (lb/ft³) ϕ (deg) Ka Kp

Saturated mud 100 0 1.00 1.0
Wet clay 115 16 0.57 1.8
Clay 120 26 0.38 2.6
Sand 110 33 0.29 3.5
Gravel 100 37 0.25 4.0

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HENRI PHILIBERT GASPARD DARCY (1803−1853)

• Rose to a senior position at the

Ponts et Chaussées—working on
water supply at Dijon, on the
Paris−Lyon railway, and in Paris.
• From 1855, he devoted himself
entirely to hydraulic research.

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CLASSICAL SOIL MECHANICS – PHASE II (1856−1910)

H. P. G. Darcy, 1856 ─ Experiment with grade filters

J. V. Boussinesq, 1883 ─ Stresses and displacement of
elastic field
O. Reynold, 1887 ─ Property of dilatency of granular
material and negative pore water pressure 48
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JOSEPH VALENTIN BOUSSINESQ (1842-1929)

• Member of the Academy of

Sciences, professor of applied
mathematics at Lille and, from
1886, at the Sorbonne.
• His celebrated Application des
potentiels, giving stresses and
displacements in elastic
foundations, was published in
1885.

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OSBORNE REYNOLDS (1842−1912)

Fellow of the Royal Society, professor

of engineering at Manchester from
1868 to 1905. Distinguished for his
research in hydraulics.

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MODERN SOIL MECHANICS ─ PHASE I
1910−1927

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MODERN SOIL MECHANICS ─ PHASE I
1910−1927

• Albert Mauritz Atterberg, 1911

Explained the consistency of cohesive soils by defining
liquid, plastic and shrinkage limits
• J. Frontard, 1914
Double shear test under normal load (σ ≠ 0)
• A. L Bell, 1915
Lateral pressure and resistance of clay;
Bearing capacity of clay foundations
• W. Fellenius, 1926
Slope stability; ф = 0 concept
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KARL VON TERZAGHI (1919−1925)

• Effective stress concept

• Consolidation
• Shear strength of clays
• Permeability of clays
• Publication of several articles in Engineering News
Record
• Publication of Erdbaumechanik, 1925

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Karl von Terzaghi
(1883−1963)
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GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING AFTER 1927

• The publication of Erdbaumechanik of

Bodenphysikalisher Grundlage by Karl Terzaghi in
1925 gave birth to a new era in the development
of soil mechanics. Karl Terzaghi is known as the
father of modern soil mechanics, and rightfully so.

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KARL VON TERZAGHI
FATHER OF MODERN SOIL MECHANICS

• Born 2 October 1883 in Prague (capital of the

Austrian Province of Bohemia)
• B.S. in Mechanical Engineering (1904) from
Technisch Hochschule, Graz, Austria
• Doctorate in Technical Science (January 1912)

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KARL VON TERZAGHI

1916 Imperial School of Engineers, Istanbul

1918−1925 Lecturer at American Robert College,
Istanbul
1925-1929 Lecturer, M.I.T. (USA)
1929 Returned to Vienna
1938 Returned to USA ─ Harvard University

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1926−1936
(Dominated by Terzaghi)

1936
First International Society of Soil Mechanics and
Foundation Engineering Conference, (ISSMFE)
Harvard University, USA
Papers on shear stress, effective stress, torsion test,
undisturbed sampling, direct cone test, pore pressure
measurement, significance of pre-compression on
testing, secondary consolidation, electro-osmosis,
swelling clays, arching, frost action
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1926−1936

• The first ISSMFE Conference was

possible because of the conviction and
efforts of Professor Arthur Casagrande
of Harvard University.
• About 200 individuals representing 21
countries attended the conference. It
was through the inspiration and
guidance of Terzaghi over the
preceding quarter-century that papers
were brought to the conference
covering a wide range of topics. 69
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1926−1936
Topics of Papers (First ISSMFE)
• Effective stress
• Shear strength
• Testing with Dutch cone penetrometer
• Consolidation
• Centrifuge testing
• Elastic theory and stress distribution
• Topic of
Preloading for Papers
settlement–control
First ISSMFE
• Swelling clays
• Frost action
• Earthquake and soil liquefaction
• Machine vibration
• Arching theory of earth pressure 70
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 RALPH B. PECK (1912-2008)

• Major contributor, Prof. Ralph B. Peck, received B.S. and

Ph.D. degrees in 1934 and 1937, respectively, from
Rensselaer Polytechnic University, Troy, New York.
During 1938 to 1939, took courses from Arthur
Casagrande in a new subject called soil mechanics.
• From 1939 to 1943, Dr. Peck worked as an assistant to
Karl Terzaghi (the father of modern soil mechanics) on
the Chicago Subway Project.
• In 1943, he joined the faculty at the University of Illinois
at Champaign-Urbana, where he was Professor of
Foundation Engineering from 1948 until he retired in
1974. 71
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RALPH B. PECK (1912-2008)
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1939−1948

1939 − Terzaghi
• 45th James Forest Lecture to Institute of Engineers −
“Soil Mechanics − A New Chapter in Engineering
Science”
• General wedge theory (Terzaghi)
• Consulting by Terzaghi in the Chicago Subway project
(strut load); Charity Hospital, New Orleans, Louisiana
(settlement)
• Theoretical Soil Mechanics, Terzaghi, 1943

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1939−1948 (continued)

• Skempton ─ paper on ф = 0 concept for clay,

1947
• Soil Mechanics in Engineering Practice, Terzaghi
and Peck, 1948
• Fundamentals of Soil Mechanics, Taylor, 1948
• Geotechnique (journal), 1948

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1939−1948 (continued)

After a brief interruption for World War II,

the second ISSMFE Conference was held in
1948 in Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
There were about 600 participants, and
seven volumes of Proceedings were
published.

In this conference, A. W. Skempton (1914−

2001) presented his landmark paper on the ф = 0 concept
for clays.
Following Rotterdam. ISSMFE conferences have been held
every four years in different countries.
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1939−1948 (continued)

The aftermath of the Rotterdam Conference saw the

growth of regional conferences on geotechnical
engineering, such as
• First Australia-New Zealand Conference on Shear
Characteristics of Soil (1952)
• European Regional Conference on Stability of Earth
Slopes, Stockholm (1954)
• First Pan American Conference, Mexico City (1960)
• Research Conference on Shear Strength of Cohesive
Soils, Boulder, Colorado, USA (1960)
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In 1997, ISSMFE was changed to ISSMGE
(International Society of Soil Mechanics and
Geotechnical Engineering) to reflects its true
scope.
These international conferences have been
instrumental for the exchange of information
regarding new developments and on-going
research activities in geotechnical engineering.

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 Details of ISSMFE (1936−1997) and ISSMGE (1997−present)
Conferences

Conference Location Year Conference Location Year

I Harvard University, Boston, USA 1936 XI San Francisco, USA 1985

II Rotterdam, the Netherlands 1948 XII Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 1989

III Zurich, Switzerland 1953 XIII New Delhi, India 1994

IV London, England 1957 XIV Hamburg, Germany 1997

V Paris, France 1961 XV Istanbul, Turkey 2001

VI Montreal, Canada 1965 XVI Osaka, Japan 2005

VII Mexico City, Mexico 1969 XVII Alexandria, Egypt 2009

VIII Moscow, USSR 1973 XVIII Paris, France 2013

IX Tokyo, Japan 1977 XIX Seoul, Korea 2017

X Stockholm Sweden 1981 XX To be held in Sydney, Australia 2021

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1950−1960

• Skempton ─ pore pressure coefficient A and B

publication, 1954
• Measurement of Soil Properties in the Triaxial
Test, Bishop and Henkel.

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1970 ─1985

• Soil dynamics research initiated (Richards, et al.)

• Earthquake geotechnical engineering research
accelerated (Seed, et al.)
• Advances in finite difference and finite element
solution
• Geosynthetics and applications
• Soil improvement and stabilization such as mini-piles
and geogrid reinforcement

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GEOSYNTHETICS
The early 1970’s saw the use of geosynthetics (polymer
products such as geotextile or geogrid) in civil
engineering. These products are non-biodegradable.
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As an organized activity, in 1977, an international
conference on the use of fabrics in geotechnical
engineering was held in Paris, France. This event is
now referred to as the First International Conference
on Geotextiles.
In that conference. J. P. Giroud presented a paper on
the Valcros Dam in France where he coined the words
“geotextiles” and “geomembranes.”

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Jean−Pierre Giroud
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• The International Geotextile Society was formed in
November 1983.
• In September 1984, the name was changed to the
International Geosynthetics Society.

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 GEOGRIDS
A polymeric (i.e., geosynthetic) material consisting of
connected parallel sets of tensile ribs with apertures of
sufficient size to allow strike−through of surrounding
soil, stone, or other geotechnical material

PRIMARY FUNCTIONS
• Reinforcement
• Separation

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In the 1950s, Dr. F. Brian Mercer
(1927-1998) developed the
Netlon® process in which plastics
are extruded into a net-like process
in one stage.
In 1959, he founded Netlon Ltd. in
the United Kingdom to
manufacture the product.

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Based on Dr. Mercer’s further innovative research and
development work on extruded net technology, some
polymer straps and strips were formed into grid−like
products during the 1970s.
The first integral geogrids were developed in the late
1970s and first employed in various applications in the
early 1980s.

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In the early stages of development of geogrid, several
universities in the United Kingdom were heavily involved
in a comprehensive program of research that examined
the polymer technology.
These universities were Leeds, Nottingham, Oxford,
Sheffield, and Strathclyde.

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 • In 1986, Robert M. Koerner
authored the first book on
geosynthetics.
• He delivered the first
Mercer Lecture in 1992.
• He delivered the first Giroud
Lecture in 1998.

Robert M. Koerner

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THE END OF AN ERA

We have seen a brief outline of the contributions to

modern soil mechanics made by pioneers such as Karl
Terzaghi, Arthur Casagrande, Donald W. Taylor, Laurits
Bjerrum, and Ralph B. Peck.
The Last of the early giants of the profession, Ralph B.
Peck, passed away on February 18, 2008, at the age of
95.

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After his retirement in 1975, Dr. Ralph B. Peck was
active in consulting that included major geotechnical
projects in 44 U.S. states and 28 countries on five
continents.
Some examples of Dr. Peck’s major consulting projects
include:
• Rapid transit systems in Chicago, San Francisco, and
Washington D.C.
• Alaskan Pipeline system
• James Bay Project, Quebec, Canada
• Heathrow Express Rail Project (U.K.)
• Dead Sea Dikes
His last project was the Rion−Antirion Bridge in Greece.
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On March 13, 2008, The Times of U.K. wrote:
“Ralph B. Peck was an American civil engineer who
invented a controversial construction technique that
would be used on some of the modern engineering
wonders of the world, including the Chunnel Tunnel.
Known as the ‘godfather of soil mechanics’, he was
directly responsible for a succession of celebrated
tunneling and earth dam projects that pushed the
boundaries of what was believed to be possible.”

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 Dr. Peck authored more than 250 highly distinguished
technical publications. He was the ISSMFE President
from 1969−1973. In 1974, he was awarded the National
Medal of Science by President Gerald R Ford.

Professor Peck was a teacher, mentor, friend, and

counselor to generations of geotechnical engineers in
every country of the world.
The 16th USSMGE Conference in Osaka, Japan (2005)
would be the last conference of its type he would attend.

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 During his trip to Osaka, even at the age of 93,
Dr. Peck was intent on explaining to the presenter
the importance of field testing and sound judgment
in the decision−making process involved in the
design and construction of geotechnical engineering
projects (which he had done countless times to
geotechnical engineers all over the world).
This is truly the end of an era.

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THE FUTURE

• Soil reinforcement
• Field behavior of piles and drilled shafts
• Waste management and environmental geotechnics
• Computer applications to field observation and
construction practices
• Earthquake engineering and soil dynamics
• Behavior of soft clay and stability analysis
• New techniques for soil improvement

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It has been my pleasure to address the first
Guatemalan Congress on Seismic and
Geotechnical Engineering. Thank you for
your kind attention.

Braja M. Das
3 February 2019

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