SOIL MECHANICS MT EXAM REVIEWER THE TOWER OF PISA

Construction of the tower began in 1173 A.D. when the Republic of Pisa was
WEEK 1: Geotechnical Eng’g – A Historical Perspective
flourishing and continued in various stages for over 200 years
• DEFINITION OF SOIL
•The structure weighs about 15,700 metric tons and is supported by a
-In Agronomy – soil means the upper layer of the earth that may be dug or circular base having a diameter of 20 m
plowed; , the loose surface of the earth in which plants grow.
•The tower has tilted in the past to the east, north, west, and finally, to the
-In Geology, unconsolidated sediments called mantle or regolith. south.
-In geotechnical engineering, known as top soil. It recently has been stabilized by excavating soil from under the north side
-Soil is defined as the uncemented aggregate of mineral grains and decayed of the tower
organic matter (solid particles) with liquid and gas in the empty spaces between
the solid particles
THE 4 MAJOR PERIOD

• SOIL MECHANICS A. Preclassical (1700 to 1776 A.D.)

-coined by DR. KARL TERZAGHI in 1925 when his book “ERDBAUMECHANIC” B. Classical soil mechanics—Phase I (1776 to 1856 A.D.)
opublished in GERMANY C. Classical soil mechanics—Phase II (1856 to 1910 A.D.)
According to Terzaghi: D. Modern soil mechanics (1910 to 1927 A.D.)
- Soil Mechanics is the application of the laws of mechanics and hydraulics to
engineering problems dealing with sediments and other unconsolidated
accumulations of solid particles A.PRECLASSICAL (1700 TO 1776 AD)
-Soil mechanics is the branch of science that deals with the study of the physical (concentrated on studies relating to natural slope, unit weights of various
properties of soil and the behavior of soil masses subjected to various types of types of soils,semiempirical earth pressure theories)
forces.
KNOWN ENGINEERS
- Soils engineering is the application of the principles of soil mechanics to
practical problems. • Henri Gautier (1660–1737) studied the natural slopes of soils in
-Geotechnical engineering is the subdiscipline of civil engineering that involves
1717
natural materials found close to the surface of the earth. • Bernard Forest de Belidor (1671–1761) he proposed a theory for
lateral earth pressure on retaining walls that was a follow up to
IMPORTANT NOTES: Gautier’s (1717) original study.
understanding of geotechnical engineering as it is known today began early in the • Francois Gadroy (1705–1759) Reported the first laboratory model
18th century test results on a 76-mm-high retaining wall built with sand backfill in
1746.
-geotechnical engineering was based on only past experiences through a
succession of experimentation without any real scientific character • J. J. Mayniel in 1808 Summarized the study of Gadroy
• Jean Rodolphe Perronet (1708–1794) studied slope stability,
distinguished between intact ground and fills.
 C. Classical soil mechanics—Phase II (1856 to 1910 A.D.)
B. Classical Soil Mechanics—Phase I (1776–1856) (this time period focused in test on SAND)
(most of the developments in the area of geotechnical engineering came FAMOUS ENGINEERS :
from engineers and scientists in France. In the preclassical period, practically
• Henri Philibert Gaspard Darcy (1803–1858) published a study on the
all theoretical considerations used in calculating lateral earth pressure on
permeability of sand filters in 1856. , Darcy defined the term
retaining walls were based on an arbitrarily based failure surface in soil.)
coefficient of permeability (or hydraulic conductivity)
KNOWN ENGINEERS • George Howard Darwin (1845–1912) Conducted laboratory tests to
determine the overturning moment on a hinged wall retaining sand
• Charles Augustin Coulomb (1736–1806) used calculus for maxima
in loose and dense states of compaction
and minima to determine the true position of the sliding surface in
• Joseph Valentin Boussinesq (1842–1929) theory of stress
soil behind a retaining wall. Coulomb used the laws of friction and
distribution under loaded bearing areas.
cohesion for solid bodies
• Osborne Reynolds (1842–1912) demonstrated the phenomenon of
• Gaspard Clair Marie Riche de Prony (1755–1839) Coulomb’s theory
dilatancy in sand in 1887
in his leading textbook,Nouvelle Architecture Hydraulique (Vol. 1) in
1790 • John Clibborn (1847–1938) John Stuart Beresford (1845–1925)
studied the flow of water through sand bed and uplift pressure.
• Jacques Frederic Francais (1775–1833) and Claude Louis Marie Henri
Navier (1785–1836 Studied special cases of Coulomb’s work in 1820
• Jean Victor Poncelet (1788–1867) providing a graphical method for
D. Modern Soil Mechanics (1910–1927)
determining the magnitude of lateral earth pressure on vertical and
inclined retaining walls. e first to use the symbol 𝜙 for soil friction (Focused on research conducted on clays)
angle. Provided the first ultimate bearing-capacity theory for
KNOWN ENGINEERS
shallow foundations
• Alexandre Collin (1808–1890 provided the details for deep slips in • Albert Mauritz Atterberg (1846–1916) defined clay-size fractions, he
clay slopes, cutting, and embankments. explained the consistency of cohesive soils by defining liquid, plastic,
• William John Macquorn Rankine (1820–1872) provided a notable and shrinkage limits. HE also defined the plasticity index
theory on earth pressure and equilibrium of earth masses. Rankine’s • Jean Fontard (1884–1962) investigated the cause of failure of the 17-
theory is a simplification of Coulomb’s theory m-high earth dam at Charmes, France.
NOTE: The end of Phase I of the classical soil mechanics period is generally • Arthur Langley Bell (1874–1956) ❑ worked on the design and
marked by the year (1857) of the first publication by Rankine construction of the outer seawall at Rosyth Dockyard. He developed
relationships for lateral pressure and resistance in clay as well as
bearing capacity of shallow foundations in clay.
Used shear-box tests to measure the undrained shear strength of
undisturbed clay specimens
• Wolmar Fellenius (1876–1957) stability analysis of saturated clay
slopes
 • Karl Terzaghi (1883–1963) theory of consolidation for clays. WEEK 2: Soil Formation – Origin of soil and grain size
• Father of modern soil mechanic,
• Ralph B. Peck (1912 – 2008) ‘the godfather of soil mechanics,’ • geologic cycle consists of erosion, transportation,
UNIT SUMMARY
deposition and upheaval of soil
• If the soil stays at the place of its formation just above
▪ SOIL MECHANICS” was coined by DR. KARL TERZAGHI in 1925
the parent rock, it is known as residual soil or sedentary
. ▪ The understanding of geotechnical engineering as it is known today soil
began early in the 18th century.
• When the soil has been deposited at a place away from
▪ The nature of study in the area of geotechnical engineering started from the place of its origin, it is called a transported soil
1700 until 1927 A.D.
• The properties of residual soil resemble that of the
▪ Four major period of era: Preclassical (1700 to 1776 A.D.); Classical soil parent rock in many aspects.
mechanics—Phase I (1776 to 1856 A.D.); Classical soil mechanics—Phase II
(1856 to 1910 A.D.); and Modern soil mechanics (1910 to 1927 A.D. • transported soils are entirely different from the parent
rock.
▪ Karl Terzaghi (1883–1963) is the father of modern soil mechanicsFlowing
water is one of the most important agents of transportation of soils. • Flowing water is one of the most important agents of
transportation of soils.
• All type of soils carried and deposited by water are
known as alluvial deposits
• Deposits made in lakes are called lacustrine
• Marine deposits are formed when the flowing water
carries soils to ocean or sea
• Soils deposited by wind are known as aeolian deposits
• Drift is a general term used for the deposits made by
glaciers
• Deposits directly made by melting of glaciers are called
till
• Colluvial soils deposited soil through gravity ex. Talus
5 METHODS OF SOIL TRANSPORTATION IN NATURE
1. Water
2. Wind
 3. Glacier 1. Sieve Analysis - which is used for particle sizes larger
4. Gravity than 0.075 mm in diameter -consists of shaking the soil
5. Combined Actions sample through a set of sieves that have progressively
smaller opening
4 constituent parts of soil
2. Hydrometer analysis - which is used for particle sizes
1.Gravel smaller than 0.075 mm in diameter, based on the
2.Sand principle of sedimentation of soil grains in water.
3.Clay
4.Silt Particle-Size Distribution Curve: 4 PARAMETERS
• Gravels are pieces of rocks with occasional particles of 1. Effective size (D10) diameter in the particle-size
quartz, feldspar, and other minerals distribution curve corresponding to 10% finer
• Sand made of mostly quartz and feldspar 2. Uniformity coefficient (Cu): This parameter is defined as
• Silts microscopic soil fractions ratio of the D60 to D10
• Clays mostly flake-shaped microscopic and 3. Coefficient of gradation (Cc) defined as ratio of the
submicroscopic particles of mica, (D30) ^2 to the product of D60 and D10
4. Sorting coefficient (S0) encountered in geologic works
Several organizations have developed particle-size
• Grading of Soil-distribution of particles of different
classifications
sizes in a soil mass
1. Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) • poorly graded soil-most of the soil grains are the same
2. U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) size.
• well graded- particle sizes are distributed over a wide
3. American association of State Highway and range
Transportation Officials (AASHTO) • gap graded -represents a soil might have a combination
4. Unified Soil Classification System (USCS) of two or more uniformly graded fractions.
• Mechanical analysis is the determination of the size
range of particles present in a soil, expressed as a Note:
percentage of the total dry weight.
2 Methods of determining the particle size distribution 1. Well-graded has high shear strength
of soil: 2. A uniform soil is more compressible than a well-graded
soil
Three major categories of particle shape of soil: WEEK 4: Physical Properties of Soil: (Volume-Weight
1. Bulky- formed mostly by mechanical weathering of rock Relationships; Plasticity and Structure of Soil) part 2
and mineral • HENRY ATTERBERG- considered the consistency of
2. Flaky -predominantly clay minerals. Have very low soils in 1911, and proposed a series of tests for
sphericity—usually 0.01 or less defining the properties of cohesive soils
3. Needle shaped -Ex, coral deposits • (plasticity is defined as the property of cohesive soils
which possess the ability to undergo changes of
shape without rupture)
WEEK 3: Physical Properties of Soil: (Volume-Weight • The behavior of soil can be divided into four basic
Relationships; Plasticity and Structure of Soil) states: solid, semisolid, plastic, and liquid
• Soil mass is generally a three phase system: • The water contents corresponding to the transition
1. SOLID PARTICLES from one state to another are termed as Atterberg
2. LIQUID Limits
3. GAS • Atterberg Limit Tests. tests required to determine the
• water content, w, of a soil mass is defined as the ratio of Atterberg limits
the mass of water, Mw, in the voids to the mass of Atterberg’s/Consistency Limits
solids, Ms
• density which is expressed as mass per unit volume Shrinkage limit - The moisture content, solid to semisolid
• specific gravity defined as the ratio of its mass in air to state
the mass of an equal volume of water at reference Plastic limit - The moisture content from semisolid to plastic
temperature state.
• The soils with higher void ratios have a loose structure
Liquid limit - The moisture content from plastic to liquid.
and generally belong to the montmorillonite group.

3.6 DETERMINATION OF ATTERBERG LIMITS

• Liquid Limits The moisture content, in percent,
required to close a distance of 12.5 mm (0.5 in.)
along the bottom of the groove after 25 blows
• TEST Manual and Motorized Liquid Limit Apparatus • The liquidity index of a soil indicates the nearness of
(Casagrande) determine moisture content at which clay its water content to its liquid limit
soils pass from plastic to liquid state. • When the soil is at the plastic limit, its liquidity index
• Fall Cone Method- based on BS1377 , liquid limit is is zero
defined as the moisture content at which a standard • Negative values of the liquidity index indicate a
cone of apex angle 30° and weight of 0.78 N will water content smaller than the plastic limit.
penetrate a distance d 20 mm in 5 seconds when • Also known as water-plasticity ratio
allowed to drop from a position of point contact with
the soil surface. This method uses a semilogarithic graph ➢ Consistency Index, CI
• the consistency (firmness) of a soil.
• shows the nearness of the water content of the
➢ Plastics Limits soil to its plastic limit
• plastic limit test is given by ASTM in Test • When CI = 0, the soil is at the liquid limit.
Designation D-4318. • CI = 100%, soil is relatively firm.
➢ Shrinkage limit
• CI >100% relatively strong
• The moisture content, in percent, at which the ➢ CASAGRANDE PLASTICITY CHART
volume of the soil mass ceases to change
• Organic clays below the A-line
• Soil shrinks as moisture is gradually lost from it
• U-line lies above the A-line.
➢ Plasticity Index
• difference between the liquid limit and the plastic limit 3.7 SOIL STRUCTURE
of a soil
• geometric arrangement of soil particles with respect to
• The greater the difference between liquid and plastic one another.
limits, the greater is the plasticity of the soil
• In general, soils can be placed into two groups:
• A cohesionless soil has zero plasticity index. Such soils Cohesionless and Cohesive
are termed non-plastic.
• Fat clays are highly plastic and possess a high plasticity
index Cohesionless
➢ Liquidity index
1. Single grained Soil particles are in stable positions
• relative consistency of a cohesive soil in the natural
state
 2. Honeycombed Fine sand and silt form small arches with 2. Silt-clay material
chains of particles,have large void ratios, and they can • AASHTO M145-91 (2003): Standard Specifications
carry an ordinary static load. However, under a heavy for Classification of Soils and Soil Aggregate
load or when subjected to shock loading, the structure Mixtures for Highway Construction Purposes.
breaks down, which results in a large amount of ASTM D3282-09: Standard Practice for
settlement. Classification of Soils and Soil Aggregate Mixtures
Soil Structure: Cohesive for Highway Construction Purposes.
• A-1 materials are well graded
1. Clay • A-3 soils are clean, poorly graded sands.
• A4 & A5 are generally silts,
• A6 & A7 are generally clays
WEEK 5-6 SOIL CLASSIFICATION
• soil classification system-the arrangement of different
soils with similar properties into groups & subgroups ➢ Unified Soil Classification System
• Textural Classification -Soil textures are classified by the • The original form of this system was proposed by
fractions of sand, silt, and clay in a soil. Casagrande in 1942
• TEXTURE -surface appearance. • This system classifies soils into two broad categories:
• The AASHTO classification system is used mostly by 1. Coarse-grained soil
state and county highway departments 2. Fine-grained soil
• Geotechnical engineers generally prefer the Unified ~~~END(week 6-7) printed already
system
❖ American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials (AASHTO) classification system
• This system was originally developed by Hogentogler
and Terzaghi in 1929 as the Public Roads
Classification System. Afterwards, there are several
revisions. The present AASHTO (1978) system is
primarily based on the version in 1945
• Classifies soil into 2 categories :
1. Granular