An Introduction

To
Complex Number
 DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the project report entitled “An Introduction to complex number” in
the partial fulfillment of course curriculum of the degree of bachelor of mathematics from
Abhedanada Mahavidyalaya.
The work done by me is my own piece of work and authentic to the best of my knowledge
under the supervision of my Prof. Surya Kanta Mondal.

Signature of Candidate

Bikram Mondal

Date- 16/ 09/ 2020

Place- Sainthia
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that project report entitled An Introduction

to Complex Number by Bikram Mondal, Semester VI
,Roll No. 170330100024 ,Reg No. 201701022332 of 2017-18,
submitted in partial fulfillment of the degree of
Bachelor of Science , in the Department of Mathematics ,
during academic year, 2020, is a bona fide record of work carried
out under my guidance and supervision.

Signature of the Project Guide

Name: Surya Kanta Mondal
Designation: Asst. professor
Department: Mathematics
, College: Abhedananda Mahavidyalaya
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This project has given me golden opportunity for learning and self-
development through collaborative activities. I consider myself to be
lucky enough to work under my professor Surya Kanta Mondal,
whose encouraging words and monitoring, individual care and motivating
approach have widened the horizon of our knowledge and stimulated me to
work with other in joy. I am grateful to Dr. Sudipta Senapati and
Dr. Partha Ghosh, those who have rendered valuable suggestions for
improvement of the project work. So, I take this opportunity to
acknowledge their contribution gratefully.
Last but not least, I am grateful to my friends, family members and
many well wishers who helped me in numerous ways in completing the
project.

Signature of the Student

Bikram Mondal
 INDEX
1) Motivation
2) Introduction
3) Definition
4) Notation
5) Visualization
6) History
7) Geometrical interpretation
8) Relations and operations
9) Integral and rational power
10) De Moivre’s theorem
11) n th root of unity
12) Topology
13) Application
14) Conclusion
15) Reference
 INTRODuCTION OF COMpLEX NuMbER

MOTIvATION

Undoubtedly you have heard about numbers, its different classes

and categorizations. A particular classification of numbers is their
division into real and imaginary numbers, which is the focus of this
work. Most of the numbers you might have encountered are real.
They are real in the technical- conventional sense and have nothing
to do with any linguistic meaning.
Imaginary numbers on the other hand are not very common except
in science and engineering, and together with real numbers form
the basis of complex numbers. Do not panic. They are called complex
numbers not because they are difficult to understand or work with –
this is merely conventional. Although as a precaution, we should be
aware that other numbers are not referred to as ‘simple’ numbers.
The core difference between complex numbers and other numbers
are few and it only takes understanding few tips about what
constitutes complex numbers in order to spot these dissimilarities.
Introduction :
In case you have not studied this for a while, let me briefly remind
you that a quadratic equation is a polynomial of degree two with
two unknown variables. The solutions to a quadratic equation can
be obtained by using: (i) graphical , (ii) factorization ,
(iii)completing the square , or (iv) quadratic formula method. All of
you will know that the two roots of the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0
are

and solving quadratic equations is something that mathematicians

have been able to do since the time of the Babylonians. When
b2 − 4ac > 0 then these two roots are real and distinct; graphically
they are where the curve y = ax2 +bx+c cuts the x-axis. When
b2 − 4ac = 0 then we have one real root and the curve just touches
the x-axis here. But what happens when b2 − 4ac < 0? In this case
there are no real solutions to the equation, as no real number
squares to give the negative b2 − 4ac. Introduction of a new type of
numbers, called complex numbers, has made it possible to provide
solutions of the equations ax2 + bx + c = 0 and also of the more
general type of equations a0xn + a1xn-1 + ..... + an =0 , where
a0,a1,……,an are real numbers .

Definition:
A complex number z is defined to be an ordered pair of real
numbers (a,b) that satisfies the following conditions (i) and the
following laws of operations (ii) and (iii) -
(i) (a,b) = (c,d) if and only if a=c , b=d ( condition of equality )
(ii) (a,b) + (c,d) = (a+c,b+d) ( definition of addition )
(iii) (a,b).(c,d) = (ac-bd,ad+bc) ( definition of
multiplication ).
Of ordered pair (a,b), the first component a is said to be the real
part of z and denoted by z and the second component b is said
to be the imaginary part of z and is denoted by z.

Notation:
The symbol commonly used for a complex number is not (a,b) but
a + bi , a, b real. Following Euler, we define i=(0,1) in the complex
number system of ordered pairs. We write for the set of all
complex numbers. A real number a can be regarded as a complex
number a + 0i whose imaginary part is 0. A purely imaginary
number bi is a complex number 0 + bi whose real part is zero. As
with polynomials, it is common to write a for a + 0i and bi for
0 + bi. Moreover, when the imaginary part is negative, that is,
b = −|b| < 0, it is common to write a − |b|i instead of a + (−|b|)i. Here
i = √−1 this is standard notation amongst mathematicians though
many books, particularly those written for engineers and physicists,
use” j” instead.
i2 = (0,1)(0,1) = (-1,0) , i3 = i2 . i = (-1,0)(0,1) = (0,-1) , and
i4 = i2 . i2 = (1,0)
What is “ ?
An imaginary number is a number that, when squared, has a negative result.
Essentially, an imaginary number is the square root of a negative number
and does not have a tangible value. While it is not a real number — that is, it
cannot be quantified on the number line — imaginary numbers are "real" in
the sense that
at they exist and are used in math.
Imaginary numbers, also called complex numbers, are used in realreal-life
applications, such as electricity, as well as quadratic equations. In quadratic
planes, imaginary numbers show up in equations that don’t touch the x axis.
Imaginary numbers become particularly useful in advanced calculus .
Usually denoted by the symbol i, imaginary numbers
bers are denoted by the
symbol j in electronics (because i already denotes "current"). Imaginary
numbers are particularly applicable in electricity, specifically alternating
current (AC) electronics. AC electricity changes between positive and
negative in a sine wave. Combining AC currents can be very difficult because
they may not match properly on the waves. Using imaginary currents
and real numbers helps those working with AC electricity do the
calculations and avoid electrocution.
Imaginary numbers can also be applied to signal processing, which is useful
in cellular technology and wireless technologies, as well as radar and even
biology (brain waves). Essentially, if what is being measured relies on a sine
or cosine wave, the imaginary number is used.

Argand Diagram:

1806, Argand published a way of representing Real

Numbers and Imaginary Numbers on a diagram using
two axes at right angles to each other like the
Cartesian Plane; this is called the Argand Diagram. On
the face of it, the Argand Diagram appears to be
identical to the Cartesian plane. However, it is quite
different in that the points which are Complex
Numbers can be added, subtracted, multiplied and
divided in ways that cannot be done to the points in the
Cartesian plane.
 Visualization:
A complex number z can thus be identified with an ordered
pair (Re (z), Im (z)) of real numbers, which in term may be
interpreted as co-ordinates of appoint in two dimensional space.
The most immediate space is Euclidean plane with suitable co-
ordinates, which is then called complex plane or Argand. Another
prominent space on which the co-ordinates may be projected is the
two dimensional surface of a sphere, which is then called Riemann
sphere.

[i] Normal Form:

The complex number (a, b) can be expressed as
(a, b) = (a, 0) + (0, b)
Again , (0,b) = (0,1) . (b, 0) = (b, 0). (0, 1)
Therefore , (a,b) = (a,0) + (0,1).(b,0) = (a,0) + (b,0).(0,1)
= a+ib or, a+bi
Since, (a, b) + (c, d) = (a+c , b+d), (a+ib) + (c+id) = (a+c) + (b+d)i
Since, (a, b). (c, d) = (ac-bd, ad+bc) ,(a+ib) . (c+id)
= (ac-bd) + (ad+bc)i
It is observed that the product of two complex numbers a+ib
and c+id take the same form as the sum and the product of two real
binomials a+ib and c+id ( treating i as real ) if we take care always
to replace i2 by -1 .
e.g,
(2+3i) . (3+i) = (2.3 – 3.1) + (2.1 + 3.3)i
=3 + 11i , by definition
 The ordinary multiplication gives ,
(2+3i)
+3i) . (3+i) = 2.3+2.i+3.3i+3i2 = 6+11i-3 = 3+11i
The
he quotient a+ib/c+id where (c,d)=/* (0,0) can be computed as ,

[ii] Polar Form :

Modulus
Modulusand
andArgument
Argument: :
Let,
Let,z=a+ib,
z=a+ib, bebeacomplex
acomplexnumber
number .The
.The non non
non-negative
negative
non-negative
negative real
real number
number
√𝑎 + 𝑏(a2+b2)^1/2* isAbsolute
is said to be the said to be theorAbsolute
value value
the Modulus of zorand
theis
Modulus of IzI,
denoted by z and is denoted
or mod by(a+ib).
z, or mod IzI, or mod z, or mod (a+ib).
Geometrically, mod
Geometrically, modz zisisthethedistance
distanceof the pointpoint
of the z from the origin
z from the in
thee complex
origin in theplane.
complexIn general,
plane. Iz In1-gen
z2| is the
general, e distance
z2I*between
Iz1-z2I* the points z1
is the distance
and z2.It is also evident from the definition that,
between the points z1 and z2*.It is also evident from the definition
that, |z1--z2| = |(a1-a2)+(b1-b2)i|

|z1-zz2| = =((a -a22)+(b

|(a11-a )2 + (b1-b)i|
1-b 22
)2)1/2
Since, IzI is a real number,
=((athe-astatement |z1|2> 1/2
|z2| has a meaning.
mean
1 2) + (b1-b2) )
2
But, the statements like z1 > z2 , z1 < z2 have no meaning unless z1, z2 are
Since,
purely real.IzI is a real number, the statement Iz1I > Iz2I* has a
meaning. But, the statements like z1 > z2 , z1 < z2* have no meaning
The argument of z is the angle made by the radius vector with the
unless z1,real
positive z2axis,
are purely real. as arg(z). As with the modulus, the
and is written
argument can be found
The argument of zthe
( rectangular form
) is the angle a+ibby
made , the radius vector
with the positive real axis, and is written as arg(z). As with the
modulus, the argument can be found the rectan
rectangular
gular form a+ib ,
Φ = arg(a+ib) =
 Together, modulus and argument gives another way of
representing complex numbers, the Polar form, fully specify the
position of a point on the plane.
Now, taking the origin as the Pole and the real axis as the
Initial line . Let, (r,θ) be the polar co-ordinate of the point (a,b).
Then, a = rcosθ , b = rsinθ
Here, r is the modulus of the complex number and θ is an
argument or an amplitude of complex number. Then,
z = r(cosθ + isinθ) , is called the polar form or modulus-amplitude
form of the complex number z .
Since θ is indeterminate for a zero complex number, the zero
complex number has no polar representation. For a non-zero
complex number z, θ has infinitely many values differing from
another by a multiple of 2 .
If, z = r(cos θ + i sin θ), r is determined from the relation
rcos θ = a , rsin θ = b giving r = and θ is determined from
the relations cos θ = a/r , sin θ = b/r.
All the values of θ are
expressed as Arg z (or, Amp z) . If
α be a value of θ satisfying the
relations cos θ = a/r , sin θ = b/r
then Arg z = α + 2nπ , n being
integer.
The principle argument of z,
denoted by arg z (amp z), is
defined to be the angle θ which
satisfies -π < θ ≤ π.
 [iii] Two dimensional vector form:

For each point z in the complex plane, we can associate a

vector namely directed line segment from the origin to the point z,
→
i.e. z= ↔ = (a,b). Thus complex number can also be
interpreted as two dimensional ordered pairs. The length of the
vector associate with z is .If z1 = a1 + b1 ↔ = (a1, b1) and
z2 = a2 + b2 ↔ = (a2, b2), then

zz11 +
+ zz22 ↔
↔ 𝒗𝟏 +
+ 𝒗𝟐 .
𝒗𝟏 𝒗𝟐

Using the corresponding and the fact the length of any side of a
triangle is less than or equal to the sum of the lengths of the two
other sides, we have,
 |z1 + z2| ≤ |z1| + |z2|, for any complex number z1 and z2. This
inequality is called a Triangle inequality, the generalized triangle
inequality is,
|z1 + z2 + ... + zn| ≤ |z1| + |z2| + ... + |zn|, for all zi is a complex
number.

[iv] Exponential From:

For a complex variable z= x + y, the exponential function of z
written as exp z or ez and is defined by,
ez = = ex(cos y + .
This number ez satisfies the usual algebraic properties of the
exponential function.
In particular, for z = y, the definition above gives one of the
most important formulas of Euler,

==cos
cosy y++ sin
siny,y,..........(i)
..........(i)
 Euler-Triangular Relationship

cos y = Re( =

sin y = Im( = .

When y = π, formula (i) reduces to the amazing equality

= −1.In this relation, the transcendental number ‘e’ comes from
calculus, the transcendental number ‘π’ comes from geometry, and
comes from algebra, and the combination gives −1, the basic
unit for generating the arithmetic system for counting numbers.
Using Euler’s formula, we can express a complex number
z = r(cos θ + sin θ) in exponential form; i.e.,
zz==r(cos
r(cosθθ++ sin
sinθ)
θ)==rr .

History:

One of the first mathematicians to realize the need for complex

numbers was Italian mathematician Girolamo Cardano (1501–
1576). Around 1545, Cardano recognized that his method of solving
cubic equations often led to solutions containing the square root of
negative numbers. Imaginary numbers did not fully become a part
of mathematics, however, until they were studied at length by
French-English mathematician Abraham De Moivre (1667–1754), a
Swiss family of mathematicians named the Bernoullis, Swiss
mathematician Leonhard Euler (1707–1783), and others in the
eighteenth century.
Gerolamo Cardano and Tartaglia in the 16th century devised
formulae to solve cubic equations of a “REDUCED” form. In their
solution to cubic equations with Real roots which could be guessed,
the square root of negative numbers turned up in the derivation of
these solutions and there was no way to avoid them.
Solve the cubic equation:

X3 – x = 0 x (x2 - 1) = 0
x (x - 1) (x + 1) = 0 x = 0, x = 1, x = -1.
But when Tartaglia used his formula he
got this solution:

x = √ (( )1/3 + / ) Gerolamo Cardano

( )

At first this looks like nonsense; however, formal calculations

with Complex Numbers show that
Z3 =

z=( )1/3 the cube roots of i has

solutions
√ √
z=- , z= + ,z= -

Substituting these in for z = ( ) 1/3 in

Tartaglia’s cubic formula and simplifying we
get the solutions-- x = 0, x = 1, x = -1. Tartaglia
 This forced an investigation on the square root of negative
numbers which has continued to the present day.

Geometrical Representation:

Geometrically, we can represent complex numbers as points in

the xy-plane by associating to each complex number α + β the point
(α,β) in the xy-plane (also known as an Argand diagram). The plane
is referred to as the complex plane.

The x-axis is called the real axis, and the y-axis is called the
imaginary axis. The number z = 0 corresponds to the origin of the
plane. This establishes a one-to-one correspondence between the set
of all complex numbers and the set of all points in the complex
plane.
The plane in which this representation is made is said to be the
complex plane, or the Gaussian plane, after the name of Gauss, a
celebrated German mathematician.
 The origin represents the zero complex number. The points on
the real axis represent all real numbers of the form (α, 0) and the
points on the imaginary axis, other than the origin, represent all
imaginary numbers of the form (0, β).

Relation and operation:

Equality :
Two complex numbers are equal if and only if both their real
and imaginary parts are equal. That is, complex numbers z1 and z2
are equal if and only if and .
Nonzero complex numbers written in polar form are equal if and
only if they have the same magnitude and their arguments differ by
an integer multiple of 22π.
Ordering :
Since complex numbers are naturally thought of as existing on
a two-dimensional
dimensional plane, there is no natural linear ordering on the
set of complex numbers. In fact, there is no linear ordering on the
complex numbers that is compatible with additi
addition
on and
multiplication – the complex numbers cannot have the structure of
an ordered field. This is because any square in an ordered field is at
least 0, but 2 = −1.
Conjugate:
The complex conjugate of the complex number z = x + y is
given by x − y . It is denoted by either or z*. This unary
operation on complex numbers cannot be expressed by applying
only their basic operations addition, subtraction, multiplication and
division.
 Geometrically, is the "reflection" of z about the real axis.

Conjugating twice gives the original complex number

which makes this operation an involution. The reflection leaves both
the real part and the magnitude of unchanged, that is

and
The imaginary part and the argument of a complex number
change
nge their sign under conjugation
and

Addition and subtraction:

Two complex numbers a and b are most easily added by
separately adding their real and imaginary parts of the summands.
That is to say:

a + b = (x + y) + (u + v) = (x + u) + (y + v) .
Similarly, subtraction can be performed as

a - b = (x + y) - (u + v) = (x - u) + (y - v) .
 Using the visualization of complex numbers in the complex
plane, the addition has the following geometric
interpretation: the sum of two complex
numbers a and b,, interpreted as points in the
complex plane, is the point obtained by
building a parallelogram from the three
vertices O,, and the points of the arrows
labeled a and b (provided that they are not on a
line). Equivalently, calling these points A,
B respectively and the fourth point of the parallelogram X,
the triangles OAB and XBA are congruent. A visualization of the
subtraction can be achieved by considering addition of the
negative subtrahend.
Multiplication:
Since the real part, the imaginary part,
and the indeterminate in a complex
number are all considered as numbers in
themselves, two complex numbers, given as z
= x + y and w = u + v are multiplied under
the rules of the distributive property,
the commutativeive properties and the defining
property 2 = - 1 in the following way;
 Reciprocal and division:
Using the conjugation, the reciprocal of a nonzero complex
number z = x + y can always be broken down to

since non-zero implies that x2 + y2 is greater than zero.

This can be used to express a division of an arbitrary complex
number w = u + v by a n
non-zero complex number z as

Square root:
The square roots of a + b (with b ≠ 0) are ±(γγ + δ) , where

and

where sgn is the signum function. This can be seen by

squaring ±(γ + δ) to obtain a + b . Here is called
the modulus of a + b , and the square root sign indicates the square
root with non-negative
negative real part, called the principal square root;
root

also where z = a + b .
 Powers and Roots of Complex Numbers:
Whether it is adding, subtracting, multiplying, division or some
other mathematical operation that is being done on two or more
complex numbers, there will be more then one method
method- using
rectangular form or polar form.
Integral and Rational powers:
Let z be a complex number and n be an integer.
We define, i) z0 = 1
Ii) zn = zn-1.z if n > 0
iii) z-nn = (z-1)n if z ≠ 0 and n > 0
The laws of indices for complex numbers,
i) zm + zn = zm=n
ii) (zm)n = zmn
iii) z1m . z2m = (z1z2)m
hold when m, n are integers w
with
ith proper restrictions on z, z1, z2
in case of negative index.
Let z be a non-zero
zero complex number and q be a positive integer
> 1.Then there is a non--zero
zero complex number w such that, wq = z.
Definition: Let z be a complex number and q be a positive
integer. Then z1/q is a complex number w such that,
wq = z. w is said to be a qth root of z.

Let z be a non-zero
zero complex number and r = be a positive
rational number, where p, q are positive integer, then
i) zr = zp/q = (z1/q)p , ii) z-r = (1/z)r = (1/z)p/q
 De Moivre’s theorem:
How do we raise a complex number to a power?
Lets start with an example,
Squaring the complex number z = = gives,
z2 = ( 2

= r2(cosθcosθ + 2 sincos + 2sinsin )

= r2((cos cos – sin sin) + 2 sin cos )

= r2(cos2 + sin2 ) where, absolute value, r =

argument θ subject to, cosθ = , sinθ =

Based on the example above, it appears that we can generalize,

( n =( n = rn(
If this is correct, then the polar form provides a much faster
result for raising a complex number to a power than doing problem
in rectangular form.
 Statement:
When n is an integer, positive or negative, and θ is a real number
(cos θ + sin θ)n = cos nθ + sin nθ; when n is a fraction, positive or
negative, and θ is a real number cos nθ + sin nθ is one of the values
of (cos θ + sin θ)n.
Proof:
Case 1 : If n is a positive number
Assuming n = 1
(cosθ + sinθ)1 = cos(1θ) + sin(1θ)
which is true so correct for n = 1
Assume n = k is true so (cosθ + sinθ)k = cos(kθ) + sin(kθ).
Letting n = k + 1 we know that
(cosθ + sinθ)k+1 = cos((k + 1)θ) + sin((k + 1)θ).
But trying to derive the answer from n = k we get:
(cosθ + sinθ)k+1 = (cosθ + sinθ)k x (cosθ + sinθ)
Using law of indecies
= (cos(kθ) + sin(kθ)) x (cosθ + sinθ)
We've assumed this to be true from n = k
= cos(kθ)cos(θ) + cos(kθ)sin(θ) + sin(kθ)cos(θ) - sin(kθ)sin(θ)
Now using the trigenomitery rules of
sin(a + b) = sin(a)cos(b) + sin(b)cos(a) and
cos(a + b) = cos(a)cos(b) - sin(a)sin(b)
and collecting terms to match these formulas we get
= cos(kθ + θ) + sin(kθ + θ)
= cos((k + 1)θ) + sin((k + 1)θ)
Taking out θ as a common factor inside the trig functions
Which equals our expression gained from De Moivre's theorem for
n = k + 1,
and as theorem is true for n = 1 and n = k + 1,
statement is true for all values of n ≥1.

Case 2 : If n is a negative number

Consider, n = -m
L.H.S = (cos θ + sin θ)-m
= 1 / (cos θ + sin θ)m
= 1 / (cos mθ + sin mθ) (from case 1)
= ( 1 / cos mθ + sin mθ ) × (cos mθ - sin mθ / cos mθ - sin mθ)
= (cos mθ - sin mθ) / (cos² mθ + sin² mθ)
= (cos mθ – sin mθ) / 1 (since, cos² mθ + sin² mθ = 1)
= cos (-mθ) + sin (-mθ)
= cos (nθ) + sin (nθ). (since, -m = n)
= R.H.S

Case 3 : If n is a fractional number

Consider, n = p/q
L.H.S = (cos θ + sin θ)p/q
= (cos pθ + sin pθ)1/q
= (cos (pθ)/q + sin (pθ)/q) arguments need to add to pθ
= (cos (p/q)θ + sin (p/q)θ)
= cos (nθ) + sin (nθ). (since, p/q = n)
= R.H.S
Hence the De Moivre's Theorem is proved for all real numbers.
Note:
The generalized form of De Moivre’s theorem states that if n be a real
number and θ is real, (cos nθ + 𝒊sin nθ) is a value of (cos θ + sin θ)n.
Roots of a Complex Number:
When n is a fraction, positive or negative, De Moivre’s theorem
states that (cos nθ + sin nθ) is one of the values of (cos θ + sin θ)n. It
is natural to ask how many values of (cos θ + sin θ)n do exist in that
case.
We have following theorems in this respect.
Theorem:1
If z be a non-zero complex number and n be a positive integer
then there are n distinct values of z1/n.
Theorem:2
If z is a non-zero complex number and m , n are positive
integers prime to each other, then (z1/n)m = (zm)1/n.
Theorem:3
If z is a non-zero complex number and p, q, m, n are positive
integers where p/q = m/n with gcd (m, n) = – 1, then zp/q = zm/n

Topology of the Complex Number:

We discussed above some of algebraic and geometric
properties of the complex field or plane as the case may be. Now we
discuss some of the topological properties of the complex plane.
If X is any set, then the function d: X×X →ℝ is called a metric
or a distance function if it satisfies the following conditions for all a,
b, c X :
 [i] d( a, b) ≥ 0
[ii] d( a, b) = 0 a=b
[iii] d( a, b) = d( b, a)
[iv] d( a, c) ≤ d( a, b) + d(b, c)
The set X together with a metric, i.e. (X, d) or, in short X, is called a
metric space. As we have been seen earlier, the function
d: ℂ×ℂ ℝ , ( z, z’) → | z – z’ |, has the following properties ----
[a] | z – z’ | ≥ 0
[b] | z – z’ | = 0 z = z’
[c] | z – z’ | = | z’ – z’ |
[d] | z – w | ≤ | z – z’ | + | z’ – w |,
Where, d(z, z’) = | z – z’ | is called the Euclidian metric. Thus,
ℂ is a metric space with the Euclidian metric d. In the Euclidian
metric space (ℂ, d) , an open ball,
Δ ( z0; ε) = { z ℂ : |z – z0| < ε } is called an Open disk of radius
ε>0centered at z0 or an ε neighborhood or simply a neighbor -
hood of z0. Geometrically Δ( z0; ∞) = ℂ for any z0 .
The unit disk Δ plays a crucial role in the theory of functions of
complex variable.
A subset S is called Open (in ℂ) if for every z0 S ther is δ>0
such that, Δ (z, δ) S.
 This means that some disk around z0 lies entirely in S. For example,
the interior of a circle, the entire plane ℂ are open sets. But, the
interior of a circle union circumference does not form open set, since
no neighborhood of a point on the circumference lies entirely within
the set. For example,
S = {z: |z| ≤ 1} is not open.
Observe that ℝ when considered as a subset of ℂ is not open.
The complement of a set S is ℂ\ = {z : z S} and is usually
denoted by Sc. A set S is said to be Closed if its component ℂ\S is
open.

For each ε>0 , the set (z0; ε) = {z : |z – z0| ≤ ε} is closed

consequently we call it a Closed disk. The entire plane ℂ and the
empty set ϕ are closed sets.

There is another way of characterizing a closed set S using the

notation of S. A point z0 is almost point of a set S if every Δ (z0; ε)
contains a point of S other than z0. The point z0 itself may or may
not belong to the set S.
e.g. [i]- z0 = 0 is a limit point of S = {1, ½, 1/3,.., 1/n, ...} but
0 S.
[ii]- Δ = {z: |z| <1}, then each point on |z| = 1 is a limit
point of Δ but again does not belong to the disk Δ. Each z Δ is also
a limit point of S.
 As an alternative characterization of closed sets in ℂ, we
have “a set S is closed S contains all its limit points”. We also
note that, not every point of a closed set S need be a limit point of S.
e.g. If S = {z:z = 0 or, z = 1/n, for positive integer n} then z
= 0 is the only limit point of S (which is in S) and therefore, S is
closed. Note that no other point of S is a limit point of S, since for z0
= 1/n and ε = ( )
, the disk Δ (z0; ε) contains no point of S other
than z0 itself.

Points in a set S which are not limit points are called Isolated
points of the set S. Further , it is clear from the definition that each
element of an open set is a limit point of the set.
A boundary point of a set S is a point for which every
neighborhood contains at least one point of S and at least one point
not in S. The boundary of S, denoted by S, is defined as the set of all
the boundary points.
 e.g. Consider S = {z : |z – 1| ≤ 1}.
The point z0 = 1+ is a boundary point of S since every δ neighbor -
hood of it has a non-empty intersection with both S and Sc. Although
in this case z0 S. this need not always be so. For example, z0 = 1+ is
a boundary point but not in S = {z S : |z – 1| < 1}.
The boundary S is always closed in ℂ and S, the closure of S,
is defined by =S S.
A point z0 is called an interior point of S if there exist a δ>0
such that Δ(z0;δ) S. The interior of S, denoted by Int S, is the set of
all interior points of S. Thus it is clear from the definition that “A set
is open each of its points is an interior point.”

A set S is said to be separated ( or, disconnected ) if there

exist two nonempty disjoint open sets A and B such that S A B,
S∩A≠ϕ, and S∩B≠ϕ. If S is not disconnected, it is called Connected.
A domain is a nonempty open connected set in ℂ. A domain together
with some, none, or all of its boundary points is referred to as a
Region.

A set S is bounded if there is an R > 0 such that S .

Geometrically S is contained in a closed disk centered at 0 and radi -
us R. A set that cannot be enclosded by any for R>0 is called
Unbounded. Sets which is are closed as well as bounded in ℂ are
called Compact sets in ℂ. Of course, the complex plane ℂ is not
compact as it is not bounded in ℂ. Note that ℂ is closed because
ℂ\ℂ = ϕ is open. Thus, ℂ (with usual metric ) is not a compact
metric space. On the other hand, is compact.
A set is Countable if the elements of S can be placed in a one-
to-one correspondence with the set of positive integers.
e.g. each of the sets defined by,
A = {2n; n = 1, 2 . . .}, B = {2n+1;n = 1, 2, .....} and C = {r; r
rational}, is countable whereas the set of irrationals and the set of
reals are both not countable, i.e. uncountable.
 Applications:
Complex numbers have applications in many scientific areas,
including signal processing, control theory, electromagnetism, fluid
dynamics, quantum mechanics, cartography, and vibration analysis.
Some of these applications are described below.
Geometry
[i] Shapes
Three non-collinear points u,v,w in the plane determine the shape
of the triangle { u, v, w }}.. Locating the points in the complex plane,
this shape of a triangle may be expressed by complex arithmetic as

The shape S of a triangle will remain the same, when the

complex plane is transformed by translation or dilation,
corresponding to the intuitive notion of shape, and describing
similarity. Thus each
ach triangle { u, v, w } is in a similarity class of
triangles with the same shape.
[ii]Triangles
Every triangle has a unique Steiner inellipse – an ellipse inside
the triangle and tangent to the midpoints of the three sides of the
triangle. The foci of a triangle's Steiner inellipse can be found as
follows, according to Marden's theorem: Denote the triangle's
vertices in the complex plane as a = xA + yAi, b = xB + yBi,
and c = xC + yCi.. Write the cubic equation (x-a)(x-b)(x
b)(x-c) = 0 , take its
derivative, and equate the (quadratic) derivative to zero. Marden's
Theorem says that the solutions of this equation are the complex
numbers denoting the locations of the two foci of the Steiner
inellipse.
Algebraic number theory
As mentioned above, any nonconstant polynomial equation (in
complex coefficients) has a solution in C. A fortiori, the same is true
if the equation has rational coefficients. The roots of such equations
are called algebraic numbers – they are a principal object of study
in algebraic number theory. Compared to , the algebraic closure
of Q, which also contains all algebraic numbers, C has the advanta -
ge of being easily understandable in geometric terms. In this way,
algebraic methods can be used to study geometric questions and
vice versa. With algebraic methods, more specifically applying the
machinery of field theory to the number field containing roots of
unity, it can be shown that it is not possible to construct a regular
nonagon using only compass and straightedge – a purely geometric
problem.
Another example are Gaussian integers, that is, numbers of
the form x + iy, where x and y are integers, which can be used to
classify sums of squares.
Analytic number theory
Analytic number theory studies numbers, often integers or rationals,
by taking advantage of the fact that they can be regarded as
complex numbers, in which analytic methods can be used. This is
done by encoding number-theoretic information in complex-valued
functions. For example, the Riemann zeta function ζ(s) is related to
the distribution of prime numbers.
 Improper integrals
In applied fields, complex numbers are often used to compute
certain real-valued improper integrals, by means of complex-valued
functions. Several methods exist to do this; see methods of contour
integration.
Dynamic equations
In differential equations, it is common to first find all complex
roots r of the characteristic equation of a linear differential
equation or equation system and then attempt to solve the system in
terms of base functions of the form f(t) = ert. Likewise, in difference
equations, the complex roots r of the characteristic equation of the
difference equation system are used, to attempt to solve the system
in terms of base functions of the form f(t) = rt.
In applied mathematics
[i] Control theory
In control theory, systems are often transformed from the time
domain to the frequency domain using the Laplace transform. The
system's zeros and poles are then analyzed in the complex plane.
The root locus, Nyquist plot, and Nichols plot techniques all make
use of the complex plane.
In the root locus method, it is important whether zeros and
poles are in the left or right half planes, that is, have real part
greater than or less than zero. If a linear, time-invariant (LTI)
system has poles that are
 in the right half plane, it will be unstable,
 all in the left half plane, it will be stable,
 on the imaginary axis, it will have marginal stability.
If a system has zeros in the right half plane, it is a nonminimum
phase system.
In physics
[i] Electromagnetism and electrical engineering
In electrical engineering, the Fourier transform is used to
analyze varying voltages
ges and currents. The treatment
of resistors, capacitors, and inductors can then be unified by
introducing imaginary, frequency
frequency-dependent
dependent resistances for the
latter two and combining all three in a single complex number
called the impedance. This approach is called phasor calculus.
In electrical engineering, the imaginary unit is denoted by j, to
avoid confusion with I,, which is generally in use to denote electric
current, or, more particularly, i,, which is generally in use to denote
instantaneous electric current.
Since the voltage in an AC circuit is oscillating, it can be represented
as

To obtain the measurable quantity, the real part is taken:

The complex-valued
valued signal V(t) is called the analytic representation
of the real-valued,
valued, measurable signal v(t).
[ii] Fluid dynamics
In fluid dynamics, complex functions are used to
describe potential flow in two dimensions.
[iii]Quantum mechanics
The complex number field is intrinsic to the mathematical
formulations of quantum mechanics, where complex Hilbert
spaces provide the context for one such formulation that is
convenient and perhaps most standard. The original foundation
formulas of quantum mechanics – the Schrödinger equation and
Heisenberg's matrix mechanics – make use of complex numbers.
[iv] Relativity
In special and general relativity, some formulas for the metric
on spacetime become simpler if one takes the time component of the
spacetime continuum to be imaginary. (This approach is no longer
standard in classical relativity, but is used in an essential
way in quantum field theory.) Complex numbers are essential
to spinors, which are a generalization of the tensors used in
relativity.

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 CONCLuTION

I hope you will accept my project happily which I have

made with my calm and hard-working mind .
It was a wonderful and learning experience. after doing
this project I realized something which actually I had
not realized before.
I am requesting you to go through this project and
suggest for further improvements , your efforts will be
gratefully acknowledged.
 REFERENCE

For completing my project these sources help me a

lot.....
1) Foundation of Complex Number , by S
PONNUSAMY
2) Classical Algebra , by S K MAPA
3) Complex Number , from Wikipedia
4) Real life Math Everyday use of methemetical
concept , by EVAN M. GLAZER and
JOHN W. McCONNELL
5) An Introduction To Complex Analysis , from
Springer
Also we study various web pages and pdfs related
this topics.
The whole project is structured and completed
by :

BIKRAM MONDAL
Roll No : 170330100024
Reg. No : 201701022332 of 2107-18
Semester : VI
Course : B. Sc (HONOURS) in MATHEMATICS .

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