Measurements and Instrumentations

Lecture 4: Sensors and Transducers

Dr. Haitham El-Hussieny

Electronics and Communications Engineering
Faculty of Engineering (Shoubra)
Benha University

November 2018

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Lecture Outline:

1 Introduction to Sensors and Transducers.

2 Analog vs. Digital Sensors.

3 Signal Conditioning and Smart Sensors.

4 Displacement, Position and Proximity Sensors.

5 Velocity Sensors.

6 Force Sensors.

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Table of Contents

1 Introduction to Sensors and Transducers.

2 Analog vs. Digital Sensors.

3 Signal Conditioning and Smart Sensors.

4 Displacement, Position and Proximity Sensors.

5 Velocity Sensors.

6 Force Sensors.

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Introduction to Sensors and Transducers:
Electrical and Electronic systems need to sense and react with the real world either by:
Reading (sensing) an input quantity, or:
Activating (actuating) some form of output devices.

Sensor:
A sensor is a device that measures/detects a signal or stimulus to acquire information from the
real world.

Actuator:
An actuator is a device that generates a signal or stimulus to affect the state of the real world.
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Introduction to Sensors and Transducers:
Transducer:
It is a collective word used for both sensors and actuators.
It is a device that converts a form of energy into a different form of energy.

Electrical Transducers:
Devices that are used to convert types of energy to/from electrical energy.

A microphone (input device) converts sound waves into electrical signals for the amplifier.
Also, a loudspeaker (output device) converts these electrical signals back into sound waves.

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Introduction to Sensors and Transducers:
Types of Electrical Transducers:

In this part of the course, some types of electrical sensors will be discussed.
There are many different types of sensors available in the marketplace.
The choice of which sensor to use depends upon the quantity to be measured:

Position and Displacement: Speed:

I Potentiometers. I Tachogenerators.
I Encoders. I Slotted optocoupler.
I Linear Variable Differential Transformer I Doppler Effect Sensors.
(LVDT). I etc.
I etc. Temperature:
Force: I Thermocouple.
I strain gauge. I Resistive Temperature Detector (RTD).
I Load cells. I etc.
I etc. etc..
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Table of Contents

1 Introduction to Sensors and Transducers.

2 Analog vs. Digital Sensors.

3 Signal Conditioning and Smart Sensors.

4 Displacement, Position and Proximity Sensors.

5 Velocity Sensors.

6 Force Sensors.

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Analog vs. Digital Sensors:
Analog Sensors:

Analog sensors produce a continuous

output signal or voltage which is generally
proportional to the quantity being
measured.
Physical quantities (such as Temperature,
Speed, Pressure, Displacement, etc.) are
all analog or continuous in nature.
For example, the fluid temperature could
be measured by a thermometer which
responds continuously to the temperature
change.

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Analog vs. Digital Sensors:
Digital Sensors:

Digital sensors produce a discrete digital

output signal or voltage which is a digital
representation of the quantity being
measured.
Digital sensors produces Binary output
signal in the form of logic ”High” or logic
”Low”.
The digital representation of the measured
quantity could be sent to the controlling
device in serial (bit-by-bit) or in parallel
(combination of bits) .
For example, a shaft encoder is used to
measure the speed of a shaft.

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Table of Contents

1 Introduction to Sensors and Transducers.

2 Analog vs. Digital Sensors.

3 Signal Conditioning and Smart Sensors.

4 Displacement, Position and Proximity Sensors.

5 Velocity Sensors.

6 Force Sensors.

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Signal Conditioning and Smart Sensors:
Signal conditioning is defined as the operations done over an analog signal in such a way
that it meets the requirements of the next stage for further processing.

Signal Conditioning
Analog Sensor Circuit
Digital Controller

Signal conditioning includes: amplification, filtering, range changing and

analog-to-digital conversion.

Smart Sensors: Smart Sensor

The sensors that come combined with their Analog Sensor

Signal Conditioning
Digital Controller
Circuit
signal conditioning in the same package.

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Table of Contents

1 Introduction to Sensors and Transducers.

2 Analog vs. Digital Sensors.

3 Signal Conditioning and Smart Sensors.

4 Displacement, Position and Proximity Sensors.

5 Velocity Sensors.

6 Force Sensors.

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Displacement, Position and Proximity Sensors:

Displacement Sensors: d1 d2 dn
Θ1
Θ2
Sensors that are concerned with the measurement of the Θn
amount by which some object has been moved.

y
Position Sensors:
(xn, yn)
Sensors that are concerned with the determination of the
(x1, y1)
position of some object in relation to some
x
reference point.

Proximity Sensors: OFF ON

Sensors that are used to determine if an object is

within some particular critical distance of the sensor.
They give ON/OFF outputs. Wall

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Displacement, Position and Proximity Sensors:

Displacement, Position and Proximity Sensors

Potentiometer Optical Encoders

Strain Gauge Pneumatic Sensors

Capacitive Element Inductive Switch

Differential Transformer Proximity Switch

Eddy Current Sensors Hall Effect Sensors

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Displacement, Position and Proximity Sensors:
[1] Potentiometer Sensors:
A potentiometer consists of a resistance element with a sliding contact that can move
over the length of the resistance element.
The moving object could be connected to the sliding contact to indicate the object
displacement as a change in resistance.

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Displacement, Position and Proximity Sensors:
[2] Strain-Gauged Element:

Strain is defined as the ratio of the change in

length to the original length of an elastic material.
Strain gauge is a metal wire or a strip of
semiconductor that when subject to strain or
elongation, its resistance R changes.
The change in strain-gauge resistance, ∆R/R, is
proportional to the applied strain, ε.
∆R
= Gε
R
where G is the gauge factor constant.
A problem with all strain gauges is that their
resistance changes with temperature.
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Displacement, Position and Proximity Sensors:
[2] Strain-Gauged Element:
To monitor a displacement by a strain gauge, the moving object is attached a flexible to
form either a cantilevers, rings or U-shape.
When the flexible element is deformed as a result of moving object, the resistance of the
strain gauges will change. The change in resistance is thus a measure of the
displacement or deformation of the flexible element.

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Displacement, Position and Proximity Sensors:
[3] Capacitive Elements:
The capacitance C of a parallel plate
capacitor is:
To monitor a linear displacement,
ε o εr A capacitive sensors is arranged in such a
C= way that the displacement is either:
d
1 Change of the plate separation distance.
εr : Relative permittivity of the dielectric. 2 Change the plates overlap area.
εo : Permittivity of free space. 3 Change of the dielectric between plates.
A: Overlap area between the two plates.
d: Plates separation distance.

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Displacement, Position and Proximity Sensors:
[4] Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT):

The LVDT consists of three coils

symmetrically spaced along an insulated
tube.
The central coil is the primary coil which
is connected to an AC current source.
AC E.M.Fs, Es1 and Es2 , are generated in
the two secondary coils. The two
secondary coils are identical and are
connected in series in such a way that
their outputs oppose each other.
A magnetic core is moved through the
central tube which is connected to the
displacement being monitored.

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Displacement, Position and Proximity Sensors:
[5] Differential Transformers:
The net E.M.F, Eo is depending on the position of the core inside the insulator:
Eo = Es1 − Es2
Core at the left
Core at the center Core at the right

Es1 = Es2
Es1 > Es2
Eo = 0 Es1 < Es2
Eo = +ve
Null Position Eo = −ve
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Displacement, Position and Proximity Sensors:
[5] Differential Transformers:

A Rotary Variable Differential Transformer

(RVDT) can be used for the measurement
of rotation. It operates on the same
principle as the LVDT.
The core is a cardioid-shaped piece of
magnetic material and rotation causes
more of it to pass into one secondary coil
than the other.

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Displacement, Position and Proximity Sensors:
[6] Proximity switches:

There are many forms of proximity switch that can give either ON or OFF according to the
presence of a certain object.

Photosensitive Switch
No physical contact
Reed Switch (Magnet)
Micro Switch No physical contact
Requires physical contact

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Table of Contents

1 Introduction to Sensors and Transducers.

2 Analog vs. Digital Sensors.

3 Signal Conditioning and Smart Sensors.

4 Displacement, Position and Proximity Sensors.

5 Velocity Sensors.

6 Force Sensors.

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Velocity Sensors:
[1] Incremental Encoders:

The incremental encoder used for displacement sensing can be used for the measurement
of angular velocity.
The velocity could be determined by counting the number of pulses produced per second.
Two tracks of slots could be used to determine the direction of velocity (clockwise or
counter clock wise).

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Velocity Sensors:
[2] Tachogenerators:

The tachogenerator is used to measure angular velocity. It has two forms:

1 Variable Reluctance Tachogenerator:

A toothed wheel of ferromagnetic material is

attached to the rotating object.
A pick-up coil is wound on a permanent magnet.
As the wheel rotates, the air gap between the coil
and the ferromagnetic material changes.
The flux linked by a pick-up coil will be changed
due to the change in the air gap. The resulting
cyclic change in the flux produces an alternating
e.m.f. in the pickup coil.

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Velocity Sensors:
[2] Tachogenerators:
The flux φ changes with time as:

φ = φ0 + φa cos(nωt)

φ0 : The mean flux.

φz : Flux variation amplitude.
ω: Rotation speed
n: No. of teeth.
dφ
e.m.f = −N = N φa nωsinωt
dt
N : No. of turns of pickup coil.

e.m.f = Emax sinωt Emax ∝ ω

The induced e.m.f. could be shaped to a series of pulses that

could be counted as a measure of angular velocity.
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Velocity Sensors:
[2] Tachogenerators:
The tachogenerator is used to measure angular velocity. It has two forms:
2 A.C. Generator:

It consists of a coil, termed the rotor, which rotates

with the rotating shaft inside a magnetic field
produced by a stationary permanent magnet.
When the coil rotates, an alternating e.m.f. is
induced in it.
The amplitude or frequency of this alternating
e.m.f. can be used as a measure of the angular
velocity of the rotor.
The output may be rectified to give a d.c. voltage
with a size which is proportional to the angular
velocity.
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Table of Contents

1 Introduction to Sensors and Transducers.

2 Analog vs. Digital Sensors.

3 Signal Conditioning and Smart Sensors.

4 Displacement, Position and Proximity Sensors.

5 Velocity Sensors.

6 Force Sensors.

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Force Sensors:
[1] Strain Gauge Load Cell:

Forces are commonly measured by the measurement of

displacements.
Strain gauges are used to monitor the strain produced in
some member when stretched, compressed or bent by the
application of the force.
The arrangement for measuring the force is generally referred
to as a load cell.
Load cell is a cylindrical tube to which strain gauges have
been attached. When forces are applied to the cylinder the
resistance will change which is a measure of the applied force.
A signal conditioning circuit is required to eliminate the
effect of temperature change on the strain gauge.

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 End of Lecture

Best Wishes

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