ARVIND ACADEMY 1

Notes

Chap: How Do
Organisms Reproduce

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IMPORTANT TERMS & CONCEPTS

It is the process of producing new individuals of

the same species by existing organisms of a
species i.e., parents.

Asexual Sexual
(Need one parent) (Need two
parents)

Fission Budding Regeneration Vegetative

Fragmentation
propagation

Binary Multiple Broken parts of the

fission organisms grow into
Fission breaks up into 2 or separate
more small pieces individuals.Eg;Planari new plants are
e.g siprogyra ax obtained from the
part of old plants

1. Reproduction: It is the process of producing new individuals of the same species by existing organisms of a species i.e.,
parents.
2. Significance of Reproduction:
I. It allows perpetuation of species.
II. It increases the population of a species.
III. It plays an important role in evolution by transmitting favourable variations from one generation to another
generation.
3. Body Design of Organisms: Organisms look similar because their body designs are similar.
 Reproduction at its most basic level involves making copies of the blueprints of body design.
 DNA in the cell nucleus is the information source for making proteins and different proteins lead to different
designs.
 A basic event in reproduction is the creation of a DNA copy.
 DNA copying is accompanied by a cell division giving rise to two cells.
 DNA copying always involves some variation; hence DNA copies generated are similar but not identical.
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 This tendency of variation during reproduction leads to evolution.

4. Importance of Variation in Organisms:
 Organisms fill well-defined places or niches in the ecosystem with the help of reproduction.
 Organisms having similar body designs use the same niche or place.
 If a niche suitable for a population of organism is drastically changed, the population may be wiped out completely.
 But if some variations are there in few individuals of these populations, there could be chances for survival.
 For example, if there is a population of bacteria living in temperate water and if the water temperature increases
due to global warming, most of the bacteria will die. But, the variants resistant to heat will survive and grow
further.
 Variation is thus important for survival of species.
5. Types of Reproduction: There are two main methods by which organisms give rise to new individuals —Asexual
reproduction and Sexual reproduction.
I. Asexual reproduction: It is the process of producing new organism from a single parent without the involvement
of sex cells or gametes.
II. Sexual reproduction: It is the process of producing new organism from two parents by making use of their sex cells
or gametes.
6. Characteristics of Asexual Reproduction:
I. Only one individual of an organism is involved.
II. Cell divisions are either amitotic or mitotic.
III. The new individuals produced are genetically identical to their parents.
IV. Asexual reproduction presents a rapid mode of multiplication.
7. Advantages and disadvantages of Asexual Reproduction:
 Advantages
I. Asexual reproduction is simple and fast.
 Disadvantages
I. Evolutionary change is not possible as no variation is produced. A species consequently cannot adapt to changes in
its environment.
II. Asexual reproduction produces identical organism’s generation after generation. In case of any defect in the parent
organism, the offspring also inherits it.
8. Modes of Reproduction used by single organisms: Asexual reproduction takes place as follows:

(i) Fission (ii) Fragmentation (iii) Regeneration (iv) Budding (v) Vegetative propagation (vi) Spore formation

9. Fission: This is the simplest method of asexual reproduction in unicellular forms of life such as Amoeba, Paramoecium and
other protozoa.
 Fission leads to the creation of new individuals.
 In the process of fission, the parent organism splits or divides to form two or more new organisms.
 Fission is of two types: Binary fission and multiple fission
I. Binary Fission: It is the division of one cell into two
similar or identical cells.
 In this method, the nucleus first divides a mitotically
into two, followed by the division of the cytoplasm.
 The cell finally splits into two daughter cells.
 Binary fission can be seen in bacteria, yeast and
Euglena.
 Among animals, Amoeba and Paramoecium reproduce through binary fission.
II. Multiple Fission: In multiple fission, many individuals are formed from a single individual.
 The nucleus of the cell divides repeatedly,
producing many nuclei.
 Each nucleus is surrounded by a small amount of
cytoplasm and many daughter cells are
produced within the cyst.

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 The cyst breaks up under favourable conditions and small offspring are liberated.
 In plants, multiple fission is seen in many algae and in animals; a common example of multiple fission is
that of the malarial parasite (Plasmodium).
10. Fragmentation: Multicellular organisms such simple body organisation such as filamentous algae-spirogyra
breaks up into two or more small pieces or fragments upon maturation. These fragments grow into new
individuals.

Among animals, flatworms show fragmentation of the body which develops into new individuals.

11. Regeneration: It is the ability of a fully differentiated organism to give rise to

new individual organisms from its body parts.
 Small cut or broken parts of the organisms’ body grow or regenerate into
separate individuals.
 For example, simple organisms like Hydra and Planaria can be cut into any
number of pieces and each piece grows into a complete organism.
 Regeneration is carried out by specialized cells which proliferate and make
large number of cells thus undergoing changes to become various cell types
and tissues.
12. Budding: In budding a small part of the body of the parent grows out as a ‘bud’
which then detaches and becomes a new organism.
 A bud develops as an outgrowth due to repeated cell divisions
 When matured bud gets detached from parent body
 A new independent individual is formed.

13. Vegetative propagation:

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Natural Artificial

Roots Stems Leaves Cutting

e.g: Dahilia e.g :Ginger e.g: Bryophyllum Any part of the plant is cut
and buried E.g:Rose

Layering
Adventitious roots are
produced
Plant is then detached
e.g Jasmine

Grafting
Scion(portion gathered
Stock (Plant on which grafted
)eg :Mango

In vegetative propagation, new plants are obtained from the pars of old plants like stems, roots and leaves,
without the help of any reproductive organ.

There are two ways of vegetative propagation:

(a) Natural Vegetative Propagation and (b) Artificial Vegetative Propagation

14. Natural Vegetative Propagation: Various structures that take part in this type of reproduction are roots, stem
and leaves.
I. Natural Vegetative Propagation by Roots: In some plants like Dahlia, sweet potato, etc. the adventitious
toots become thick, swollen and tuberous due to storage of food.
II. Natural Vegetative Propagation by Stems: Some plants reproduce by
means of stems. They may be aerial like runners, suckers or
underground like ginger (rhizome), potato (tuber), onion (bulb).
III. Natural Vegetative Propagation by Leaves: The fleshy leaves of
Bryophyllum bear adventitious buds in the notches along the leaf
margin.
 When the leaves fall on the soil, the buds develop into small plants under favourable conditions.
 These plantlets on being detached develop into independent plant.

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15. Artificial Vegetative Propagation: Some plant growers have developed artificial methods of vegetative
propagation like cutting, layering and grafting which are used in agriculture and horticulture.
I. Cutting: In this type of propagation any part of the plant either root, stem or leaf is cut and buried partly in
the moist soil.
 Many plants like sugarcane, raised plant, Chrysanthemum, grapes are propagated by means of cutting.
II. Layering: The adventitious roots are produced in the branch of the stem before the plant is detached from the parent
plant. The branch of stem is called a layer. This layer is then planted on
soil. From this layer new shoot and root produces as a result new plant
grows. This process is utilised in the propagation of plant and the
phenomenon is called layering. Layering is used in the propagation of
plants like Lemon, Guava, Hibiscus, Bougainvillea, Jasmine, Raspberry,
Strawberry and many ornamental plants.
III. Grafting: In this method of reproduction, two plants of closely related
varieties are joined together so that they live as one plant.
 The portion of a plant that is rafted on the other plant is called scion,
and the plant on which grafting is performed is called the stock.
 This method is applied to improve variety of fruits like mango, apple, peas, citrus and guava .
16. Advantages of Vegetative Propagation:
I. Vegetative propagation is a cheaper, easier and more rapid method of propagation in plants than growing plants from
their seeds.
II. The traits or characters of the parent plant are preserved by vegetative propagation.
III. Better quality of the plants can be maintained by this method.
IV. It results in propagation of those plants which do not produce viable seeds or produce seeds with prolonged period of
dormancy.
V. The plants generated from vegetative means require less time to grow and have the advantage of being more uniform
and generically similar to the parent stock.
17. Disadvantages of Vegetative Propagation:
I. Vegetative propagation induces over-crowding.
II. There is no genetic variation, so there is less adaptability to the environment.
III. The disease of the parent plant gets transferred to the offspring.
IV. The plants lose vigour.
V. New characters can neither be introduced nor undesirable characters be eliminated.
18. Tissue Culture: It is the production or propagation of new plants from isolated plant cells or small pieces of plant tissue in a
synthetic medium of culture solution. Tissue culture for producing new plants is done as follows:
 Plants are grown by removing tissues or separating cells from the growing tip of the plant and put in an artificial
medium.
 The plant tissue divides to form small group of cells or callus.
 The callus is transferred to another medium containing hormones for growth and differentiation that forms plantlets.
 The plantlets produced are transplanted into pots or soil where they can grow to form mature plants.
 This technique is also known as micro propagation in vitro because it takes place outside the body of the parent plant in
a test-tube using an artificial environment.
 Micropropagation technique is being used for the production of ornamental plants like Orchids, Dahlia and Carnation.
19. Spore Formation: When a slice of bread is kept in moist dark place for a
few days, spores of Rhizopus present in air settle on the bread to form
new fungus plants of Rhizopus.
 The Rhizopus consists of fine thread-like projections called hyphae. It
has a knob like structure which is involved in reproduction called
sporangia, containing spores, which develop into new Rhizopus.

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Flower Human
are of two types 1.Male reproductive Part
1.Unisexual 2.Female reproductive part
2.Bisexual

Sepals petals Stamen carpel

Stigma style ovary

Anther filament

20. Sexual Reproduction: It is a type of reproduction in which the two sexes, namely, male and female are involved.
 The male sexual unit is known unit is known as male gamete or sperm while female sexual unit is termed as female
gamete or ova.
 Thus, the two major processes, i.e., formation of gametes and fusion of gametes constitute sexual reproduction.

21. Significance of Sexual Mode of Reproduction:

I. Sexual reproduction promotes diversity of characters in the offsprings.
II. It results in new combinations of genes brought together in the gamete and this reshuffling increases genetic
variation.
III. It plays a prominent role in the origin of new species.
IV. The sexual mode of reproduction incorporates process of combining DNA from two different individuals
during reproduction.

Angiosperms: It is a phylum comprising of the flowering plants. The gametes are produced within the flowers
and the ovules are enclosed in a carpel.

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23. Angiosperms: It is a phylum comprising of the flowering plants. The gametes are produced within the flowers
and the ovules are enclosed in a carpel.
24. Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants: The sexual reproduction in plants takes place in the following steps:
 The reproductive parts of angiosperms are located in the flower.
 Stamens and carpels are the reproductive parts of a flower which contain the germ cells.
 The male organ of a flower called ‘stamen’ makes the male gametes, which are present in pollen grains of
the plant.
 The female organ of a flower called ‘carpel’ or ‘pistil’ makes the female gametes, which are present in ovules
of the plant.
 The male gametes present in pollen grains fertilise the female gametes present in ovules.
 The fertilized ovules grow and become seeds.
 The seeds produce new plants.
25. Parts of a Flower: The flowers are usually bisexual, i.e., male and female reproductive parts are present in the
same plant. The flower is attached to the plant by a stalk or pedicel.
 The main parts of a flower are – sepals, petals, stamens
and carpels, (pistil).
 Sepals are usually green, leaf-like parts in the
outermost circle of a flower. The function of sepals is to
protect the flower in its initial stages when it is in the
form of a bud.
 Petals are the colourful parts of a flower whose base
lies inside the sepals. The function of petals is to attract
insects for pollination and to protect the reproductive
organs, which are at the centre of the flower.
 Stamen and carpel constitute the reproductive parts of
a flower.
 Stamen is the male reproductive organ of the plant. A flower usually has a number of stamens in it.
 Each stamen is made up of two parts – a filament, the stalk
of stamen and an anther, the swollen top of stamen.
Another is the upper bilobed part and each lobe contains
two pollen sacs within numerous pollen grains are
produced that are yellowing in colour.

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 Carpel (Pistil) is present in the centre of a flower and is the female reproductive organ of the plant. It is made
up of three parts – stigma, style and ovary.
 Stigma is the terminal part of carpel, which may be sticky and helps in receiving the pollen grains from the
anther of stamen during pollination.
 Style is the middle elongated part of the carpel which connects stigma to the ovary.
 Ovary is the swollen bottom part of a carpel, which contains ovules and each ovule has an egg cell – the
female gamete.
 Carpel in a flower is surrounded by a number of stamens.
26. Unisexual: it is the plant whose flowers contain either stamens or carpels but not both. Example: Papaya,
Watermelon.
27. Bisexual: It is the plant whose flowers contain both stamens and carpels. Example: Hibiscus, Mustard.
28. Pollination:

Pollination

Self pollination Cross pollination

Transfer of pllen to the stigma Transfer of pollen to the
of the smae flower of the stigma of another Flower of
same plant. a different plant.
It is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a stamen to the stigma of a carpel. The pollen grains are
transferred by many agents, such as insects (bees and butterflies), birds, man wind and water.

Pollination is of two types – self-pollination and cross-pollination.

29. Self-Pollination: It is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a flower to the stigma of the same flower
or another flower of the same plant. It is seen in pea and China rose plant.

Advantages:

I. Self-pollination in bisexual flowers ensures continuity of the race.

II. It helps to preserve the parental characters, as the gametes from the same flower are involved.
III. It is not necessary for flowers to produce nectar or scent or be colourful.

Disadvantages:

I. New varieties cannot be obtained by self-pollination.

II. The genetic defects of the breed cannot be removed.
III. Repeated self-pollination leads to loss of vigour and vitality of the species.
30. Cross-Pollination: It is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of one flower to the stigma of another
flower of a different plant of the same species. It is common in majority of flowering plants. Cross-pollination
occurs with the help of two groups of agents – biotic such as insects, birds and man; and abiotic such as wind
and water.

Advantages:
I. Cross-pollination results in healthier offsprings.
II. Seeds produced by cross-pollination have much better germinating capacity.
III. More abundant and viable seeds are produced.
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IV. Variations arte introduced by cross-pollination.

Disadvantages:
I. Plants have to depend on external agencies for pollination.
II. The pollen grains have to be produced in large quantity to ensure pollination.
31. Gametes: the cells involved in sexual reproduction are called gametes. The male gamete in animals is called ‘sperm’ or
spermatozoan and the female gamete in animals are called ‘ovum’ of egg.
32. Zygote: The cell which is formed by the fusion of a male gamete and a female gamete is called zygote, i.e., it is a ‘fertilised
ovum’ or ‘fertilised egg’.
33. Embryo: It is the stage of development between the zygote or fertilised egg and the newly formed offspring.
34. Fertilisation: It is defined as the fusion of a male gamete (sperm) with a female gamete (an ovum or egg) to form a zygote
during sexual reproduction.
35. Fertilisation in Plants: Pollination is followed by fertilization in plants.
 After the pollen lands on a suitable stigma, it has to reach the female germ cells in the ovary.
 The pollen tube grows out of the pollen grain through the style to reach the ovary.
 After fertilization, the zygote divides several times to form an embryo within the ovule.
 The ovule then develops a tough coat and gets converted into a seed.
 The seed contains the future embryo which develops into seedling.
 The ovary develops and ripens to form a fruit.
 The process of double fertilization occurs inside each embryo sac, in which two fusions, syngamy and triple fusion take
place.
 When one male gamete fuses with the egg contained in the embryo sac of the ovule, this fusion of male and female
gametes is called syngamy and its product is the zygote.
 The other male gamete fuses with the two polar nuclei and this process is called triple fusion, where three nuclei are
involved in the fusion process, one male gamete and two polar nuclei.
Note: After fertilization ovary changes into Fruit and ovule changes into seed while sepal petal stamen
carpel degenerate.

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Germination: It is the initial stages in the growth of a seed to develop into al seeding under appropriate
conditions.

Human Reproductive system

Male Reproductive system

testes :Primary reproductive organ Female reproductive system
Epididymis:Stores sperms
Ovaries:Produce eggs and secret estrogen and
Vas deferens:Long tube to carry sperms to seminal progesterone
vesicles.
Fallopian tube :Carries eggs from ovary to uterus
Urethra :Common duct fror urine and spermatic .
fluid.
Vagina:Receives sperms and passage for foetus.
Penis:cpulatory organ.
Seminal vesicles:Secret fluid for nourishment of
sperms.
Prostate gland :Produce fluid
Sperms:Tiny bodies contain
36. Reproduction in Human Beings:
 The reproductive organs of human beings, i.e., testis in male and ovary in female become functional only
after attaining sexual maturity.
 In males, sexual maturity is attained at the age of 13-14 years, while in females at the age of 10-12 years.
This is known as the age of puberty.
 The testes and ovary produce viable gametes and also secrete hormones like testosterone (male hormone
from testes) and estrogen and progesterone (female hormones from ovary).
37. Puberty: It is the age at which the sex hormones or gametes begin to be produced and the boy or girl becomes
sexually mature
38. Sexual Maturity in Human beings: Various changes take place in human body at the time of sexual maturity or
puberty.
I. Changes Common to both Boys and Girls.
 Thick hair growth in armpits and genital area between the thighs.
 Thinner hair on legs, arms, and face.
 Oily skin and appearance of pimples.

II. Changes Different to both Boys and Girls.

In Girls In Boys
 Breast size begins to increase. Thick facial hair growth.
 Darkening of nipple skin. Voice begins to crack.
 Start of menstruation cycle. Penis occasionally begins to become enlarged and erect.

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39. Male Reproductive System: It consists of portions that produce the germ-cells and other portions that deliver
the germ-cells to the site of fertilization. The human male
reproductive system consists of the following organs:
 Testes (singular testis) are the oval-shaped primary
reproductive organs in man. A pair of lies in a small saclike
muscular structure outside the abdominal cavity called
scroutm. The function of testis is to produce sperm and
male sex hormone called testosterone. The scrotum
provides the optimal temperature for formation of sperms.
 Epididymis is a coiled tube-like structure firmly attached to
the testis and serves as the storehouse of sperms. Inside the
epididymis, sperms become mature and develop motility.
 Vas deferens: The sperms are carried by a long tube called
vas deferens of sperm duct into organs called seminal vesicles, where the sperms get nourished and stored.
 Urethra is a common duct for the passage of both urine and spermatic fluid. Urethra carries the sperms to
an organ called penis which opens to the outside through a male genital pore.
 Penis forms the external male genital organ. It is a copulatory organ with thick muscular walls.
 Accessory Glands: Seminal vesicles are a pair of thin-walled muscular elongated sac which secretes fluid for
nourishment of sperms.
 Prostate Glands also produce fluid which is released in the urethra along with secretion of seminal vesicle.
The secretion of accessory glands together with sperms is called semen.
 Sperms are tiny bodies that consist of mainly genetic material and a long tail which help them to move
towards the female germ cell.
40. Female Reproductive System: The female germ-cells or eggs are made in the ovaries and are responsible for the
production of some hormones. The human female
reproductive system consists of the following organs:
 Ovaries are a pair of small and oval-shaped organs,
located in the abdominal cavity near the kidney.
Ovaries are the female primary reproductive organs
which perform dual functions of production of
female gamete or ovum and the secretion of female
sex hormones, estrogen and progesterone.
 Fallopian Tube or Oviduct is a pair of long
convoluted tubes that carry oval or eggs from the
ovary to the uterus. The fallopian tube has a funnel-
shaped opening near the ovary. These tubes from
both the sides opening near the ovary. These tubes
from both the sides open into an elastic bag-like structure, the uterus.
 Uterus or womb is a hollow, pear-shaped organ within which the embryo develops. Its upper portion is
broader, while its lower portion is narrower, called cervix.
 Vagina: The uterus opens into the vagina through the cervix. Vagina is a tubular structure called “birth
canal”. It receives sperms from the male and also serves as the passage through which the fully developed
foetus is born.
41. Sexual Reproduction in Human Beings:
 The male gamete (sperm) is introduced inside the female genital tract (vagina) by the process of copulation
or mating. Fertilization occurs in the fallopian tube.
 Sperms are highly active and mobile which move up through cervix into the uterus and then pass into the
fallopian tubes.
 In the fallopian tube only one sperm fertilises the ovum to form a zygote. This is called fertilization.
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 Fertilization occurs only if copulation takes place during the ovulatory period.
 The embryonic development of the zygote starts immediately in the fallopian tube and pregnancy starts
while menstruation stops.
 The embryo moves down to reach the uterus. The embedding of embryo in the thick inner lining of the
uterus is called implantation.
 Then, a special tissue develops between the uterine wall and the embryo (foetus) called placenta where the
exchange of nutrients, oxygen and waste products take place.
 The time period from the development of foetus inside the uterus till birth is called gestation.
 The act of giving birth of the fully developed foetus at the end of gestation period is termed as parturition.
 The development of the child inside the mother’s body takes approximately nine months.
42. Menstruation:
 The breakdown and removal of the inner, thick and soft lining of the uterus along with its blood vessels in
the form of vaginal bleeding is called menstrual flow or menstruation.
 The cycle of events taking place in the ovaries and uterus every twenty eight days or roughly one month and
marked by the menstrual flow is called menstrual cycle or sexual cycle in human female. It lasts for about
two to eight days.
43. Reproductive health is all those aspects of general health which help a person to lead a normal, safe and
satisfying reproductive life.
44. Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs)

Sexually transmitted Diseases

Gonorrhoea:Caused by Neisseria Gonorrhoeae.

Symptoms:Inflammation of urogenital tract.
Syphills:Caused by Treponema pallidium.
Symptoms:Lesions in mucous membrane and ulcers on genitalia
Trichomoniasis caused by trichomonas vaginalis.
Symptoms :Vaginal discharge.
AIDS(Acquired immuno deficiency Syndrome )Caused by HIV (Human
Immunodeficiency virus)
Symptoms:Suppresses body's immune mechanism.

These are the diseases which are spread by sexual contact from an infected person to a healthy person. They are
caused by various micro-organisms that live in warm and moist environments of the vagina, urethra, anus and
mouth. Some of the common sexually transmitted diseases are:
I. Gonorrhea: It is caused by bacterium Neisseria gonorrhea. It is characterised by inflammation of
urinogenital tract and the patient feels burning sensation during urination. This bacteria infects the
ureter in men and the cervix in women.
II. Syphilis: It is caused by bacterium Treponema palladium. It is characterised by lesions in the mucous
membrane of urinogenital tract and ulcers on genitalia.
III. Trichomoniasis: It is caused by protozoan Trichomonas vaginalis. It is characterised by some vaginal
discharge at the urinogenital tract of the female.
IV. AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome): it is caused by a virus called HIV (Human
Immunodeficiency Virus) which suppresses the body’s immune mechanism and thereby making it
susceptible to any disease.

Mode of transmission of AIDS is as follows:

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 By having sexual contact with an infected person.

 By the transfusion of blood from an infected person.
 Through infected needles used for injection.
 Through the placenta from the mother to child during pregnancy.
45. Methods to Avoid Pregnancy:

Pregnancy control

Male Reproductive
system Chemical Method Female
e.g :Oral pill reproductiv
e system
A number of techniques have been developed to prevent and control pregnancy.
I. Mechanical Barrier Methods: In these methods, physical devices such as condoms, diaphragm and
cervical caps are used. These devices prevent the entry of sperm in the female genital tract during
copulation, thus acting as a barrier between them.
II. Chemical methods: In these methods, specific drugs are used by females, which are of two types – oral
pills and vaginal pills.
III. Surgical Methods: In these methods, a small portion of vas deferens in male and the fallopian tube in
female is surgically removed or tied. It is called vasectomy in males and tubectomy in females. In this
case, if the vas deferens in male is blocked sperm transfer will be prevented and if the fallopian tube in
the female is blocked, the egg will not be able to reach the uterus, thus fertilization will not take place.
46. Sex Ratio: It is the ratio of the number of females to the number of males in a population. The female-male sex
ratio must be maintained for a healthy society. The female child sex ratio is declining at an alarming rate in some
sections of our society because of reckless female feticide. Therefore, prenatal sex determination has been
prohibited by law.
47. Population Size: Organisms increase their population with the help of reproduction. The rates of birth and
death in a given population determine its size. The increase in a population occurs when the birth rate is higher
than the death rate.

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