1

CH 8. HOW DO ORGANISMS REPRODUCE?

1. Reproduction:-
❖ Reproduction is the ability of living organism to produce new organism from the existing
organism of the same species.
❖ Reproduction is essential for -
• For maintenance of continuity of a species.
• For adding variations for evolution.
• For maintenance of population size.
• Replacement of dead organisms.
❖ The reproducing organisms procreate new individuals. The individuals so produced are
similar to each other and their parents.
❖ This similarity occurs because of DNA. It is the blueprint of all basic body designs of
organisms.
❖ DNA is present in the nucleus of a cell in the form of condensed structure called
chromosome.
❖ The basic event in reproduction is the creation of a DNA copy and an addition cellular
apparatus by the cell involved in the process.
❖ With the help of biochemical reactions, cells build up copies of their DNA.
❖ DNA present in nucleus of the cell acts as the information source.
❖ It helps in making different proteins and cellular machinery of cell, which makes up the
different body design.

Do organisms create carbon copies of themselves?

❖ The DNA molecules in chromosomes in the nucleus are responsible for the transfer of
characters from the parent to the offspring.
❖ During reproduction the reproductive cells produce two copies of the DNA which separates
into two cells.
❖ The DNA copies will be similar but not identical to each other. So the new individuals have
slight variations from their parents. This is the basic for variations and evolution of new
species

3. The importance of variation:-

 Variations are differences in structure, physiology and other traits found in individuals of
same species.
 DNA copying during reproduction is important for maintaining the body design of different
organisms to survive on the existing environment. But the environment is constantly changing
due to changes in temperature, climate, water levels etc. If organisms cannot adjust
themselves to the change in environment then their species will become extinct.
 If there are variations in some individuals of a species they may be able to survive the
changes in the environment.
 So variation in species is necessary for the survival of different species and for the evolution
of new species.
 2

INTEXT QUESTIONS

1. What is the importance of DNA copying in reproduction?

Ans:- The importance of DNA copying during reproduction are-
• It is responsible for the transmission of parental characteristics to the offspring.
• During DNA copying, the changes occur due to the inheritance of traits from both the
parents. This leads to certain genetic variations, which are useful for the evolution of
species over a period of time.

2. Why is variation beneficial to the species, but not necessary for the individual?
Ans:- Variations are beneficial for the survival of species. The population of a group of organisms
resides in well- defined places in the ecosystem, using their ability to reproduce. However, places can
change because of reasons beyond the control of organisms, for example climate changes and water
level changes. If the population of reproducing organisms are not suited to a particular place the
population cannot be wiped out.
1. TYPES OF REPRODUCTON:-

There are two main types of reproduction in living organisms. They are-
 Asexual reproduction
 Sexual reproduction

➢ Asexual reproduction:-
It is a type of reproduction in which new individuals are produced from a single parent.
Different types of asexual reproduction are-
• Fission
• Budding
• Regeneration
• Spore Formation
• Fragmentation
• Vegetative Propagation

➢ Characteristics of asexual reproduction:-

• It is a rapid mode of multiplication.
• Cell division takes place either mitotically or amitotically. (cellular division which
takes place in lower organisms like bacteria)
• The new individuals produced after cell divisions are always genetically identical or
clone to their parents.
• It does not involve the fusion of gametes.

❖ MODES OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION:-

A single parent organism reproduces by the modes given below:-
• Fission
• Fragmentation
• Regeneration
• Budding
• Vegetative propagation
• Spore formation
 3

1) Fission :-
• The process of reproduction by which a unicellular organism splits into two or more than two separate
daughter cells is called fission.
• It is the most common and simplest method of asexual reproduction in unicellular organisms, such as
bacteria and protozoan’s.
• In this cell divides of single celled organism into two or more parts for the development of new
organisms.
• There are two types of fission :-
a) Binary Fission
b) Multiple Fission

A) Binary Fission:-
• The type of fission where the parent organism where the parent divide into two identical daughter
organisms.
• At first the nucleus divide into two.
• It is followed by division of cytoplasm. Then finally splitting of parent cell into two
daughter cells.
• Eg. Amoeba, Leishmania etc.

B) Multiple Fission:-
• The type of fission where the parent divides into many identical daughter organisms at
the same time.
• Multiple fission can be seen in organisms such as Plasmodium ( Malarial Parasite),
Monocystis etc.
 4

2) Fragmentation:-
• It is a type of asexual reproduction observed in multicellular organisms like
filamentous algae (Spirogyra).
• These organisms on maturation breakup into two or more small fragments or pieces.
• Each fragment grows to form a complete new organism.
• This type of cell division is seen in multicellular organisms with a simple body
organisation.
• Eg. Spirogyra
 5

3) Regeneration:-
• Regeneration is a type of asexual reproduction in which the development of the new
organisms occurs from just a broken or cut part of parent organisms.
• These organisms have a single cell type that is capable of growing, proliferating
(increase rapidly in number) and making other cell types under the right circumstances.
• Regeneration is carried out by specialised cells which proliferate (multiply) and make
a large number of cells. From this mass of cells, different cells now undergo changes to
become various cell types and tissues.
• Eg. Hydra, Planaria

4) Budding:-
• it is a type of asexual reproduction in which a daughter organism is formed from a
small projection known as bud.
• It develops as an outgrowth due to repeated cell divisions on the parent body.
• When the bud is fully grown it detaches to grow into a new independent individual.
• Eg. Hydra , yeast
 6

5) Vegetative propagation:-

• It is a type of asexual plant reproduction in which new plants are obtained from a part
of the parent plant.
• Vegetative propagation are of two types:-
1) Natural vegetative propagation
2) Artificial vegetative propagation
• Plants part like root, stem and leave develop into new plants under favourable
conditions are known as natural vegetative propagation. Various structures take part
in this type of reproduction.
• Organs of some plants are used for vegetative propagation , such as
a) Buds of potato
b) Bulb of onion
c) Rhizome of Ginger
d) Leaf buds of Bryophyllum

•
 7

The methods of artificial vegetative propagation are :-

1) Cutting
2) Layering
3) Grafting
• They are used for many plants like sugarcane, roses, grapes etc.

1) Cutting :-
• It is the most common method of the vegetative propagation.
• In this method a piece of stem having few nodes and internodes is taken from the
parent plant and planted in the moist soil.
• After sometimes roots emerge from its basal portion and the buds give rise to the shoots, which
results in the formation of new plant.
• Eg. Rose, sugarcane, banana, orange and Bougainvillea are commonly grown by this method.

2) Layering :-
• Layering means development of roots on a stem, which is attached to the parent plant.
• Layering is a natural process, but can be induced by bending a plant branch and covering its middle
portion below the soil.
• Then the portion of branch below the soil develops roots and can be transformed into an individual
plant if planted in a moist soil under favourable conditions.
• Eg. Magnolia, Jasmium, Rose etc.
 8

3) Grafting :-
• In this process of vegetative propagation, a detached twig having several buds is planted or inserted
into the stem or root of another plant to grow an individual plant of the same kind.
• The detached twig is referred to as scion and the plant portion into which the twig is inserted is
referred as stock.
• In order to avoid infection, the point of grafting is covered with grafting wax.
• Eg. Different varieties of apples, lemon, grapes, mango etc. are grown through this method.

4) Tissue Culture :-
• New plants are grown by using living tissues from the parent plant are called tissue culture.
• In this method small pieces are cut from the plants (flower buds, growing tips, leaves etc.) and then
transferred to the artificial nutrient medium where they divide rapidly to form callus.
• This callus is then transferred to the fresh medium hormones for growth and differentiation where it
develops into plantlets.
• Then these plantlets are placed in soil to grow into a mature plant.

❖ Advantage:-
• It is possible to produce large no of plants from a single parent in a disease free environment.
• Rapid productions of plants are possible.
• Eg. Orchids, dahlia etc.
 9

❖ Advantages of vegetative propagation:-

• The new plants produced by artificial vegetative propagation will be exactly like the parent plants.
• Any desirable feature of the parent plant will be replicated in the new plants.
• The fruit trees grown from seeds may take many years before they start to bear fruits but the fruits trees
grown from cutting or by grafting start to bear fruits much earlier.
• The plants grown by vegetative propagation usually needs less attention in there early years than the
plants grown from seeds.
• Disease free plants can be produced.
• It is the only methods of reproduction for those plants which do not produce seeds.
• It is easier, cheaper and quicker method.

6) Spore formation:-
• Spore formation is also a type of asexual reproduction.
• Here living cells or spores have the ability to germinate and give rise to a new colony of daughter
organisms.
• In many multicellular organisms blob-on-a-stick like structure are involved in reproduction.
• These blobs are known as Sporangia, which contain Spores as reproductive structures.
• The spores are covered by thick wall that protect them.
• When they come into contact with some moist surface like soil they begin to grow.
• The thread like projection called hyphae develops on the bread, if moist bread is kept in open for a few
days.
• This is because the spores of Rhizopus present in the air settle down on the bread and germinate to form
a new Rhizopus colony.
 10

Spore Formation in Rhizopus

➢ Sexual reproduction:-
It is a reproduction in which two individuals are involved to produce a new individual.
Eg. Humans, dogs, cats etc.

➢ Characteristics of sexual reproduction:-

• It is not a rapid mode of multiplication.
• Cell division involves meiosis at some stages, especially during gamete formation.
• The new individuals produce after cell division exhibit variation.
• Fusion of male gametes with the female gametes takes place.

❖ MODES OF SEXUAL REPRODUCTION:-

• Sexual mode of reproduction is a process of combining DNA from two different individuals during
reproduction.
• This is brought about by the fusion of male and female gametes.
• Sex of one parent fuses with the sex of another parent which results in the production of a new cell
called Zygote.

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANT:-

• Flowers are the reproductive organ of the plants.
• Flowering plants are generally angiosperm.
• They bear the reproductive part within the flower and their seeds are enclosed in a fruit.
• The plants have both male and female reproductive organs in the same flower are known as Bisexual
reproduction. Eg. lily, rose, hibiscus, mustard ect.
• The plants have either male or female reproductive parts in a flower known as Unisexual reproduction.
Eg. Papaya, watermelon etc.
• A flower comprises of four main parts:-
1) Sepals
2) Petals
3) Stamens
4) Carpel’s

• Stamens and Carpels are the reproductive parts of a flower.

• Stamen is the male reproductive part of the flower. A single flower may have number of stamens in it.
• Anther is a bilobed structure containing two pollen sacs present at tip of stamen. These produce pollen
grains that are yellowish in colour.
• Carpel (Pistil) is the female reproductive part which is present in the centre of the flower.
• It consists of mainly three parts:-
1) Stigma
 11

2) Style
3) Ovary

• Stigma is the terminal part of carpel which may be sticky. It helps in receiving the pollen grains during
pollination.
• Style is the middle elongated part of carpel. It helps in the attachment of stigma to the ovary.
• Ovary is the swollen bottom part of carpel. It contains ovules having an egg cell.(female gamete)
• The male gamete cell fuse with female gamete cell for the process of reproduction on plants.

Pollination:-

• The transfer of pollen grain from the anther of the stamen to the stigma of a flower is termed as
pollination.
• The pollen grains can be transferred by various agents like wind, water, insects and animals.

• Pollination usually occurs in two ways:-

1) Self pollination:-
In self pollination the pollen from the stamen of a flower is transferred to the stigma of the same flower.
2) Cross pollination:-
In cross pollination the pollen from the stamen of a flower is transferred to the stigma of different
flower.

FERTILISATION IN PLANTS:-
 12

• Pollination is followed by the fertilisation in plants.

• It is the process of fusion of male germ cells with the female gametes.
• It gives rise to a zygote.
• As soon as the pollen lands on suitable stigma, it reaches the female germ cells in ovary.
• This occurs through pollen tube.
• The pollen tube grows out of the pollen grain, travels through the style and finally reaches the ovary.
• After fertilisation, the zygote divides many times and forms an embryo within the ovule.
• This ovule then develops a tough coat and gets converted into a seed.
• The ovary rapidly grows and ripens as fruit.
• The seed contains the future embryo that develops into a seedling into a suitable condition.
• The petals, sepals, stamens, style and stigma may shrivel and fall off.
• This process is known as germination.

DOUBLE FERTILISATION IN PLANTS:-

 13

• The process of fusion of one male gamete with the egg along with the union of the second male gamete
with the two polar nuclei is called double fertilisation.
• Out of the two male gametes, one fuses with the egg to carry generative fertilisation.
• It gives rise to a diploid zygote.
• The nucleus with the second male gamete fuses with two haploid polar nuclei of the central cell to form
a triploid primary endosperm nucleus.
• The central cell is called primary endosperm cell.
• This is called triploid fusion or vegetative fertilisation.

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN HUMAN BEINGS:-

• Humans use a sexual mode of reproduction.
• The period when the reproductive organs become mature and functional in humans is called puberty.
• Many changes occur during puberty.

Changes common to both boys and girls:-

• Thick hair growing in armpits and the genital area between the thighs, thinner hair appear on legs, arms
and on the face; skin frequently becomes oily and might begin to develop pimples.

Changes different in boys and girls:-

• In girls breast size begins to increase, with darkening of the skin of the nipples at the tips of the breasts.
• Girls begin to menstruate at around this time.
• Boys begin to have new thick hair growth of the face and their voices begin to crack.
• The penis occasionally begins to become enlarged and erect, either in day dreams or at night.

MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM:-

• Human male reproductive system consists of organs that produce germ cells [sex cells/sperms] and
organs for their deposit/deliver to the site of fertilisation in the female body.
 14

1. Testes :-
• There is pair of ovals structures called testes.
• These are suspended in thin skin bags called scrotal/scrotum located in between the thighs.
• These structures provide suitable temperature required for sperm maturation.
• The sperm need lower temperature than the normal body temperature.
• Testes also produce a hormone called testosterone, which controls development and functioning of
secondary sexual characters at the time of the puberty changes in male.

2. Epididymis:-
• It is an elongated and flattened structure present on the lateral side of the testis.
• It is involved in storage (stores sperms from 18 hrs to a few days), nutrition and functionally
maturation of the sperms.

3. Vas Deferens (Sperm duct) :-

• It is a long, narrow and tubular structure which starts from Epididymis, enters the abdomen,
passes over the urinary bladder and joins the duct of seminal vesicle to form ejaculatory duct.
• Vas deferens conducts the sperms by peristalsis.
4. Urethra :-
• It is also a long, narrow and tubular structure.
• It is formed by the joining of ejaculatory duct and a duct from urinary bladder so carries both
sperms and urine and is commonly called urinogenital canal.
• It passes through penis and opens at its tip.
 15

5. Glands :-
• In man, there are three types of glands; Cowper’s gland, Prostate gland and Seminal vesicles.
• Prostate gland and seminal vesicles release their secretions into the vas deferens duct.
• The secretion of prostate provides the medium for sperms to swim and seminal vesicle secretion
from semen, a white, material that is passed through urethra and released into female vagina
during mating.
• Semen’s is alkaline (pH 7.5) and neutralises the acidity of urine, activates the sperms and
provides nutrition to the sperms.

6. Penis:-
• It is a cylindrical, erectile and copulatory organ, having rich supply of blood vessels.
• It is used for urination and for depositing sperms during mating.
• It becomes enlarged and erect due to blood flow in the tissue.
• Only when it is erect the deposition of sperms take place.

Sperms :-
• A human Sperms is minute, microscope, motile and flagellated gamete.
• It is formed of head, middle piece and a long tail.
• The tails help to move towards the female germ cells (ovum/egg) in the oviduct of the female
reproductive system.
Its primary function is to fuse with ovum and to transmit paternal genes to the offspring.
 16

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM:-

It consist of :-
1) Ovaries
2) Fallopian tube
3) Uterus
4) Vagina

1. Ovaries :-
• Oviducts are two oval bodies located inside the abdominal cavity, on the either sides of uterus.
• They have thousands of immature ova during the birth of a girl child. As the girl attains puberty, the
eggs start maturing.
• One mature egg is released by one of the ovaries each month. This is called ovulation.

Function:-
1) Ovary also helps in the secretion of the female hormones called Estrogens and Progesterone.

2. Fallopian tube (Oviducts) :-

• Oviducts are two small tubes originating near the ovaries.
• They are also called fallopian tubes.
• These are one pair of elongated, ciliated, muscular and tubular structures extending from just close
to ovaries to uterus.
• The outer part of each fallopian tube lying close to ovary.
• The released ‘ovum’ is collected by finger-like funnel-shaped fimbriae.
• The ovum waits for the sperms to come and fuse with it.
• Fertilisation takes place here.
 17

Function:-
1) Fallopian tube is the site of fertilization so also called fertilization canal.

3. Uterus (womb): -
• It is a large, muscular bag like structure present in the pelvis between the urinary bladder and
rectum.
• Its internal lining is highly vascular and glandular and is called endometrium.
• It is formed by the union of fallopian tubes of both sides.
• The broader part is called womb and the narrow part is called cervix that opens into vagina.

Function:-
1) Uterus is a seat of implantation, placentation and foetal development.
2) Its muscular wall called myometrium helps in expelling of baby during childbirth.

4. Vagina :-
• The exterior chamber after the cervix of uterus is called vagina.
• It receives the erect penis and the discharged semen during sexual intercourse.
• It is also the passage for the child birth hence, it is also called the birth canal.

❖ What happens if the egg is fertilised?→ Pregnancy

• During sexual intercourse the sperms enter through the vaginal passage, travel upwards and reach
the oviduct where they may fertilise the egg to form zygote.
• The process of fusion of male and female gamete to form a zygote called fertilisation.
• The zygote formed gets implanted in the lining of the uterus, and starts dividing.
• The uterus prepares itself every month to receive and nurture the growing embryo.
• The lining thickens and is richly supplied with blood to nourish the growing embryo.

❖ Placenta and its functions:-

• A disc shaped structure embedded in the uterine wall called the placenta provides nutrition to
the embryo from the mother’s blood.
• It contains villi on the embryo’s side of the tissue which are surrounded by blood spaces on the
mother’s side.
 18

Functions of placenta:-
1) It provides a large surface area for glucose and oxygen to pass from the mother to the embryo.
2) It removes waste substances produced by the developing embryo.

❖ Gestation period:-
• The development of the child inside the mother’s body takes approximately nine months. This period is
called as gestation period.
• The child is born as a result of rhythmic contraction of the muscles in the uterus.

❖ What happens if the egg is not fertilised? → Menstruation

• The ovary releases one egg every month, the lining of the uterus becomes thick and spongy every month
to receive a fertilised egg and nourish the embryo.
• If the egg is not fertilised, it lives for about one day.
• But if it remains unfertilised then the lining of the uterus slowly breaks and comes out through the
vagina as blood and mucous.
• This cycle is called menstruation which takes place every month and lasts for about two to eight days.

❖ Menopause:-
• The sexual cycle in a woman continues upto the age of 45 to 50 years after which eggs are not released
by the ovary and menstruation gets stopped.
• This stage is called Menopause.

❖ Reproductive Health
• The total well-being in all aspects of reproduction i.e. physical emotional, social and behavioural is
called reproductive health.

❖ Sexually transmitted diseases:-

• Bacterial infections like gonorrhoea and syphilis, viral infections like warts and HIV- AIDS.
• Transmission of many sexually transmitted diseases can be prevented by Condoms.
 19

❖ Contraceptive methods:-

• The methods to avoid pregnancy are called contraceptive methods. The different methods are:-
(barrier)

1) Physical methods: - Prevent union of sperm and egg. For example, male condoms, female condoms,
Diaphragm and cervical caps.
2) Chemical methods: - Act by changing the hormonal balance of the body so that eggs are not released
and fertilisation cannot occur. They may have side effects too. For example, oral pills.

❖ Surgical methods:-

1) Vasectomy: - The process by which vas deferens of male is blocked to prevent sperm transfer.
2) Tubectomy:- The process by which fallopian tube of female is blocked to prevent egg to reach uterus.
3) Copper –T or loop is placed in uterus to prevent pregnancy.

❖ Pre-natal sex determination:-

 20

• The determination of the sex of the child before birth is called as pre- natal sex determination.
• It is prohibited by law as it is a major cause of illegal sex-selective abortion of female foetuses.
• The female –male sex ratio must be maintained for a reproductively healthy society.