Chapter 8 - How do Organisms Reproduce?

Reproduction:- Reproduction is the process by which organism of a species produces

new individual of its own kind.

Reproduction is necessary for the survival and increase in the population of a species.
If organisms do not reproduce, their population decreases and species will become
extinct.

Do organisms create carbon copies of themselves?

Reproduction basically involves the making copies of the blueprints of the body
design. Chromosomes in the cell contain the information for inheritance of features
which are passed from generation to generation in form of DNA molecules. So
reproduction involves copying of DNA and other cell apparatuses. The copies will be
similar to original but not identical because DNA copying is a bio-chemical reaction and
no bio-chemical reaction is absolutely reliable. So the new individuals have slight
variations from their parents. This is the basis for variations and evolution of new
species.

The importance of variation :-

DNA copying during reproduction is important for maintaining the body designs of
different organisms to survive in the existing environment. But the environment is
constantly changing due to changes in temperature, climate, water levels etc. If
organisms cannot adjust themselves to the changes in the environment then their
species will become extinct. If there are variations in some individuals of a species they
may be able to survive the changes in the environment. So variation is necessary for
the survival of different species and for the evolution of new species.

Example-If there were a population of bacteria living in temperate waters, and if the
water temperature were to be increased by global warming, most of these bacteria
would die, but the few variants resistant to heat would survive and grow further.

Types of reproduction:-

There are two main types of reproduction in living organisms. They are asexual
reproduction and sexual reproduction.

Asexual reproduction :-

• It involves only one parent.

• There is no formation and fusion of gametes.
 • The young ones formed are almost identical to each other as well as to the parent
cell.
• It is a faster method of reproduction.

Sexual reproduction :- is reproduction in which two individuals are involved to

produce a new individual.

Asexual reproduction

It is of different types. They are - fission, budding, regeneration, fragmentation, spore

formation, vegetative propagation etc.

i) Fission - Fission is an asexual reproduction by which a unicellular organism divides

and forms two or more new individuals.

Fission is of two types. They are binary fission and multiple fission.

a) Binary fission - In this method an organism divides and forms two individuals. First
the nucleus divides (Karyokinesis) and then the cytoplasm divides (cytokinesis)resulting
in formation of two daughter cells. Eg- Amoeba, Paramaecium, leishmania etc.

It occurs during highly favourable conditions.

The cell division can occur in any plane as in case of Amoeba.

However, organisms like Leishmania. (cause Kala-azar), which have a whip like flagella
at one end, binary fission occurs in a definite orientation in relation to the flagellum.
 b) Multiple fission - In this method one organism divides into many daughter cells.
Eg.Plasmodium (Malarial parasite).

In this during unfavourable conditions, the parent cell develops a thick resistant wall
around itself forming a cyst. Within the wall, the cytoplasm divides many times to form
many plasmodia. When conditions become favourable, the cyst wall breaks and the
Plasmodium are released.
 Binary Fission Multiple Fission

It produces two individuals. It produces more than two individuals.

It occurs only under favourable conditions. It occurs both favourable and unfavourable
conditions.

Division in cytoplasm takes place after After every nuclear division, cytoplasm does
each nuclear division. not divide.

Examples-Amoeba, Paramecium Example-Plasmodium

ii) Fragmentation - In this method the body of a simple multicellular organism breaks
up into smaller pieces on maturation and each fragment develops into new individuals.
Eg :- Spirogyra.
 Fission Fragmentation

It occurs in unicellular organisms It occurs in multicellular organisms.

Organism divides and forms two or more Organism breaks up into smaller pieces on
new individuals. maturation and each fragment develops
into new individuals.

Nuclear division occurs No nuclear division occurs

Examples-Amoeba, paramecium Example-Spirogyra

iii) Regeneration - The ability of an organism to regenerate or repair its lost body
parts. Eg :- Hydra, Planaria, Star fish etc.

Regeneration is carried out by specialized cells which re-divide to form a mass of cells
from which different cells undergo changes to become different cell types and tissues.
These changes occur in an organized sequence known as development.
Regeneration cannot be equated to reproduction because organisms generally do not
depend on being cut or broken into pieces for reproduction.
Regeneration Fragmentation

Regeneration occurs in fully differentiated Fragmentation occurs in multicellular

multicellular organisms with complex body organisms with simple body organization.
organization

In regeneration specialized cells proliferate No specialized cells are involved in

and form a mass of cells. The cells from the fragmentation.
mass differentiate to from different cells
types and tissues.

In regeneration, if organism breaks into In fragmentation an organism breaks into

pieces each piece may or may not develop fragments and each fragment develops into
into new individual. new individuals.

Example- Planaria Example-Spirogyra

iv) Budding - In this method a bud like projection is formed on the body of the
organism. The bud then develops into a new individual. It then separates from the
parent and forms an independent individual. Eg:- Hydra, Yeast etc.

*Regenerative cells are used in budding

v) Spore formation - In this method simple multicellular organisms reproduce by
forming tiny spores. When the spores come in contact with a moist surface, it develops
into new individuals. Eg :- Rhizopus , Penicillium etc.

Rhizopus body is made up of thread-like structures called hyphae. The erect hyphae
(sporangiophore) bear blob like structure called sporangia inside which reproductive
structures called spores are formed. Spores are asexually reproducing bodies having a
thick protective wall that protects them during unfavourable conditions.

Advantages of spore formation:

1. Large numbers of spores are produced in one sporangium.
2. Spores are distributed easily by air to faraway places to avoid competition at one
place.
3. Spores are covered by thick walls to prevent dehydration under unfavourable
conditions.
Budding Spore Formation

Budding is an outgrowth that arises In spore formation, unicellular bodies

from the body. develop on or inside some structure.

Only few buds can develop from an In spore formation, a large number of
individual body in budding. spores can develop from an individual
body.

Dispersal is limited Spores are dispersed to long distance.

Example- Hydra Example-Rhizopus

vi) Vegetative propagation - In this method new plants are produced from the
vegetative parts of the plant like root, stem or leaf.

Types of Vegetative Propagation: It is two types

• Natural vegetative propagation.

• Artificial vegetative propagation (cutting, layering, grafting)

a) Natural vegetative propagation

From roots – dhalia, sweet potato

From stem – potato, ginger,

From leaf – Bryophyllum.

In bryophyllum buds are produced in the notches along the leaf margins and when they
fall on the soil, they develop into new plants.
b) Artificial vegetative propagation

Cutting-rose, sugarcane, china rose

Layering- Jasmine, lemon, grape wine

Grafting - apple, mango, orange

Importance of Vegetative Propagation

• Plants can bear flowers and fruits earlier.

• Plants which have lost the ability to produce viable seeds can also reproduce by
vegetative propagation like rose, jasmine banana etc.
• All plants are genetically almost similar to the parent plant.
• Seedless varieties can be obtained.
• The property of vegetative propagation is used by horticulturists in developing
methods like layering, grafting to grow many plants like sugarcane, roses, or
grapes.

Disadvantages of vegetative propagation

• Since no genetic variation occurs, so there is less adaptability to the new

environment.
• Diseases from parent plants get transferred to the young plant.

V)Tissue Culture: The technique of developing new plants from a cell or tissue in a
nutrient medium under sterile conditions. The cell or tissue is placed in a nutrient
medium where it forms a mass of cells called callus. This callus is then transferred to
another nutrient medium where it differentiates and forms a new plant.
 Sexual reproduction
The mode of reproduction that involves two individuals of two different sexes i.e. male
and female. During sexual reproduction, male organism having male sex organs
produces male gametes i.e. sperms which are small and motile and the female
organism having female sex organs produces ova which are generally large and store
food. Male and female gametes fuse to form a zygote that grows into a new organism.

Significance of Sexual Reproduction:

• Sexual reproduction involves DNA as well as cellular apparatus of two different

organisms which promotes diversity of characters in the offspring.
• Since gametes are derived from two different organisms, it results in a new
combination of genes which increases the chances of genetic variations.
• Sexual reproduction results in the origin of. new species.
• Sexual reproduction involves division in the sex organs that reduces the DNA
matter to half so that the zygote formed after fusion has the same amount of DNA
as the parents it maintains DNA in a species.

Limitation of Sexual Reproduction: Sexual reproduction involves the process of

combining DNA from two different organisms which may bring some undesirable
features also.

Sexual reproduction in flowering plants :-

• Sexual reproduction in plants happens through the flowers.

• Essential whorls of the flowers such as androecium (stamens of a flower
collectively) and the gynoecium (consisting of one or more pistils) help in the
sexual reproduction of plants.
Non-essential parts of flowers

• The typical structure of flower contains essential whorls and non-essential

whorls.
• Sepals and Petals are called non-essential whorls as they do not directly take
part in reproduction.
• Sepals protect the inner delicate whorl during bud stage.
• Petals are coloured to attract insects for pollination.

Essential whorls of flowers

• Stamen and pistil are called as essential/reproductive whorls of a flower.

• Stamen produces pollen grains containing male gametes and pistil produces
ovules which are female gametes.
• Bisexual flowers contain both stamen and pistil. Examples- Mustard, China Rose
(Hibiscus)
• Unisexual flowers contain either of them. Examples- Papaya, Watermelon.

• Stamen consists of anther and filament.

• Anther produces haploid pollen grains.
 • Pistil/carpel consists of stigma, style and ovary.

Pollination
The process of transfer of pollen grains from anthers to the stigma of a flower through
water, wind, birds, bats etc is known as pollination.

• It is required for fertilization.

• Pollination has two types, self-pollination (autogamy) and cross-pollination
(allogamy).
• In self-pollination, transfer of pollen grains takes place from anthers to the
stigma of the same flower or another flower of the same plant.
• In cross-pollination, pollens are transferred from anthers to the stigma of
another flower.
• Many pollinating agents play their roles in cross-pollination. examples: water,
wind, insects, birds, bats etc.
Fertilization
Fusion of male and female gametes is known as fertilization.

• In flowering plants after pollination, the pollens germinate on the stigma and
produces a pollen tube which passes through the style and enters the ovary and
ovule through micropyle.
• Pollen tube has two male germ cells. Each ovule has two polar nuclei and a
female germ cell (egg).
• One male nucleus fuses with the egg cell and forms the zygote that gives rise to
the embryo and future plant, the fusion is known as syngamy.
• Another male nucleus fuses with two polar nuclei and forms triploid endosperm,
the process is known as triple fusion
• So in flowering plants two fusions take place during fertilization. It is called
double fertilization.

Post-fertilization changes:

After fertilization the following changes takes place in the flower.

• Zygote divides several times and forms an embryo inside the ovule.
• The ovule develops a tough coat and changes into the seed.
• The ovary grows rapidly and ripens to form a fruit.
 • Petals, sepals, stamens, style and stigma shrivel and fall off.

Seed and its parts: The advantage of seed is that it protects the future plant i.e.
embryo.
• Seed has two parts: Cotyledons and Embryo
• Cotyledons store food for the future plant.
• Embryo has two parts: plumule and radicle. Plumule develops into shoot and
radicle develops into root.
The process of development of a seedling from the embryo under appropriate
conditions is known as germination.

Reproduction in Human Being:

Human beings become reproductively active from the onset of puberty. Puberty is the
period during adolescence when the rate of general body growth begins to slow down
and reproductive tissues begin to mature. Onset of puberty in boys is between 13 to 14
years of age, while in girls is between 10 to 11 years. of age. Puberty is associated with
many physical, mental, emotional and psychological changes in boys and girls which
occur slowly over a period of time. These are called secondary sexual characters.

Common changes in teenage boys and girls after attaining puberty are :-

1)Growth of hair in armpits and genital area

2)Darkening of genital area

3)Appearance of hair on other body parts such as legs, arms and face

4)Skin becoming oily and pimples appearing on the face very often.

Specific changes that appear in boys and girls a puberty are

In Boys

1) Enlargement of larynx and voice become hoarse.

2) Moustaches and beard start appearing on face.

3) Chest and shoulder become broad.

4) Sperm production start.

These changes are due to male sex hormone, testosterone, produced by testes.

In Girls

1) Voice becomes high pitched

2) Enlargement of mammary glands.

3) Broadening of pelvic occurs.

4) Onset start menstruation(menarche) occurs.

These changes are due to the production of female sex hormones, progesterone and
estrogen, from ovaries.

The time period between the onset of puberty and achievement of complete sexual
maturity is called adolescence.

The Male reproductive system -

The male reproductive system consists of a pair of testes which produces the male
reproductive cells called sperms and the hormone testosterone. Testes are located
outside the abdominal cavity is in a sac like structures called scrotum. Scrotum
provides optimum temperature for the formation of sperms which is generally 1˚C to
3˚C, lower than the normal body temperature. From each testis arises a tube called
vas deferens. It joins into the urethra. The urethra is enclosed in a muscular organ
called penis. It has an opening called genital pore. It is a common passage for both
sperm and urine The seminal vesicles and prostate glands produce fluids which
provide nutrition and help in the movement of the sperms.

The Female reproductive system -

The female reproductive system consists of a pair of ovaries which produces the
female reproductive cells called ova or eggs and the hormone estrogen. Oviducts or
fallopian tubes carry eggs from the ovary to uterus. The two oviducts unite into a bag
like structure called uterus. The uterus or womb is a thick muscular organ that nurture
the developing baby for about nine month. The uterus has opens into vagina through
cervix .
Fertilisation in human beings -

The fusion of sperm and ovum to produce zygote is called fertilization. Fertilization
takes place in the oviduct .It can occur within the 3-4 days of ovulation (between 14
and 16 days of menstrual cycle).

Implantation -

The zygote moves from the fallopian tube towards the uterus and attaches itself onto
the walls of the uterus. The fixing of fertilized egg on the lining of the uterus is called
implantation .The zygote then starts dividing to form an embryo.

The embryo gets attached to the mother’s uterine wall through placenta. A cord called
umbilical cord connects the placenta with embryo. Placenta is disc like structure that is
embedded in the uterine wall. It helps in providing nutrition and oxygen from the
mother’s blood to the developing embryo. Excretion of waste is also facilitated by
placenta.

The development of the child takes nine months and then the child is born.

Menstruation -

The ovary produces one egg every month and the uterus prepares to receive the
fertilized egg. Its wall becomes thick and spongy with blood vessels for nourishing the
embryo. If fertilization does not take place then the uterus wall breaks and comes out
of the vagina as blood and mucous. This cycle takes place once every month and is
called menstruation.
Reproductive Health -

Good reproductive health requires

1)Awareness of sexually transmitted diseases and methods to prevent them.

2)Adequate knowledge of fertility regulation methods to avoid unwanted pregnancies.

3)Ability to bear responsibilities to raise family.

Population Control

Uncontrolled rise in population when resources like food, shelter and medical facilities
are limited, creates lot of problems, such as

1) It becomes difficult to improve everybody’s standard of living.

2)There is a problem of providing basic needs like good food, clothing, shelter, medical
care and education.

3)Mental and social development of all the children cannot be given proper attention.
4)Frequent pregnancies may affect a women's health adversely.

5) Due to lack of proper care, children offer suffer from malnutrition which has negative
impact on their physical and mental health.

Hence, it is necessary to control one's family size to help reduce the size of population.
There are various birth control methods to plan a family and keep population in control.

Contraceptive Devices:-

The method of prevention of unwanted pregnancies and giving gaps between births of
children during one’s reproductive life is called contraception .The devices used for
contraception are called contraception devices. The various methods of contraception
can be broadly divided into the following categories-

i) Barrier methods -These methods involve the use of physical devices that prevents
sperm from meeting the egg such as condom, diaphragm and cervical cap.

ii)Chemical method -These methods work by changing the hormonal balance of the
body so that the eggs are not released from the ovary in a female and fertilization
cannot occur. Various kinds of pills containing hormones have been prepared with
prevent the release of eggs from the ovary. Since they change the hormonal balance
they may cause some side effects.

iii)Intrauterine contraceptive device (IUCD or IUD) -These devices are made up

of plastic or metal or combination of both. The most commonly used device is copper-
T. This device is placed inside the uterine cavity of female .The presence of this device
prevent the implantation of embryo in the uterus. As a result, no pregnancy can take
place. They can side effect due to irritation caused to the uterus.

iv)Surgical methods- These methods are usually safe and permanent. These can be
performed on both male and female.

Vasectomy- In this method a small piece of vas deferens in a male is cut and
removed. the cut ends of vas deferens are then tied. This process prevents the transfer
of sperms.

Tubectomy-In this method, a small portion of a fallopian tube of a female is removed

and the cut ends are tied with nylon thread. This prevents the transfer of egg to the
uterus.
v)Abortion- The surgery conducted to terminate unwanted pregnancy is called
abortion or medical transmission of pregnancy. MTP is now legal however there are
cases where people are misusing this method to abort sex selective female foetuses.
For a healthy society, the female- male ratio must be maintained. This is because of
reckless female foeticides due to prenatal sex-determination, female male child ratio is
declining at an alarming rate in some sections of society. The ultrasound is used in
most part of the world for prenatal sex determination. However it is prohibited by the
law of India in 1994 to prevent sex-selective termination of pregnancies

Sexually transmitted diseases -

These are diseases transmitted through sexual contact. They may be bacterial
infections like gonorrhoea and syphilis etc. or viral infections like warts and HIV-AIDS.
 How Do Organisms Reproduce?

Question 1
What is the importance of DNA copying in reproduction?
Answer:
DNA copying has following importance in reproduction:

• It maintains the characteristics of species.

• It maintains the continuity of life.
• From this, the characteristics and features of organisms are transformed to their
progeny.
• It produces variations in organisms which is the basis of evolution of new species.

Question 2
Why is variation beneficial to the species but not necessarily for the
individual?
Answer:
Variations are beneficial to the species than individual because some time for a species,
the environmental conditions changes so drastically that their survival becomes difficult.
For example if the temperature of water increases suddenly, then most of the bacteria
living in that water would die. Only few variants that are resistant to heat would be able
to survive. However, if these variants are not there, then the entire species of bacteria
would have been destroyed. Thus, these variants helps in the survival of the species.
However, all the variations are not necessarily beneficial for the individual organism.

Question 1
How is the process of pollination different from fertilisation ?
Answer:

Binary fission Multiple fission

1. In this an organism divides into two 1. In this an organism produces two or more

similar organisms. organisms.

2. A cyst or thick layer is not formed 2. A cyst or thick layer is formed around the

around the cell. cell.

It generally occurs in favourable 3. It can take place in unfavourable conditions

conditions too.

Example : Amoeba, paramecium Example: Malarial parasite.

Question 2
How will an organism be benefited if it reproduces through spores ?
Answer:
Advantages of spore formation:

1. Large numbers of spores are produced in one sporangium.

2. Spores are distributed easily by air to faraway places to avoid competition at one
place.

3. Spores are covered by thick walls to prevent dehydration under unfavourable

conditions.

Question 3
Can you think of reasons why more complex organisms cannot give rise to
new individuals through regeneration?
Answer:
In complex multicellular organisms, specialised cells make up tissues, tissue make up
organs, organs make up organ systems and finally organ systems make up organisms.
Since complex multicellular organisms have a very high degree of organisation in their
body, they cannot be reproduced from their cut body parts by the process of
regeneration.

For example, a dog is a complex multicellular organism which cannot be regenerated

from its cut body part say, a cut tail. This is because the cells present in the cut tail of a
dog cannot produce dog’s organs like heart brain, lungs, stomach, intestines and limbs,
etc, needed for the making of a complete dog.
 Question 4
Why is vegetative propagation practised for growing some types of plants?
Answer:
Vegetative propagation is practiced for growing such plants which have lost the capacity
to produce seeds. Moreover, all plants produces through vegetative propagation are
genetically similar to the parent plant.

Question 5
Why is DNA copying an essential part of the process of reproduction?
Answer:
DNA copying is essential part of the process of reproduction so that the characteristics
of the parent organisms are transmitted to its offspring and at the same time some
occasional variations are also produced in the offspring. The changes in the copy of
DNA provide an organism the capability to survive in changing conditions.

Question 1
How is the process of pollination different from fertilisation?
Answer:

Pollination Fertilisation

1. The transfer of pollen grains from the anther 1. Fertilisation occurs when the male gamete

of a stamen to the stigma of a carpel is called present in pollen grain joins with the female

pollination. gamete (or egg) present in ovule.

2. It takes place by various pollinating agents. 2. It takes place by natural or artificial means.

Question 2
What is the role of the seminal vesicles and the prostate gland ?
Answer:
(i) Both seminal vesicle and prostate gland secretes fluids which facilitates easy
transport of sperms.
(ii) This fluid provides nutrition to sperms .

Question 3
What are the changes seen in girls at the time of puberty ?
Answer:
The various changes occur in girls at puberty are :

1. Hair grow under armpits and pubic region.

2. Mammary glands (or breasts) develop and enlarge.
3. The hips broaden.
4. Skin becomes oily.
5. Ovaries start to release eggs.
6. Menstruation cycle starts.

Question 4
How does the embryo get nourishment inside the mother’s body ?
Answer:
In mother’s body, the embryo gets nutrition from the mother’s body through placenta.
Placenta is disc shaped tissue embedded in the uterine wall. On the embryo’s side,
placenta contains structure called villi. It provides a large surface area for the transfer
of glucose, oxygen and other substances from the mother to the embryo.

Question 5
A woman is using a copper-T. Will it help in protecting her from sexually
transmitted diseases ?
Answer:
Copper-T is a contraceptive method which prevents implantation of the embryo inside
the uterus. It cannot prevent a women from sexually transmitted diseases. These
diseases are transmitted by contact which cannot be prevented by copper-T.

NCERT Solutions for Class 10 Science Chapter 8 Textbook Chapter End

Questions

Question 1
Asexual reproduction takes place through budding in
(a) amoeba
(b) yeast
(c) plasmodium
(d) leishmania
Answer:
(b) Yeast
Question 2
Which of the following is not a part of the female reproductive system in
human beings ?
(a) Ovary
(b) Uterus
(c) Vas deferens
(d) Fallopian tube
Answer:
(c) Vas deferens

Question 3
The anther contains
(a) sepals
(b) ovules
(c) carpel
(d) pollen grains
Answer:
(d) Pollen grains

Question 4
What are the advantages of sexual reproduction over asexual reproduction ?
Answer:
(i) In asexual reproduction, the offspring are almost identical to their parent because
they have the same genes as their parent. So, much genetic variation is not possible in
asexual reproduction. This is a disadvantage because it inhibits the further evolution of
the organism.
(ii) In sexual reproduction the offspring, although similar to their parents, are not
identical to them or to one another. This is because the offspring receive some genes
from the mother and some from the father. Because of the mixing of genes of mother
and father in various different combinations, all of the offspring have genetic variations.
In this way, sexual reproduction leads to a greater variety in population. This means
that a species (animal or plant) can adapt quickly to changes in its surroundings. This is
because there are always likely to be some individuals which are more suited to the
changes than others, and these individuals will survive and reproduce themselves.

Question 5
What are the functions performed by the testis in human beings ?
Answer:
The functions of testes in humans are following :
(i) Testes produce male gametes are called sperms.
(ii) A hormone called testosterone is produced in testes. Testosterone controls the
development of reproductive organs and secondary sexual characters.
Question 6
Why does menstruation occur?
Answer:
If the ovum (or egg) does not get fertilized, then the thick and soft inner lining of
uterus is no longer needed and hence it breaks. So, the thick and soft inner lining of
uterus along with the blood vessels and the ovum (or egg) comes out of the vagina in
the form of blood called menstruation. Menstruation occurs after the interval of every
28 days.

Question 7
Draw a labelled diagram of the longitudinal section of a flower

Question 8
What are the different methods of contraception ?
Answer:
The different methods of contraception are as follow :
(i) Barrier method : In this method, condom, diaphragm and cervical caps are used.
These prevent the entry of sperms in the female genital tract during sexual intercourse.
(ii) Chemical method : In this method a woman uses two kinds of pills (oral and
vaginal pills). The oral pills are hormonal preparations which suppress the release of
ovum in fallopian tube. These are called oral contraceptives. These pills change the
hormonal balance so they cause some side effect.

(iii) Intrauterine contraceptive devices : Intrauterine contraceptive devices such

as copper-T are placed safely in the uterus by a skilled doctor. It prevents the
implantation of an embryo in the uterus.

(iv) Surgical method : In this method, a small part of vas deferens of male and
fallopian tube of female is cut or tied by surgery. It is called vasectomy in males and
tubectomy in females.
Question 9
How are the modes for reproduction different in unicellular and multicellular
organisms ?
Answer:

Reproduction mode in unicellular Reproduction mode in multicellular

organisms organisms

(i) Asexual reproduction takes place in (i) Sexual reproduction takes place in

unicellular organisms. multicellular organisms.

(ii) Only one organism is required in this (ii) A male and a female both are required in

method. this method.

(iii) No special cells are present for

(iii) Special cells are present for reproduction.
reproduction.

(iv) Special organs are present for

(iv) No special organs are present for
reproduction located at the fixed
reproduction.
position in the body.

Question 10
How does reproduction help in providing stability to populations of species ?
Answer:
The introduction of variations during reproduction provides stability to the populations
of various species by preventing them from getting wiped out during adverse
conditions. Reproduction also helps to generate copies of individuals which are suited to
a particular environment.

Question 11
What could be the reasons for adopting contraceptive methods ?
Answer:
The reasons for adopting contraceptive devices are as follow:

1. To control the birth rate and prevent the increase in population.

2. To reduce the adverse effects on mother’s body due to frequent pregnancy.
3. To provide safety from sexually transmitted diseases.