ECTE324/8324: Power Engineering 1

Week 12
Lecture 12: Renewable energy

Dr Rabiul Islam, Room 35.G34

Email: mrislam@uow.edu.au

Reference:
Power Converters for Medium Voltage Networks, Rabiul Islam, Springer-Verlag
Electric Energy – An Introduction, 3rd Edition, M. A. El-Sharkawi
Solar Power
• The world’s energy demand is growing remarkably due to the strong growth of
population and economy in the developing countries.
• Scientists worldwide are now seeking solutions to the two enormous challenges
(energy and environment) from renewable energy sources, which are richly
available in almost every country.
• Renewable energy resources include wind, solar, geothermal, biomass, and
hydrogen. These resources produce much less pollution than burning fossil fuels
and are constantly replenished, and thus called renewable.
• Solar PV represents the highest growth rate due to its abundant source and
technological development of PV cells, e.g., fast reduction of PV module cost.
• The cost of solar PV panels has declined 99% over the last four decades.

Average
photovoltaic
module cost

2
The Solar Photovoltaic (PV) Cell

• Light consists of particles called photons, each photon is a packet of

energy
• When light photons hit certain material, the electrons in the material
absorb the energy of the photons. When this acquired energy is higher
than the binding energy of the electrons, the electrons break away from
their atoms, which is the process of photoelectric conversion of sunlight
into electricity. The device to do this process is called solar cell.
• The solar cell is called photovoltaic (PV) which is a compound word
derived from two words: photo which is a Greek word for light, and volt
which is a unit for measuring electric potential.
• PV cell – thin, semiconductor wafer that converts sunlight to DC current
• A PV cell can be made by two semiconductor layers; one having
positive charge and the other having negative charge.
• A PV cell may produce 0.5 V DC

3
Electricity Generation

 As photons are absorbed, hole-

electron pairs may be formed. If
these mobile charge carriers reach
the vicinity of the junction, the electric
field in the depletion region will push
the holes into the p-side and push the
electrons into the n-side.
http://www.toodoc.com/

 The p-side accumulates holes and the n-side accumulate electrons, which
creates a voltage that can be used to deliver current to a load.
 If electrical contacts are attached to the top and the bottom of the cell,
electrons will flow out of the n-side into the wire, through the load and back to
the p-side.
 When they reach the p-side, they recombine with holes completing the circuit.

4
PV Cell Electrical Characteristics

• When the resistance is infinite, the

current in the circuit is minimum and the
voltage across the cell maximum.
◦ Open Circuit Voltage, Voc

• When the resistance is zero, the current

reaches its maximum.
◦ Short Circuit Current, Isc

• Varying load resistance between zero

and infinity , the I−V characteristic of the
cell is determined.
• There is one point on the curve at which
the cell delivers maximum power; the
Maximum Power Point (MPP).

5
Electrical Properties of a PV Cell
Photons
The equivalent circuit model for a PV
cell consists of a real diode in
n-type External circuit parallel with an ideal current source.
Junction –
(e.g. , battery,
V
+
lights) The ideal current source delivers
p-type I
current in proportion to the solar flux
to which it is exposed.

Diode current
5
– External circuit BV
A(e
BV  1) V (e.g. , battery, AA((eeBV 11))

Diode Amps
Isc lights)
+
I

I  I sc  I d  I sc  A(e BV  1) 0
0.0 Diode Volts 0.6

Isc = short-circuit current/light-generated current

Id = diode current
6
Effect of Insulation: I-V Curve

I I  I sc  A(e BV  1) , where A, B, and especially Isc vary with solar insolation

Increasing Isc = short-circuit current/light-generated current
Isc solar insolation Voc = open-circuit voltage

Maximum
Im
power point
The irradiance mainly affects the
Pmax  Vm I m output current

0
V
0 Vm Voc

PV cell can be considered

a constant-current device
for a given solar
irradiation

[http://www.smartgrids.eu/documents/vision.pdf]:

7
Effect of Insulation: P-V Curve
• From Kirchoff’s current law: Maximum power point
 qVkTd 
I PV  I SC  I d  I SC  I 0  e  1 Power

 
Current
• The open circuit voltage is

kT  I SC  P=0 at short circuit

P=0 at open circuit
VOC  V ( I PV  0)  ln   1
q  I0 
P  I PVVPV

Pmax  0.7 • Voc • Isc

I0 = cell reverse saturation current
Vd = cell output voltage

8
Effect of Temperature: I-V and P-V Curves

 The simulated I–V

and P–V
characteristics with
various temperatures
at 1,000 W/m2
irradiance.

 The temperature
mainly affects the
terminal voltage of
the PV array, so that
the effects of both
factors have to be
considered when
designing a PV
system.

9
Operating points: connected to a resistive load

The operating point of the

solar cell depends on the
magnitude of the load
resistance (R) which is the
output voltage (V) divided by
the load current (I). The
intersection of the PV cell
characteristic with the load
line is the operating point of
the PV cell.

Consider the characteristics shown in the above figure where the straight lines
are the load lines representing the resistances of the load. The slope of the load
line [tan(I/V)] is the inverse of the load resistance (i.e., load conductance). When
the load resistance is adjusted to a value equal to R1, the system operates at
point 1 as shown in the figure. When the load resistance increases the output
voltage of the solar cell increases as well.

10
Solar PV Module
 One silicon PV cell can produce about 0.5 V, which is too small to do
valuable work.
 To increase the voltage rating, several PV cells are connected in series.
The package of interconnected PV cells is called module.
 For example, a 12-V module will have 36 individual cells connected in
series. In 24 V applications, two 12-V modules can be connected in series,
where the current stays unchanged.

11
Characteristics of Solar Module

Electrical Characteristics of Solar Module SX-10

12
Solar PV Array

 To achieve the desired voltage and current, a number of modules can be

connected in series and parallel.
 The series–parallel combination of modules is called a PV array.

• A photograph of PV array with

six 12-V modules, where 36
cells are interconnected in
each module

13
 6
PV Conversion Units 14

• PV cells are connected in series and parallel arrangements;

◦ Series connections are used to boost the available voltage.
◦ Parallel connections are used to boost the available current.

• Standalone systems (electric car, remote communications

systems) sometimes called RAPS (remote area power
supply).

• Grid-connected systems to supplement the mains (house

roof-top systems).
 6
Standalone PV Systems 15

• Energy Storage Requirements

◦ Panel output is dependent on solar radiation while
requirements depend on load.
◦ Mismatch between generation and power needs. Hence
need for storage, usually battery and/or capacitor.

• Conversion Requirements
◦ Panel gives out variable voltage and current.
◦ Most appliances designed to operate on 230 V, 50 Hz,
sinusoidal waveform voltage.
◦ Converter needed to give required output.
 6
Standalone PV System 16

Adapted from Boyle, "Renewable Energy", Oxford, 1996

 6
Grid Connected PV System 17

• Converter output can never be sinusoidal, hence must not connect to the ac
mains (power system). Series L needed to decouple systems.
• No need for large battery as imbalance between PV panel output and local
load can be made up from mains.
 6
Storage and Direct PV systems 18

• Household
energy use –
about 10
kWhr/day

• Typical
designs are
10 m2 PV
panel and
approximately
2 kW output.

• The use of storage batteries is the major drawback of the stand-alone PV system
• 10% of the energy stored in batteries is normally lost
• Increase expense of the PV system
• Their life span is about 5 years
• The leak from the batteries is very acidic and causes corrosion and damage to
surrounding areas
 6
Control of Power Flow for Grid Connections 19

• DC-AC converter and filter can be thought of as an approximately

sinusoidal voltage source.
• Can control:
◦ rms magnitude Vinv
◦ phase relative to supply

• As these are varied, the Q and P to household is varied.

◦ Q is generally controlled to be zero to minimise the current output of the
inverter.
◦ P is controlled to be in step with PV panel output
 7
Equivalent Circuit of Grid Connection 20
 8
Grid Connected Energy Sources 21
 9
Grid Connected Energy Sources 22
Grid Connected Energy Resources 23

19
 11
Grid Connection Example
A grid-connected PV system is supplying 2 kW to a house which has a 230 V, 50
Hz supply. An 8 mH inductor is used to decouple the inverter from the mains.
Determine the inverter voltage and phase angle relative to the supply.
 12
Grid Connected Systems
 12
Wind Power
 13
Wind Power
 14
Wind Turbine

• The term wind turbine refers to wind

energy systems that convert the
energy from the wind into electrical
energy.

• There are efficiencies associated with

all of the conversion processes. i.e.
The blades, the gearbox and even the
generator itself.

• For example, 90% for the blades, 95%

for the gearbox and 70% for the
generator (approximately 60% overall,
excluding the Betz Limit).
 15
Wind Power Example 1
Wind at 30 km/hr impinges on a turbine with a useful diameter of 1 m. What is the
largest power that could be generated, assuming a perfect turbine?
 15
Wind Power Example 2
What diameter turbine is necessary to generate 100 kW with a wind speed of
40 km/hr (Assume ideal turbine)?
 5
Wind Power

• Turbine speed will vary with wind speed.

• How to generate fixed frequency?

◦ Use dc generator then inverter
◦ Use high speed generator then an ac-ac converter called cycloconverter
◦ Use an induction generator

31
 5
Wave Power

32
 5
Wave Power Example
Waves of height 1 m impact on the coast every 10 seconds. What power can be
obtained from a wave power-capturing device 20 m long?

33
 5
Capturing Wave Power

• Many techniques: e.g. Oscillating water

column

• Waves concentrated in structure at

shoreline.

• Air in cylinder is alternatively

compressed and expanded.

• Air is pushed backwards and forwards

through Wells turbine

34
 16
Capturing Wave Power

• This has the feature that it always spins

in the same direction (‘self-rectifying’).

• Hence wave power is converted into

wind power.

• The turbine output can be converted to

electrical power as for wind power.
 Questions?

Dr Rabiul Islam
mrislam@uow.edu.au