Waveguides

Prepared by: Armando V. Barretto

 References
• Electronic Communication Systems by Kennedy and Davis
• Electronic Communications Systems Fundamentals Through Advance by Wayne
Tomasi
• Engineering Considerations for Microwave Communications Systems by GTE Lenkurt
Incorporated
• Telecommunication Transmission Handbook by Freeman
• Electronic Communication Systems by Blake

• Note: The principles discussed in these handouts are not only applicable to terrestrial
microwave systems but could also be applicable to other electronic communication
systems or other electronic systems such as radars.
 Waveguide
• Signals propagate along a waveguide not in the form of transverse
electromagnetic wave (TEM) as it is in free space, nor in the form of
current and voltages in a transmission line.
– Electric field, magnetic field and direction of propagation are not
mutually perpendicular.
– TEM waves cannot be propagated straight through a waveguide
because the electric field will be short circuited at the walls of the
waveguide.
– To prevent the electric field from being short circuited, waves are
propagated inside a waveguide in a zigzag manner, being reflected at the
walls with the electric field maximum at the center of the waveguide and
zero at the walls.
– The velocity of propagation inside a waveguide is slower compared to
that at free space because of the zigzag propagation.
Rectangular Waveguide

Height (b) - inside dimension of narrower wall

Width (a)-inside dimension of broader wall

 Waveguide
• Because waves are propagated in a zigzag and reflected manner:
– There is now either an electric field or magnetic field component in the
forward direction of propagation and another component normal or
perpendicular to the forward direction of propagation.
– The wave is no longer transverse electromagnetic (TEM).

Component in the same

forward direction of propagation
Reflecting Wall of Waveguide (either electric or magnetic field)

Vg Forward direction of
propagation
Incident Electric Reflected Electric
or Magnetic Field Vc Vn
Vc or Magnetic Field
i r

Reflecting Wall of Waveguide Component normal or perpendicular

to forward direction of propagation
i= angle of incidence (either electric or magnetic field)
r= angle of reflection
i= r
Wave Propagation Inside A Waveguide
Vg = group velocity
 Waveguide
• There are two basic methods or modes of propagation inside a waveguide,
namely (based on American System):
– Transverse electric mode (TE) – waves wherein there is no electric field
component in the forward direction of propagation, and electric field is
entirely perpendicular to the forward direction of propagation.
– Transverse magnetic mode (TM) – waves wherein there is no magnetic
field component in the forward direction of propagation, and magnetic
field is entirely perpendicular to the forward direction of propagation.
• In the European System (different from American nomenclature), transverse
electric (TE) is classified as H, and transverse magnetic is classified as E.
Broader Wall of Waveguide Broader Wall of Waveguide
a Narrower Wall a Narrower Wall
of Waveguide of Waveguide

b Electric Field b Magnetic Field

Broader Wall of Waveguide Broader Wall of Waveguide

Transverse Electric (TE) Mode Transverse Magnetic (TM) Mode
or H Mode or E Mode
 Waveguide
• A waveguide’s dominant mode of operation is its natural mode of operation.
It uses the lowest frequency or largest free space wavelength which can be
propagated in a waveguide.
• The modes of operation are further subdivided into:
– TE m , n for transverse electric mode
– TM m , n for transverse magnetic mode
• The mode of propagation is determined by the specific arrangement of
antennas inside the waveguide.

Wherein: m = number of half wavelengths across waveguide inside width (a)

(measured along x axis)
n = number of half wavelengths along waveguide inside height (b)
(measured along y axis) Waveguide
m and n are integers
Height (b)

Width (a)
 Waveguide
• The diagram below shows the propagation of waves inside a waveguide.
• The forward travel of waves inside a waveguide is slower compared to its
forward travel in free space.
Component parallel to forward
direction of propagation peak
Reflecting Wall of Waveguide

Vg p
Component normal or i i
 Forward direction
perpendicular to i Vc i of propagation
forward direction Vn n
of propagation

Note: Direction crest

of propagation
i = r = angle of incidence
Vc = actual velocity of wave = 3x108 meter/sec
Vn = Vc cos i = velocity of component perpendicular to forward direction of propagation
Vg = Vc sin i = group velocity = velocity of component of vc parallel to forward direction
of propagation (meter/sec)
 = free space wavelength = wavelength in the direction of propagation of wave (meter)
p =  / sin i = wavelength parallel to the forward direction of propagation (meter)
n =  / cos i = wavelength perpendicular to the forward direction of propagation (meter)
 Waveguide
• Based on the diagram in the preceding slide:

Vn = Vc cos i = velocity of component perpendicular to forward direction of propagation

(meter/sec)
Vg = Vc sin i = group velocity = velocity of component parallel to forward direction
of propagation (meter/sec)

p   wavelength parallel to the forward direction of propagation (meter)
sin i
 guide wavelength (meter)


n   wavelength perpendicular to the forward direction of propagation (meter)
cos i

  free space wavelength  wavelength in the direction of propagation (meter)

 Waveguide

• The phase velocity of the wave, which is the velocity at which the wave
changes phase in a plane boundary (not the velocity of travel), can be
computed as:
vc  f  velocity of light in free space  3x108 meter/sec
f vc 
vp  fp   (meter/sec) p  (meter)
sin i sin i sin i
 phase velocity (meter/sec)
 velocity at which wave changes phase at a plane boundary (not the velocity of travel)

where : f  frequency of wave (hertz)

  free space wavelength  wavelength in the direction of propagation (meter)

p   wavelength parallel to the forward direction of propagation (meter)
sin i
 guide wavelength (meter)
• The phase velocity is an apparent velocity, and it is greater than vc or vg .
• In free space, the velocity of travel and the phase velocity are equal and

vp = vc (in free space)

 Waveguide
• The diagram below shows a parallel transmission line with a short circuited
end and the corresponding voltage and current wave patterns that are
created.
• The voltage is minimum (zero volt) at the shorted end and at every half
wavelength away from the shorted end.
• The current is maximum at the shorted end and at every half wavelength
away from the shorted end.
• The same thing happens when a radio wave encounters a short inside a
waveguide (when it reaches a wall of a waveguide).
• The electric field component becomes zero when a radio wave reaches a
wall of a waveguide. (A wall presents a short circuit)
Electric field = 0
Source End Transmission line Shorted at this point
End
Current Voltage
Standing Standing
Zin = input impedance Reflecting Walls i
wave wave
of Waveguide

Source End r
Ii Electric field = 0
/2 /2 /2 /2 Shorted at this point
End
 Waveguide
• If another short circuit is connected to the parallel transmission line and it is
desired that the voltage and current patterns are not disturbed, it must be
placed at locations wherein the voltage is minimum (zero volt).
• The short circuit must be placed at multiples of half wavelengths.
• The same thing happens, when a radio wave reaches a second wall inside a
waveguide.
• The electric field component becomes zero when a radio wave reaches the
walls of a waveguide. (A wall presents a short circuit).
• The radio waves arranges itself inside a waveguide such that the electric field
is zero at the walls, and multiples of half wavelengths normal to the walls are
created between the walls.
Source End Electric field = 0
Shorted Transmission line Shorted at this point
End End
Current Voltage n / 2
Standing Reflecting Walls
Standing a
of Waveguide i n / 2
wave wave
n / 2

r Example
Ii Electric field = 0 only (other
/2 /2 /2 /2 Shorted at this point multiples of /2
End could exist)
 Waveguide
• The distance between the walls can be computed as:

m n
a  distance between the reflecting walls of waveguide (meter)
2
m 
 n 
2 cos i cos i

where : n   wavelength normal to the walls or perpendicular to the
cos i
forward direction of propagation (meter)
m  number of half wavelengths normal to the walls or perpendicular to
forward direction of propagation (integer)
  free space wavelength  wavelength in the direction of propagation (meter)

Electric field = 0 Reflecting Wall of Waveguide

at this point Vg p
i i
Vn 
Reflecting Walls n / 2 i Vc i
of Waveguide i n / 2 a = distance between n
n / 2 the reflecting
Direction
walls
Example of propagation
Electric field = 0 only (other Forward direction
at this point multiples of /2 of propagation
could exist)
 Waveguide
• The wavelength parallel to the forward direction of propagation (p or guide
wavelength) can be computed as:
m
a  distance between reflecting walls of waveguide (meter)
2 cos i

m
cos i 
2a

  
p     wavelength parallel to forward direction of propagation
sin i 1  cos i
2
 m 
2

1 
 2a 
or parallel to walls of waveguide (meter)

where : m  number of half wavelengths normal to the walls or perpendicular to

forward direction of propagation (integer)
  free space wavelength  wavelength in the direction of propagation (meter)
Vg p
Reflecting Wall i
of Waveguide i  Forward direction
Vn i Vc i of propagation
n
Direction
of propagation
 Waveguide
• As the frequency of a signal is decreased, its free space wavelength () increases
(vc = f = 3x108 m/sec).
• Based on the equation of p , as the frequency is decreased or as the wavelength is
increased, there comes a point wherein p becomes infinite, and the wave can no
longer be propagated inside a waveguide with fixed a and m.
• The smallest free space wavelength at which a wave could no longer be propagated
inside a waveguide is called the cutoff wavelength.
• The cutoff wavelength can be computed as:
  
p     wavelength parallel to forward direction of propagation (m)
sin i 1  cos i
2
 m 
2

1 
 2a 
 m   mo  mo
2 2

1    1   2a   0 1
 2 a    2a

2a
o   cutoff wavelength  wavelength at which p becomes infinite (meter)
m
 smallest free space wavelength that is unable to propagate inside a waveguide

where : m  number of half wavelengths normal to the walls or perpendicular to

forward direction of propagation (integer)
  free space wavelength  wavelength in the direction of propagation (meter)
a  distance between the reflecting walls of a waveguide (meter)
 Waveguide
• When m is equal to one (1), the largest cutoff wavelength is achieved, and the
signal is propagated in the dominant mode.
• The largest value of the cutoff wavelength can be computed as:

2a 2a
omax    2a  largest cutoff wavelength (meter) (a is in meter) (m  1)
m 1

• The wavelength p (guide wavelength) can also be computed as:

 
p    wavelength parallel to forward direction of propagation (meter)
 m   
2 2

1  1 
 2a   o 
 guide wavelength

where : m  number of half wavelengths normal to the walls or perpendicular to

forward direction of propagation (integer)
  free space wavelength  wavelength in the direction of propagation (meter)
a  distance between the walls of a waveguide (meter)
2a
o   cutoff wavelength  wavelength at which p becomes infinite (meter)
m
 smallest free space wavelength that is unable to propagate inside a waveguide
 Waveguide
• The free space wavelength () of a signal propagated inside a waveguide
must be shorter than the cutoff wavelength (o) of the waveguide.
• The cutoff wavelength for rectangular waveguide operating in all modes
(TEm,n and TMm,n) can be computed as:

2
o   cutoff wavelength of rectangular waveguide for all modes (meter)
2 2
m n 
 a    b 

where : a  width  distance between narrower pair of walls of a waveguide (meter)

b  height  distance between the broader pair of walls of a waveguide (meter)
m  number of half wavelengths across waveguide inside width (a)
n  number of half wavelengths along waveguide inside height (b)
(m and n are integers which indicate the mode of operation)
 Waveguide
• Example: A standard waveguide is operated using TM1,1 mode. Determine its
cutoff wavelength when a = 6 cm.
For standard rectangular waveguide, the aspect ratio is 2 : 1 and a  2b.

2 2 2
o  2 2

2 2
  0.894a  0.894(6)  5.364 cm  cutoff wavelength
m n  1   1  5
 a    b   a    a / 2  a2

where : a  width  distance between narrower pair of walls of a waveguide (meter)

b  height  distance between the broader pair of walls of a waveguide (meter)
m  number of half wavelengths across waveguide inside width (a)
n  number of half wavelengths along waveguide inside height (b)
(m and n are integers which indicate the mode of operation)
 Waveguide
• The frequency of a signal propagated inside a waveguide must be higher
than its lower cutoff frequency.
• The lower cutoff frequency (fc) of a rectangular waveguide operating in all
modes (TEm,n and TMm,n) can be computed as:
(fc)(o)  vc  3 x 108 meter/sec  speed of light in free space
2 (vc) (3 x 108 )
o     cutoff wavelength (meter)
2
m n 
2 fc fc
 a    b 

2 2
m n 
fc  1.5 x 108  a    b   lower cutoff frequency (hertz)

where : a  width  distance between narrower pair of walls of a waveguide (meter)

b  height  distance between the broader pair of walls of a waveguide (meter)
m  number of half wavelengths across waveguide inside width (a)
n  number of half wavelengths along waveguide inside height (b)
(m and n are integers which indicate the mode of operation)
 Waveguide
• Example: The inside measurement of a rectangular waveguide is 5.2 cm by
2.5 cm. Determine its cutoff frequency in the dominant mode.

2 2 2 2
m n  8  1   0 
fc  1.5 x 10 8

 a  b  1.5 x 10  0.052    0.025   2.884 Ghz
       

The dominant mode in a rectangular waveguide is TE1,0

(m  1 or number of half wavelength  1 in the dominant mode)
 Waveguide
• TM modes wherein m= 0 or n = 0 are not possible with rectangular
waveguides.
• TE0,1, TE2,0, and TE0,2 modes are possible in rectangular waveguides.
• Example: Determine the mode with cutoff frequency closest to the cutoff
frequency of the dominant mode in a rectangular waveguide whose inside
measurement is 5.2 cm by 2.5 cm.
Based on the previous example, the cutoff frequency in the dominant mode is
2.884 Ghz.
2 2 2 2
m n  8  0   1 
fc  1.5 x 10 8

 a   b   1.5 x 10  0.052    0.025   6 Ghz (for TE0,1)

2 2 2 2
m n  8  2   0 
fc  1.5 x 108 
 a  b  1.5 x 10  0.052    0.025   5.769 Ghz (for TE2,0)
       
2 2 2 2
m n  8  0   2 
fc  1.5 x 10 8

 a   b   1.5 x 10  0.052    0.025   12 Ghz (for TE0,2)

- TE2,0 is the mode which has the lowest cutoff frequency closest to that of the dominant mode
and its cutoff frequency is 5.769 Ghz.
- The waveguide can be operated with a frequency range of 2.884 Ghz to 5.769 Ghz in the
dominant mode.
 Waveguide
• The group velocity (vg) and the phase velocity (vp) are related as follows:
vc  f  velocity of light in free space  3x108 m/sec
f vc
vp  fp   (m/sec)
sin i sin i
 phase velocity
 velocity at which wave changes phase at a plane boundary (not the velocity of travel)
vc
sin i 
vp
Also,
vg  vc sin i  group velocity  velocity of component of vc parallel to forward direction
of propagation (meter/sec)
vg vc Vg
sin i   Reflecting Wall
vc vp i
of Waveguide Vn i Vc
vg vp  vc 2  (3 x 108 meter/sec) 2
Direction
of propagation
where : f  frequency of wave (hertz)
  free space wavelength  wavelength in the direction of propagation (meter)

p   wavelength parallel to the forward direction of propagation (meter)
sin i
 Waveguide
• The group velocity (vg) can be computed as follows:
 vc 
vp  fp  f   p vc  f
    
2 2 2

1   1   1  
 o   o   o 
 phase velocity (meter/sec) (not the velocity of travel)
 velocity at which wave changes phase at a plane boundary
Also, vg vp  vc 2  (3 x 108 meter/sec) 2

2

 
1 



2
vc2
 o  
 
vg   vc 2  vc 1  


  group velocity (meter/sec)
vp vc  o 

 velocity of component of vc parallel to forward

direction of propagation

where : f  frequency of wave (hertz)

  free space wavelength  wavelength in the direction of propagation (meter)
p  wavelength parallel to the forward direction of propagation (meter)
o  cutoff wavelength (meter)
vc  3 x 108 meter/sec  velocity of light in free space
 Waveguide
• Based on the equation of the group velocity (vg):
– The group velocity (vg) becomes equal to zero (0) when the free space
wavelength () becomes equal to the cutoff wavelength (o), and the wave
cannot be propagated in the forward direction inside a waveguide.
– The wave will also not be propagated forward when the free space
wavelength () becomes greater than the cutoff wavelength (o).
2

 
vg  vc 1  


  group velocity (meter/sec)
 o 

 velocity of component of vc parallel to forward direction of propagation

Component parallel to
Reflecting Wall of Waveguide forward direction of propagation

Vg Wall of Waveguide
i
Incident wave Reflected wave 
Vc Vn i
i r
Vc n
Forward direction of
propagation
Wall of Waveguide Component normal or perpendicular
to forward direction of propagation
 Waveguide
• Example: A signal having a frequency of 4 Ghz is propagated in a
rectangular waveguide whose inside width is 4 cm. Determine:
a. Cutoff wavelength for the dominant mode (m=1)
b. Wavelength inside the waveguide for the dominant mode (m=1)
c. Group velocity (Vg)
d. Phase velocity (Vp)
2a 2 (0.04)
o    0.08 meter  cutoff wavelength in the dominat mode (TE1,0)
m 1

vc 3 x 108
  9
 0.075 meter  wavelength of signal
f 4 x 10

2 2

 
0.075  
vg  vc 1  


  3 x 108 1  
 1.04 x 108 meter/sec  group velocity


 o  0.08  

 velocity of component of vc parallel to forward direction of propagation

vc 3 x 108
vp  fp    8.621 x 108 meter/sec  phase velocity
 
2 2
 0.075 
1   1 
 o   0.08 
 Waveguide
• Example: A signal having a frequency of 10 Ghz has to be propagated in a
rectangular waveguide whose inside width is 5 cm. Determine:
a. Maximum number of normal half wavelengths of electric field between the
walls (possible largest value of m)
b. Guide wavelength (wavelength parallel to forward direction of
propagation) for largest value of m
vc 3 x 108
   0.03 m  free space wavelength of signal
f 10 x 109

2a 2 (0.05)
o    0.1 m  cutoff wavelength in the dominant mode (m  1) (will propagate,   o)
m 1
2a 2 (0.05)
o    0.05 m  cutoff wavelength when m  2 (will propagate,   o)
m 2
2a 2 (0.05)
o    0.033 m  cutoff wavelength when m  3 (will propagate,   o)
m 3
2a 2 (0.05)
o    0.025 m  cutoff wavelength when m  4 (will not propagate,   o)
m 4

Therefore, maximum number of half wavelengths normal to the wall is equal to 3

  0.03
p     0.072 m  guide wavelength when m  3
 m   
2 2 2
 0.03 
1  1  1 
 2a   o   0.033 
 Waveguide
• For TEm,n mode of operation, the electric field has no component in the
forward direction of propagation inside the waveguide.
• For TEm,0 mode of operation, the broader walls are not used for propagating
the signal because the waves are reflected using the narrower walls.
• However, the broader walls are used to separate the narrower walls and to
confine the waves inside the waveguide.
• For standard rectangular waveguides, the aspect ratio is 2:1 resulting to
a = 2b.

Waveguide

Broader wall (used to separate reflecting walls and

Height (b) confine signals inside the waveguide
•
Narrower wall (used to reflect signals)
Width (a)
 Waveguide
• The characteristic wave impedance of a rectangular waveguide operating in
TEm,0 mode can be computed as:

ZFS 377
Zo    characteristic wave impedance of waveguide in TEm,0 mode (ohms)
2 2
 

 

1 
  1 
 
o 
 o 


where : ZFS  120 ohms  377 ohms  characteristic impedance of free space
  free space wavelength  wavelength in the direction of propagation (meter)
o  cutoff wavelength (meter)
 Waveguide
• For TMm,n mode of operation, the magnetic field has no component in the
forward direction of propagation inside the waveguide.
• The main TMm,n mode is the TM1,1 mode.
• The magnetic fields are closed loops.
• TMm,0 mode cannot exist in rectangular waveguides because the magnetic
field in TMm,n mode is supposed to be changing in the x and y direction in
this mode.

Wall of Waveguide
a

b Magnetic Field

Wall of Waveguide

Transverse Magnetic (TM) Mode

or E Mode
 Waveguide
• The characteristic wave impedance of a rectangular waveguide operating in
TMm,n mode can be computed as:

2 2

  
 
Zo  ZFS 1  


  377 1  


  characteristic wave impedance of waveguide
 o   o 

operating in TMm, n mode (ohms)

where : ZFS  120 ohms  377 ohms  characteristic impedance of free space
  free space wavelength  wavelength in the direction of propagation (meter)
o  cutoff wavelength (meter)

• The characteristic wave impedance of a rectangular waveguide operating in

TMm,n mode is always less than 377 ohms, which is why it is used in cases
wherein the input impedance of the waveguide needs to be low.
 Waveguide
• The dominant mode is usually the one used in practice because of the
following:
– It is much easier to excite or produce.
– The cutoff wavelength is larger and the cutoff frequency is lower in this
mode.

• Example: A signal having a frequency of 4 Ghz is propagated in a

rectangular waveguide whose inside width is 4 cm. Determine the
characteristic wave impedance of the waveguide in the TE m,n dominant mode
(TE1,0).
2a 2 (0.04)
o    0.08 meter  cutoff wavelength in the dominat mode (TE1,0)
m 1

vc 3 x 108
  9
 0.075 meter  wavelength of signal
f 4 x 10
ZFS 377 377
Zo     1,083 ohms
2 2 2

     
     
 0.075 
1   1   1  
 o   o   0.08 

 characteristic wave impedance of waveguide in TEm,0 mode (ohms)

 Waveguide
• Example: A signal having a frequency of 8 Ghz is propagated in a
rectangular waveguide whose inside dimensions are 3 cm by 5 cm.
Determine for TE1,0 mode (dominant mode) and TM1,1 mode the following:

a. Cutoff wavelength
b. Wavelength inside the waveguide (free space wavelength)
c. Group velocity (Vg)
d. Phase velocity (Vp)
e. Characteristic wave impedance
 Waveguide
For the TE1,0 dominant mode :
2 2 2a 2 (0.05)
o      0.1 meter
2
m n 
2
m 0
2 2 m 1

 a   b   a    b 
 cutoff wavelength in the dominat mode (TE1,0)

vc 3 x 108
   0.0375 meter  free space wavelength of signal
f 8 x 109
 wavelength of signal inside the waveguide
2 2

 
0.0375  
vg  vc 1  


  3 x 108 1   2.78 x 108 meter/sec  group velocity




 o  0.1  

 velocity of component of vc parallel to forward direction of propagation

vc 3 x 108
vp  fp    3.23 x 108 meter/sec  phase velocity
 
2 2
 0.0375 
1   1 
 o   0.1 

ZFS 377 377

Zo     406.6 ohms
2 2 2
 

 
0.0375 
 
1 
 1 1 
  


o 
 o 
0.1 
 

 characteristic wave impedance of waveguide for TE1,0 mode

 Waveguide
For TM1,1 mode :
2 2
o    0.0514 meter
2 2 2 2
m n   1   1 

 a   b   0.05    0.03 
 cutoff wavelength in the TM1,1 mode

vc 3 x 108
   0.0375 meter  free space wavelength of signal
f 8 x 109
 wavelength of signal inside the waveguide

2 2

 
0.0375  
vg  vc 1  


  3 x 108 1   2.051x 108 meter/sec  group velocity




 o  0.0514  

 velocity of component of vc parallel to forward direction of propagation

vc 3 x 108
vp  fp    4.386 x 108 meter/sec  phase velocity
 
2 2
 0.0375 
1   1 
 o   0.0514 

2

2

 0.0375 

Zo  ZFS 1 
 377 1   
   257.83 ohms (for TM1,1 mode)
o   0.0514 


 characteristic wave impedance of waveguide for TM1,1 mode

 Waveguide
• Example: The width of a waveguide is 5 cm and it is operating in the
dominant mode. The characteristic wave impedance of the waveguide is 400
ohms. Determine the cutoff frequency and frequency of the signal .
For the TE1,0 dominant mode :
2 2 2a 2 (0.05)
o      0.1 meter  cutoff wavelength
2
m n 
2
m 0
2 2 m 1

 a   b   a    b 

(fc)(o)  vc  3 x 108 meter per sec

3 x 108
fc   3 Ghz  cutoff frequency
0.1

ZFS 377 377

Zo     400 ohms  characteristic wave impedance
2 2 2
 

 
 
 
1 
  1 
  1 



o 
 o 
  0.1 

  0.0334 meter  free space wavelength of signal

 f  vc  3 x 108 meter/sec
3 x 108
f  8.98 Ghz  frequency of signal
0.0334
 Circular Waveguide
• Circular waveguides are easier to manufacture, and easier to join together.
• For circular waveguides:
– m denotes the number of full wave intensity variations around the inside
circumference.
– n denotes the number of half wave intensity changes radially out from
the center of the wall.
– Cylindrical coordinates are used.
• The biggest disadvantage of circular waveguide is its cross section is much
bigger than that of rectangular waveguide for the same signal.

Circular Waveguide
 Circular Waveguide
• The cutoff wavelength for a circular waveguide can be computed as:
2 r
o   cutoff wavelength (meter)
(kr )

where : r  internal radius of circular waveguide (meter)

(kr)  solution of a Bessel function table

• TE1,1 is the dominant mode for a circular waveguide (with smallest value for
(kr) which results to highest value for cutoff wavelength and lowest value
for cutoff frequency.
• The table below shows the Bessel table which could be used for computing
the cutoff wavelength of circular waveguides.

TE Mode TM Mode
Mode (kr) Mode (kr) Mode (kr) Mode (kr)
TE0,1 3.83 TE0,2 7.02 TM0,1 2.4 TM0,2 5.52
TE1,1 1.84 TE1,2 5.33 TM1,1 3.83 TM1,2 7.02
TE2,1 3.05 TE2,2 6.71 TM2,1 5.14 TM2,2 8.42
 Circular Waveguide
• The lower cutoff frequency for a circular waveguide can be computed as:

(fc)(o)  vc  3 x 108 meter/sec  speed of light in free space

vc 3 x 108
fc    lower cutoff frequency (hertz)
o o

where : o  cutoff wavelength

• The wavelength p (guide wavelength) for circular waveguide can be

computed as (same formula used for rectangular waveguide):

p   wavelength parallel to forward direction of propagation (meter)
 
2

1  
 o 
 guide wavelength

where :   free space wavelength  wavelength in the direction of propagation (meter)

o  cutoff wavelength  wavelength at which p becomes infinite (meter)
 smallest free space wavelength that is unable to propagate inside a waveguide
 Circular Waveguide
• The characteristic wave impedance of a circular waveguide operating in
TEm,n mode can be computed as (same formula used for rectangular
waveguide):
ZFS 377
Zo    characteristic wave impedance of waveguide in TEm,0 mode (ohms)
2 2
 

 

1 
  1 
 
o 
 o 


where : ZFS  120 ohms  377 ohms  characteristic impedance of free space
  free space wavelength  wavelength in the direction of propagation (meter)
o  cutoff wavelength (meter)
 Circular Waveguide
• The characteristic wave impedance of a circular waveguide operating in
TMm,n mode can be computed as (same formula used for rectangular
waveguide):
2 2

  
 
Zo  ZFS 1  


  377 1  


  characteristic wave impedance of waveguide
 o   o 

operating in TMm, n mode (ohms)

where : ZFS  120 ohms  377 ohms  characteristic impedance of free space
  free space wavelength  wavelength in the direction of propagation (meter)
o  cutoff wavelength (meter)
 Circular Waveguide
• Example: A circular waveguide has an internal diameter of 5 cm. A signal
whose frequency is 10 Ghz is operating in the TE1,1 mode using the
waveguide. Determine:
a. Cutoff wavelength
b. Guide wavelength
c. Characteristic wave impedance
vc 3 x 108
  9
 0.03 meter  free space wavelength of signal
f 10 x 10
 wavelength of signal inside the waveguide
0.05
2
2 r
o   2  0.0853 meter  cutoff wavelength
(kr ) (1.84)
 0.03
p    0.032 meter  guide wavelength
 
2 2
 0.03 
1   1 
 o   0.0853 
ZFS 377
Zo    402.72 ohms  characteristic wave impedance
2 2

  
   0.03 
1   1   0.0853 
 o 
 Other Waveguides
• Sometimes ridged waveguides are used because they have smaller
dimensions for a given cutoff wavelength:

Ridged Waveguide

• Flexible waveguides are used to allow movement of a waveguide section.

 Methods of Exciting Waveguides
• Antenna/s or coaxial line/s are inserted inside a waveguide to produce the
radio waves which propagate inside the waveguide.
• The positioning of the antenna or coaxial line determines the common mode
of operation of the waveguide.

Waveguide Waveguide
Antenna
Antenna

Height (h) Height (h)

p p

TE 1, 0 Mode TM 1, 1 Mode
 Methods of Exciting Waveguides

Waveguide Antenna


Height (h)

Coaxial cable
Waveguide
Antenna
p p

TE 2, 0 Mode
Height (h)

TE 1, 1 Mode
Other Devices Used With
Waveguides
Prepared by: Armando V. Barretto
 T (Tee) Junctions
• T (Tee) Junctions are used to combine two or more signals in a waveguide
system, or to split a signal into two or more signals in a waveguide system.
• It can also be used for impedance matching.

E Plane Tee H Plane Tee

Source: Microwaves101
E-plane tee (WR-28) Waveguide Primer.html H-plane tee (WR-28)
 Hybrid T (Tee) Junction (Magic Tee Junction)
• A Hybrid T or Magic Tee is formed when another arm is added to either
an E plane Tee or H plane Tee.
• In the diagram below, Arm 3 and Arm 4 are both connected to Arm 1 and
Arm 2, but they are not connected to each other.
• If a signal is fed into Arm 3, the signal will be divided into Arm 1 and
Arm 2, but none will enter Arm 4.
• One signal can be fed into Arm 3 and another one into Arm 4, and the
signals will be divided into Arm 1 and Arm 2. Arm 2 can be connected to
a load, while Arm 1 can have a terminator.
Arm 3
Arm 2

Arm 4

Arm 1
Source: Microwaves101 _
Hybrid T (Tee) or Magic Tee Junction Waveguide Primer.html
 Hybrid Ring or Rat Race
• A Hybrid T Ring or Rat Race has similar functions as those of a Hybrid T
junction or Magic Tee, but constructed differently.
• The loop has a median circumference of 1.5 p.
• Any arm is coupled to two other arms (but not to a fourth one).
• If a signal is fed into Arm 1, it will divide equally into both directions of the
loop and the signals will add upon reaching arm 4 and arm 2 (signals are in
phase), but will subtract at Arm 3 (signals are 180 degrees out of phase).
– There will be signals coming out of Arms 2 and 4, but there will be no
output signal at Arm 3. 3p /4

4 1

p /4 p /4

3 2
p /4
Top View of a Hybrid Ring or Rat Race
 Waveguide Irises
• Waveguide irises (also called waveguide apertures or diaphragms) are
obstacles placed inside waveguides and are used to overcome impedance
mismatch in a waveguide system.
• Reflection of signals inside waveguides cause impedance mismatches.
• To eliminate impedance mismatch inside a waveguide, lumped impedance
presented by an obstacle is placed at a certain point inside the waveguide.

Capacitive Iris Capacitive Iris Inductive Iris Inductive Iris

Resonant Iris (With Capacitive

and Inductive Components
 Cylindrical Posts
• Cylindrical posts are also obstacles placed inside waveguides and are also used
to overcome impedance mismatch in a waveguide system, just like irises.
• A cylindrical post introduces an impedance/reactance inside a waveguide.
• The type of impedance introduce by a post depends on how much it extends
inside the waveguide.
• Posts are more readily adjustable compared to irises.
• Some posts are also called screws, because their penetration can be adjusted just
like screws.

Inductive Post

Capacitive Post

Waveguide
 Cylindrical Posts
• As a post is extended slightly inside a waveguide, it initially introduces a
capacitive susceptance at the point where it is inserted. As the insertion is
increased, a point is reached wherein series resonance is achieved. As the
insertion is further increased, an inductive susceptance is introduced.
• The resonance at midpoint insertion has a a response curve which is dependent
on the diameter of the post,
• The resonance at midpoint insertion can be used as a band-stop filter.
 Resistive Loads and Attenuators
• Resistive loads are used to completely absorb incoming signals, without
reflections.
• They are used in waveguides which require perfectly matched loads that are not
frequency sensitive, such as when measuring power on a waveguide system
without radiating any power.
• Resistive Loads can be constructed using lossy dielectric materials, such as
carbon filled glass, fitted at the end of a waveguide.
• Resistive loads are tapered gradually to prevent reflected signals.
• The taper length is usually equal to p/2, with an overall length of around two
wavelengths.
• Resistive loads can be constructed in various forms.
• Some resistive loads can occupy the whole cross sectional area of a waveguide
while others occupy only a portion of the width of the waveguide.
Waveguide p/2 Waveguide
p/2
Direction of Signal Direction of Signal

Resistive Load Resistive Load

 Resistive Loads and Attenuators
• Some resistive loads are adjustable so that the amount of power absorption can
be varied.
• When a resistive load is placed at the middle of a waveguide, power absorption
is maximum because the electric field at the middle is maximum.
• As a resistive load is placed nearer the wall of a waveguide, power absorption is
decreased because the electric field near the walls is weaker.

Waveguide

Variable Attenuator
 Resistive Loads and Attenuators
• Some variable attenuators are made up of adjustable flaps whose amount of
penetration inside the waveguide determines the amount of signal attenuation.
• The deeper is the flap penetration, the higher is the attenuation.
• When using flap attenuators, some amount of signal is radiated outside the
waveguide through the small opening where the flap is inserted.

Waveguide

Flap Attenuator
 Attenuation in Waveguides
• A waveguide operated well below its cutoff frequency can be used as a
variable attenuator. It is sometimes called piston attenuator.
• Signals whose frequencies are below the cutoff frequency are severely
attenuated.
• The attenuation of a signal when its frequency is well below the cutoff
frequency (f << fo or  >> o) can be computed as:

A  el  Attenuation of signal whose frequency is well below the cutoff frequency
or whose wavelength is much higher than the cutoff wavelength (in ratio)

2
where :    attenuation factor
o
l  length of waveguide (same unit as o)
e  base of natural logarithm
o  cutoff wavelength of waveguide (same unit as l)
  wavelength of the signal
fo  cutoff frequency of waveguide
f  frequency of signal
 Attenuation in Waveguides
• The attenuation of a signal in db when its frequency is well below the cutoff
frequency can be computed as:

A  e l  Attenuation of signal whose frequency is well below the cutoff frequency

or whose wavelength is much higher than the cutoff wavelength (in ratio)

Adb  20 log e l
 20 ( l ) log e
 2 
 20  l log e
  o 
(54.5)( l)
 db  Attenuation of signal whose frequency is well below the cutoff frequency
o
or whose wavelength is much higher than the cutoff wavelength (in db)

2
where :    attenuation factor
o
l  length of waveguide (same unit as o)
e  base of natural logarithm
o  cutoff wavelength of waveguide (same unit as l)
 Attenuation in Waveguides
• Signals are attenuated inside a waveguide, even if attenuators are not introduced
inside the waveguide.
• Attenuation, even at the normal frequency of operation of a waveguide is caused
by:
– Reflections from obstacles
– Misaligned waveguide sections
– Losses due to currents at the waveguide walls
– Losses due to dielectric filling inside the waveguide.
• Waveguide losses due to current at the walls and dielectric filling are usually
given in waveguide specification sheets in db per unit length. This must be
considered in the computation of microwave system losses.
 Resonators
• Cavity resonators are waveguides whose ends are closed using metallic
materials.
• Because of the closed ends, standing waves could exist in a resonator and
oscillations could take place inside if it is excited properly.
• To properly excite a waveguide and produce oscillations, a signal source should
be placed between the end walls and the end walls must be separated by a
distance of n p/2. Where n is an integer.
• Cavity resonators have infinite number of resonant frequencies.
• Cavity resonators are usually used as tuned circuits for amplifiers and
oscillators, resonant circuits used for filters, and part of wavemeters which is
used as a microwave frequency measuring device.
• The simplest forms of cavity resonators could be spheres, rectangular prisms
and cylinders, but they are usually not employed because their resonant
frequencies are harmonically related, and their output therefore are pulses
instead of sine waves.
 Resonators
• The form of the cavity resonators below are often used for reflex klystrons,
which was one of the most commonly used oscillators used in microwave
communications.

• The form of the cavity resonator below is often used for magnetrons, which was
also one of the most commonly used oscillators used in microwave
communications.
 Directional Couplers
• Directional couplers are waveguides which could be used to sample a signal so
that power, SWR, and other measurements can be done.
• The figure below shows a two-hole directional coupler.
• Other types of directional couplers are available such as those which employ a
single slot, single long slot, or three holes.

Matching Resistive Load (Termination)

Auxiliary Waveguide

p/4 To detector probe

To Generator Holes or Gaps To Load

Main Waveguide
 Isolators
• Isolators are used to couple signals in a one-way direction, such as coupling a
signal from generator to load.
• It is used to isolate an input signal from an output signal.
• Many isolators use ferrites which are non-metallic materials and are insulators
through which radio waves could propagate.
• Ferrites have strong magnetic properties, and when an external magnetic field is
applied to them, the polarization of radio waves passing through the material is
changed because of Faraday effect.
• The interaction of the electromagnetic field of the radio waves and the field
created by a permanent magnet causes the rotation of the radio wave
polarization.
 Isolators
• Below is a diagram showing the construction of an isolator using ferrite which
exhibits Faraday rotation.
• The circular waveguide operates in TE1,1 mode, while the rectangular
waveguides operate in TE1,0 mode.
• The permanent magnet generates a magnetic field in the ferrite, which shifts the
polarization of radio waves passing in either direction through the circular
waveguide, by around 45 degrees in the clockwise direction.
Taper with 450 clockwise rotation
Permanent Magnet
Direction of wave
Resistive Attenuator (not severely
attenuated)
Taper with no
450 clockwise
Rectangular Waveguide
rotation
Rectangular
Waveguide Resistive Attenuator
Ferrite
Clockwise rotation of radio waves
Circular Waveguide in either direction
Faraday Rotation Isolator.
 Isolators
• Radio waves from the circular waveguide going to the rectangular waveguide
with 45 degrees taper passes to the waveguide with relatively small insertion
loss of around 0.5 db to 1 db. It is not also severely attenuated by the resistive
attenuators because of the orientation of the attenuator relative to the
polarization of the radio signal.
• The polarization of radio waves from the circular waveguide going to the
rectangular waveguide with no 45 degrees taper is also shifted by 45 degrees
clockwise, and are severely attenuated (around 20 to 30 db) by the resistive
attenuators because of the orientation of the attenuators. The radio waves could
not propagate successfully into the rectangular waveguide with no 45 degrees
taper because of the unmatched dimensions of the rectangular waveguide and
polarization of the radio waves.
• This type of isolator is capable of handling lower power of up to a maximum of
around 2 Kilowatts.
 Isolators
• Below is a diagram of a resonant absorption isolator.
• The rectangular waveguide operates in the TE1,0 mode.
• The ferrite is placed about a quarter away from one side of the walls and
halfway between the ends of the waveguide.
• Because of the location of the ferrite and the presence of the magnetic field,
radio waves traveling in one direction are unaffected while radio waves
traveling in the other direction are severely attenuated.
• This type of isolator is capable of handling higher power compared to the
Faraday rotation isolator.
Walls of rectangular
waveguide

Permanent
Magnet

Ferrite Rectangular
waveguide
Resonant Absorption Isolator.
 Circulators
• A circulator is a device wherein each terminal is connected only to the next
clockwise terminal.
• It is often used to isolate a transmitter and a receiver connected to the same
antenna, and to isolate the input and output of two terminal amplifying
devices.
• It has similarities to a rat race.
• It usually uses ferrite and often has four (4) terminals.
• The diagram below shows a circulator with four terminals using ferrite and
Faraday rotation. 0
Taper with 45 clockwise rotation
Permanent Magnet
Terminal 2
Terminal 3

Taper with no
450 clockwise
Rectangular Waveguide
rotation
Terminal 4
Rectangular
Waveguide

Terminal 1 Ferrite Clockwise rotation of radio waves

Circular Waveguide in either direction
Circulator Using Ferrite and Faraday Rotation
 Circulators
• The 45 degrees clockwise rotation in the polarization of radio waves caused by
the ferrite and permanent magnet causes the radio waves to be coupled only
from one specific terminal to another specific terminal.
• The radio waves could not propagate successfully into certain terminals
because of the unmatched dimensions of the rectangular waveguide and
polarization of the radio waves.
• Radio signals from terminal 1 are only coupled to terminal 2, radio signals from
terminal 2 are only coupled to terminal 3, radio signals from terminal 3 are only
coupled to terminal 4, and radio signals from terminal 4 are only coupled to
terminal 1.
• In using the circulator, the transmitter could be connected to terminal 1, the
receiver could be connected to terminal 3, and the antenna could be connected
to terminal 2.
– Received signals from the antenna (terminal 2) are only coupled to terminal
3 and the receiver, while signals from the transmitter (terminal 1) are only
coupled to the antenna (terminal 2).
 Circulators
• The diagram below shows a Y (wye) -ferrite circulator.
• A permanent magnet is placed below the ferrite (not shown in the diagram).
• The ferrite and the permanent magnet causes the rotation of the radio waves
passing through the ferrite, in such a way that it is coupled only to the next
clockwise terminal.
• The radio waves could not propagate successfully into certain terminals
because of the unmatched dimensions of the rectangular waveguide and
polarization of the radio waves.
• Radio signals from terminal 1 are only coupled to terminal 2, radio signals from
terminal 2 are only coupled to terminal 3, and radio signals from terminal 3 are
only coupled to terminal 1.

Terminal 1
• In using the circulator, the
transmitter could be connected
Ferrite
Conductor to terminal 1, the antenna could
be connected to terminal 2, and
the receiver could be connected
Conductor to terminal 3,
• A four port circulator can be
Terminal 2
Terminal 3 formed by joining two y
circulators.
Top View Of Y (Wye) -Ferrite Circulator
 Mixers
• Some microwave receivers use mixers as the first point of contact of received
microwave signals.
• Ordinary transistors and tubes cannot operate as RF amplifiers at microwave
frequencies because they become very noisy at these frequencies.
• Two of the mixers used in microwave communications are called Silicon point-
contact diode (crystal diode) and Schottky barrier diode.
• The diodes have low noise figure at microwave frequencies.
• The construction of a Silicon point-contact diode is shown below.

Metal contact
• The diodes can be mounted on
(cathode) waveguides or fitted into coaxial
Ceramic
cables.
Silicon pellet
envelope • The mounting must be in such a
Gold-plated Ceramic envelope
way that reflected signals are
tungsten prevented.
(whisker)

Metal contact
(anode)
 Mixers
• The diagram below shows a typical mounting of a silicon point contact diode
(or other diodes used at microwave frequencies) on a waveguide.
• The diode is mounted with a distance of p /4 from the short-circuited end of
the waveguide so that any reflected signals from the diode are cancelled.
• The tuning screw is used to enhanced the matching in the system
• The half wave choke is used to provide RF connection but a dc open circuit.

DC (or modulation) out

Coaxial cable
conductors
Tuning Screw Half wave choke

RF in Short-circuited end

Waveguide Diode
p /4

Local oscillator in
 Switches
• A waveguide or coaxial switch is a device used to prevent microwave signal
from going to a certain direction or to force the signal to go to another path.
• A waveguide or coaxial switch may be mechanical (manually operated),
electro-mechanical (using solenoids), or electrical.
• The electrical type of switch may be constructed using gas tubes, semiconductor
diodes or ferrites.
• A gas tube switch is made up of a waveguide filled with gas mixture which
ionizes when a high power radio signal passes through the tube.
– This causes the electric field of the signal to be short-circuited, thus severely
attenuating the signal.
– When a low power signal is passing through the tube, the gases are not
ionized and the signal passes through the tube with low attenuation.
• Point contact diodes and PIN diodes are among the semiconductor waveguide
switches being used.
– High power signals cause the diodes to conduct, thus short-circuiting the
microwave signal and severely attenuating it.
– Low power signals passes through the diode with very little attenuation.
 Switches
• Ferrite switches could be made up of a pair of y circulators in which the
direction of the magnetic field could be reversed, thus changing the direction of
microwave signals.
 Duplexers
• A duplexer is a circuit or device used to connect a transmitter and a receiver to
the same antenna, while preventing the signals from the transmitter and signal
going to the receiver from interfering with each other.
• Duplexers can be made up of circulators or other circuits/devices.
 Microwave Tubes

Prepared by: Armando V. Barretto

 Microwave Triodes
• Ordinary vacuum tubes could not operate at microwave frequencies because of:
– Effects of interelectrode capacitances whose impedances decrease as
frequency increases. The capacitances tend to short out the signals at
microwave frequencies.
– Effects of interelectrode inductances whose impedances increase as the
frequency increases, thus it tends to block microwave signals and it affects the
inductances of external tuned circuits.
– Transit time effect because of the finite
Anode
time that electrons travel from one
electrode to another. The electrons must
reach the anode before the polarity of
Control Grid
the input signal reverses so as not to
adversely affect the output signal.
– Skin effect which tends to increase the
resistance and inductance of wires at
very high frequencies.
Cathode – Dielectric losses tend to increase with
frequency.
Equivalent Circuit of a Triode at UHF or
Microwave Frequencies – Noise tends to increase with frequency.
 Microwave Triodes
• Microwave vacuum tubes have the following characteristics:
– Greatly reduced interelectrode capacitances by reducing electrode area.
– Greatly reduced inductances by using leads in the form of rings.
– Greatly reduced transit time by putting the electrodes much closer to one
another and by increasing the anode voltage which increases the velocity of
the electrons.
– Used of forced cooling by using external anodes with cooling fins to allow
higher power dissipation which tends to decrease because of reduced
electrode area.
– Firmer attachment of the electrodes to the body of the tube to prevent each
electrode from touching each other even if they are placed very close to one
another.
– Construction which allows easy connection to coaxial cables.
• Some of the microwave vacuum tubes used are called disk-seal triode, parallel
plane tube, and lighthouse tube.
 Multicavity Klystron
• Multicavity klystron tubes are used to generate or amplify microwave signals. A
diagram of a klystron used to amplify signals is shown below.
• High velocity electron beam passes from the cathode to the collector which has a high
positive biasing voltage. The electron beam is focused using magnets (not shown).
• When an input RF signal to be amplified is fed to the buncher cavity:
– The input RF signal velocity modulates the beam of electrons causing some
electrons to accelerate or decelerate, thereby creating bunches of electrons.
– Small variations in input RF signal results to high variations in current in the
electron beam resulting to current modulation and significant power gain.
• The catcher cavity is excited into oscillation creating an RF field, captures a
significant amount of power, and delivers it as an output signal.
Buncher Cavity Bunch of Catcher Cavity
Input (RF) electrons Output (RF)

Collector
B+

Cathode

Focusing electrode Gap A Gap B

Drift Space
Multicavity Klystron Tube Used as an Amplifier
 Multicavity Klystron
• One bunch of electrons is created per cycle of oscillation.
• To enhance the operation of multicavity klystrons, more than two cavities are
used, such as four to seven cavities.
– Each intermediate cavity is excited into oscillation and helps create a more
complete bunch of electrons, improve the efficiency, and increase the power
gain of the klystron.
– For narrowband operation, all cavities are tuned to the same frequency,
usually to the center frequency of operation.
– For broadband operation, each cavity is tuned to a different frequency,
usually to either side of the center frequency.
• To use a klystron as an oscillator, a portion of the signal at the catcher cavity is
fed back to the buncher cavity, to create a feedback signal.
– Oscillations could take place even with the absence of an RF input signal.
– Oscillations are started out by transients or noise impulse.
• Multicavity klystrons suffer from noise created by incomplete bunching and
requires more elaborate power supplies.
• Multicavity klystrons can operate in the kilowatt and megawatt range.
• Multicavity klystrons have been replaced with other microwave tubes such as
TWT and microwave semiconductor devices.
 Reflex Klystron
• A reflex klystron is a single cavity device that can be used as a low power (several
watts), low efficiency microwave oscillator, the diagram of which is shown below.
• Electrons emitted by the cathode accelerate towards the cavity because of the high
positive voltage of the cavity which acts as the anode, but overshoot the cavity
and move on towards the repeller because of its high velocity.
• Electrons moving towards the repeller are turned back because of the high
negative voltage of the repeller, and bunches of electrons are created because of
the uneven acceleration of electrons as they move, and an RF field is created.
• Oscillations take place and the cavity captures the bunches of electrons which
serve as the output signal. Electron beam
Output (RF) Repeller
Cavity Gap

Cathode
Focusing electrode Anode

Reflex Klystron Tube Used as an Oscillator

 Reflex Klystron
• Because of the movement of electrons, an RF field is created.
• To maintain oscillation, there must be an exchange of energy.
• Energy is given to the electrons when they are accelerated and energy is released
by the electrons when they are retarded.
• To maintain oscillation, electrons must return to the right side of the gap when
the RF voltage at that point is maximum positive and the RF voltage at the
middle of the gap is maximum negative, so that the retardation of the electrons
by the RF field at the middle of the gap is maximum. This causes maximum
release of energy from the moving electrons to the RF signal.
• This can be achieved when the transit time of electrons from the right side of the
gap, to the repeller, then back to the right side of the gap is equal to:
3
Tn cycles  Transit time required to maintain oscillation
4

where : n  integer
• The appropriate transit time is achieved by adjusting the anode and repeller
voltage, which affects the velocity of the electrons.
 Traveling Wave Magnetron
• A cavity (or traveling wave) magnetron is a diode which uses the interaction
of magnetic and electric fields in cavities to provide oscillations of very high
peak power.
• It was greatly used in microwave radars because of its high output power.
• Older magnetrons use cyclotron resonance or Habann oscillations, but the
later versions use the traveling wave principle.
• The construction of a traveling wave magnetron is shown below.
• It uses a radial electric field and an axial magnetic field.

Gap Cathode
Magnetic
Output field Output

Anode
Interaction
space Electric
Anode cavities field

Cavity (Or Traveling Wave) Magnetron Cavity (Or Traveling Wave) Magnetron
 Traveling Wave Magnetron
• The anode with cavities surround the cylindrical cathode, resulting to a radial
dc electric field.
• One of the cavities is used for the output signal by connecting a coaxial cable
or waveguide.
• A permanent magnet (not shown) is used to produce a dc magnetic field
which is perpendicular to the section of the diagram and perpendicular to the
electric field, thus the device is also called a cross-filled device.
• The electric field and the magnetic field exert forces on electrons moving from
the cathode to the anode in such a way that the electrons tend to move towards
the anode because of the electric field, but it is also deflected in a
counterclockwise fashion at the same time (in the diagram) because of the
magnetic field.
• The stronger is the magnetic field, the more are the electrons deflected in a
counter clockwise direction, and if the magnetic field is strong enough,
electrons may not even reach the anode but it goes back to the cathode, and
then re-emitted from the cathode.
• The magnetic field required so that electrons will graze the anode and then
return to the cathode is called cutoff field.
 Traveling Wave Magnetron

Movement of electrons when Movement of electrons when

there is an electric field, and there is an electric field, and
magnetic field is equal to the weak magnetic field
cutoff field
(electrons just graze the anode)

Movement of electrons when

there is an electric field, and
Movement of electrons when
magnetic field is stronger than
there is an electric field, and
the cutoff field
no magnetic field
Output

Movement of Electrons in a Traveling Wave Magnetron When There is a

Radial Electric Field and Axial Magnetic Field and there is no RF Field
 Traveling Wave Magnetron
• The movement of electrons because of the electric field and magnetic field
creates an RF field.
• The interaction of the electric field, magnetic field, and the RF field creates
bunches of electrons moving in a counterclockwise direction (in the diagram),
and if the conditions are right, oscillations will take place.
• Some of the conditions required to maintain oscillations are proper spacing of
cavities, and sufficient strength of electric field and magnetic field.

• The traveling wave

magnetron is called as
such because of the
Bunches of electrons
moving in
rotating fields.
counterclockwise
direction
Output
 Traveling Wave Tube (TWT)
• A traveling wave tube (TWT) is a linear beam tube (like the klystron) and is
used to amplify microwave signals.
• It can operate with very wide bandwidth and very high gain.
• It is used for medium to high power amplifier whether continuous wave (CW)
or pulsed.
• The construction of a TWT using helix is shown below.

Input Output
waveguide waveguide
Focusing Attenuator
electrode Magnetic Collector
field

Cathode Helix Helix

Electron beam Glass Tube Electron beam
Helix Type Traveling Wave Tube
 Traveling Wave Tube (TWT)
• An electron beam from the cathode to the anode is produced because of a high
positive potential at the collector or anode.
• The electron beam passes through the inner portion of the helix, which is at
positive potential with respect to the cathode.
• The positive potential at the helix is much lower than that of the anode, such
that electrons move towards the collector instead of moving towards the helix.
• The axial magnetic field produced by a magnet (not shown in the diagram)
prevents the electrons from spreading.
• An input signal is fed to the input waveguide and propagates inside the glass
tube.
• The velocity of the RF signal is made slower because of the presence of the
helix, such that the velocity of the RF signal inside the tube is approximately
the same as that of the electron beam.
– The normal velocity of the RF signal (without the helix) is approximately
the same as the speed of light while the velocity of the electron beam is
much slower.
 Traveling Wave Tube (TWT)
• The velocities of the RF signal and electron beam are made approximately the
same so that there will be continuous (longer) interaction between the RF
field and the electron beam, so that more pronounced or complete bunching
of electrons is achieved resulting to a very high gain.
• The attenuator is used to somehow reduce the gain because very high gain
amplifiers tend to oscillate.
 Other Microwave Tubes
The following are other microwave tubes:

• Cross filled amplifier (CFA) – It uses a structure similar to a magnetron and

a slow wave structure similar to a TWT.
• Backward wave oscillator (BWO) – it operates using the helix slow wave
structure of a TWT but used instead as an oscillator.
• Twystron – is a hybrid combination of a klystron which drives a TWT using
the same envelope.
• Extended interaction amplifier (EIA) – is a multicavity klystron with
multigap cavities.
• Ubitron
• Gyrotron
Microwave Semiconductor
Devices and Circuits
Prepared by: Armando V. Barretto
 Advantages of Semiconductor Microwave Devices
• Greater flexibility
• Greater reliability
• Greatly reduced sizes
• Greatly reduced power requirements
• Improved performance
• Ability to produce systems not possible with tubes
 Microstrip and Stripline
• Microstrip and stripline are circuits developed to connect microwave solid
state devices and passive components, and were also developed as an
alternative to waveguides and coaxial cables.
• They are the equivalent of transmission lines in microwave circuits, and
has evolved from coaxial cables.
• Microstrip and stripline are special type of transmission lines constructed
with copper patterns on a printed circuit board (PCB), which are used to
interconnect components on the PCB.
– The copper patterns are called traces or tracks.
– The traces can be etched using the same process as the other traces on
the PCB.
• Microstrips have traces etched onto the surface of the PCB only, while
striplines have traces in the middle of the multilayer PCB.
 Microstrip and Stripline
• Microstrips and striplines can be used as transmission lines, reactive
components (inductors and capacitors), tuned circuits, filters, phase
shifters, and impedance matching devices.
• They are used at frequencies between 300 Mhz to 3000 Mhz.
– Commonly used in microwave assemblies.
– At frequencies below 300 Mhz, transmission lines would be too long to
be used as reactive components (capacitors or inductors).
• Characteristic impedance is dependent on the physical characteristics and it
could be changed by changing the dimensions of the microstrip / stripline.
 Microstrip
• A microstrip is made up of a conductor separated from a ground plane by an
insulating dielectric material.
• The ground plane serves as the circuit common point and is at least 10 times
wider than the other conductors. It is connected to the ground.
• Microstrips are simpler and could be more easily integrated with
semiconductor devices compared to striplines.
• There is greater tendency of signal radiation in microstrips compared to
striplines because of the single ground plane.
• Microstrip is typically one fourth or one half wavelength long at the
frequency of operation, and acts as an unbalanced transmission line.

Copper etch Copper etch

Dielectric
Dielectric

Ground Plane
Ground Plane

Unbalanced Microstrip Balanced Microstrip

 Microstrip
• The characteristic impedance of an unbalanced microstrip can be computed
as:

87  5.98h 
Zo  ln    characteristic impedance (ohms)
 1.41  0.8w  t 
where : dielectric constant (4.5 for fiberglass, 3 for teflon, 9 for alumina)
w  width of copper trace (same unit as t and h)
t  thickness of copper trace (same unit as w and h)
h  distance between copper trace and the ground plane
 thickness of dielectric (same unit as t and w)
 Stripline
• A Stripline is made up of metallic ground planes separated by a thin
dielectric which is as thin as 0.1 to 1.5 mm.
• Thin conducting strip or strips, as thin as 10 micrometer, are placed at the
middle of the dielectric.
• It is less likely to radiate compared to microstrip because the conducting
strip is sandwiched between two ground planes, thus resulting to lower
losses.
• It is more difficult to manufacture compared to microstrip.
• It is typically one fourth or one half wavelength long at the frequency of
operation.
Ground plane
Copper
Ground Plane
trace Dielectric
Dielectric

Bottom
Ground plane ground plane

Copper conducting strip

Unbalanced Stripline
Construction of a Stripline
 Stripline
• The characteristic impedance of the stripline shown in the previous slide
can be computed as:

60  4d 
Zo   characteristic impedance (ohms)
  0.67w(0.8  t/h) 
ln 

where : dielectric constant (4.5 for fiberglass, 3 for teflon, 9 for alumina)
d  dielectric thickness (same unit as t , w and h)
w  width of copper trace (same unit as t , d and h)
t  thickness of copper trace (same unit as w, d and h)
h  distance between copper trace and the ground plane (same unit as w, d and t)
 Stripline and Microstrip
• Striplines and microstrips can be used to construct resistances through the use
of high resistance metals such as nichrome, or capacitances, inductances,
transformers and passive filters, through the arrangement of the conducting
strips.
• Ferrites can be embedded in striplines and microstrips to form couplers,
isolators, circulators, and duplexers.
• The diagram below shows the construction of a microstrip used as an LC
circuit.

Dielectric

Capacitor (Conducting strip)

Inductor (Conducting strip)

Microstrip Used as LC Circuit

 Stripline and Microstrip
• The advantages of striplines and microstrips compared to waveguides are:
– Much smaller
– Greater bandwidth (no cutoff wavelength)
– More easily integrated with semiconductor devices
• The disadvantages of striplines and microstrips compared to waveguides are:
– Greater losses (thin wires have high resistances)
– Lower power handling capability
– Lower Q
– Components made of it are not readily adjustable.
 Surface Acoustic Wave (SAW) Devices
• A surface acoustic wave (SAW) device uses a substrate of piezoelectric effect
material such as quartz, in which thin lines of metallic electrodes with fingers are
etched.
• SAW devices can be used as oscillators and filters with high Q.
• Because of piezoelectric effect, an applied voltage across the material will cause
it to vibrate, and the vibration will produce a voltage across the material. Thus
oscillations can occur.
• A diagram of a SAW resonator is shown below.
Thin film metal
Fingers electrodes

SAW
SAW RF voltage

Piezoelectric effect
material
SAW Resonator
 Surface Acoustic Wave (SAW) Devices
• When the RF voltage is applied at the electrodes, the piezoelectric effect material
vibrates and traveling waves (SAW) at the surface of the material are produced.
The waves travel in both directions.
• Mechanical and electrical oscillations are produced.
• The frequency of the waves is dependent on the distance of adjoining fingers
which determines the acoustic wavelength of the surface waves. Thus the
frequency can be adjusted by adjusting the distance between the fingers.
• The device can also be used as a filter, and only frequencies close to the resonant
frequency of the SAW are allowed to pass.
• The Q of the filter is high so it could be used as a narrowband filter.
• To use the device as an oscillator, the resonator can be connected in series with
a phase shift network between the input and output of an amplifier, wherein
positive feedback can be produced.
 Surface Acoustic Wave Filters (SAW) Filters
• It is more accurate, more reliable, lighter, smaller and cheaper than
mechanical filters.
• It is very rugged and reliable.
• It does not require complicated tuning, nor they become detuned over a period
of time.
• It has steeper roll off.
• It has longer delay time than electronic counterpart (also used as delay lines)
• A basic SAW filter is bidirectional resulting to radiation of the signal to both
ends of the material. Thus half of the signal is lost. This can be overcome
through the use of unidirectional transducer.
• It has high insertion loss (around 25 to 35 db).
 Ordinary Transistors
• Ordinary transistors, like ordinary vacuum tubes, could not operate at
microwave frequencies because of:
– effects of interelectrode capacitances whose impedances decrease as
frequency increases, thus the capacitances tend to short out the signals
at microwave frequencies.
– Effects of interelectrode inductances whose impedances increase as
the frequency increases, thus it tends to block microwave signals and it
affects the inductances of external tuned circuits.
– Transit time effect because of the finite time that electrons travel from
one terminal to another. The electrons must reach the output terminal
before the polarity of the input signal reverses so as not to adversely
affect the output signal.
– Skin effect which tends to increase the resistance and inductance of
wires at very high frequencies.
– Dielectric losses tend to increase with frequency
– Noise tends to increase with frequency.
 Ordinary Transistors
• Aside from the conditions stated in the preceding slide, the following restricts
the maximum frequency of operation of ordinary transistors:
– The transistor current gain beta, alpha and gamma acquire reactive
components at very high frequencies and eventually become much lower.
• There is a frequency (f ) at which the output power becomes half of
its value at mid-frequency, and a frequency (FT or gain bandwidth
product) at which beta becomes equal to one.
• The maximum frequency at which a transistor can oscillate is
designated as fmax which is usually higher than fT .
 Microwave BJT Transistors
• BJT transistors which could operate at microwave frequencies are constructed
differently compared to BJTs designed to operate at much lower frequencies.
• Some of the features of these transistors are:
– Small electrode area (small emitter area and junction) to reduce
interelectrode capacitance.
– Very narrow active regions (very thin base and small emitter area) to
reduce transit time.
• Silicon planar transistors have the characteristics stated above.
• Epitaxial diffused structures provide small emitter area which results to short
transit time, and large emitter edge which results to higher current capacity.
• The interdigitated transistor also has the same features aside from being
constructed in such a way that the emitter and base looks like hands with
interlocking fingers.
• Stripline packaging are used for higher microwave frequencies.
 Microwave FET Transistors
• MESFETs can be used at microwave frequencies.
– It is constructed using Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) which results to faster
switching time.
– It uses Schottky barrier at its gate which results to very small
interelectrode capacitance.
• Stripline packaging are used for higher microwave frequencies.
 Varactor Diode
• A varactor diode (variable capacitance diode or varicap) is a junction diode
whose junction capacitance can be easily varied by changing the reverse bias
voltage between the anode and the cathode.
Anode
• It can be used in:
– frequency modulation of oscillators
– tuning of receivers
Cathode
– frequency multipliers
Varactor Schematic Symbol
– low-noise microwave parametric amplifiers
• Varactor diodes can be constructed using Silicon or GaAs, but GaAs is
preferred because:
– It has much higher maximum operating frequency (as high as 1000 Ghz)
because it can switch at a much higher rate because its carriers have
higher mobility compared to those of Silicon.
– It can operate better at lowest temperatures (for parametric amplifier
applications).
• The diode can be used as an active element and are commonly used in
parametric amplifiers which are very low noise amplifiers.
 Step Recovery Diode
• A step recovery diode (snap-off varactor diode) is made up of either Silicon
or GaAs p-n junction whose construction is similar to that of a varactor diode.
• It is an epitaxial diffused diode which can store charges while conducting in
the forward bias region.
• When it is reverse biased, it briefly discharges in the form of pulse the charges
it has stored.
• The pulse is very rich in harmonics, and the wanted harmonics can be
captured using a tuned circuit at the diode output.
• It is often use as a frequency multiplier.
• It can operate with an efficiency greater
than 1/n, where n is the frequency
multiplication factor.
Anode
– Thus it is possible to feed a 10 watt,
0.6 Ghz signal to the diode and obtain
a 1 watt ,6 Ghz signal (harmonic)
Cathode Pulse t while it is reverse biased.
Step-recovery Diode Output Voltage • The diodes can be stacked up in one
Schematic Symbol (Sine wave Input) package to provide higher power
capacity.
 Frequency Multiplier Using Step Recovery and Varactor Diode
• Below is a block diagram of a frequency multiplier circuit using step recovery
and varactor diodes, and schematic diagram of a diode tripler circuit.
100 1 5 15
Mhz Ghz Ghz Ghz

Step Step
Transistor recovery Varactor
crystal recovery diode x 3
diode x 10 diode x 5
oscillator multiplier multiplier
multiplier

Block Diagram Of Frequency Multiplier Circuit

Filter (fin) Step recovery Filter (3 fin)

diode or
Ca varactor diode Cb L2

fin Fout = 3 fin

L1
Cd
Cc Output matcher
L3 Idler (2 fin)

Diode Tripler Circuit

 Frequency Multiplier Using Step Recovery and Varactor Diode

• In the diode tripler circuit:

– A step recovery or varactor diode can be used.
– The “fin” filter is used to filter out unwanted frequencies aside from fin.
– The step recovery or varactor diode produce harmonics as a result of the
applied input signal (fin).
– The “3 fin” filter filters out unwanted frequencies aside from the frequency
3 fin.
– Other output frequencies can be produced by changing the frequency of
operation of the output filter, or changing the input frequency.
 Parametric Amplifiers
• Parametric amplifiers are used for extremely low-noise amplification such as
those used in radiotelescopes, space communications, and troposcatter
communications.
• Parametric amplifiers use devices whose reactance is varied electronically in
such a way that amplification is achieved.
• The reactance is varied at a frequency higher than that of the signal being
amplified.
• The parametric term was used because the capacitance or inductance being
varied is a parameter of tuned circuits.
• Typically no resistors are used to achieve low-noise amplification, because
resistors produce noise.
• Varactor diodes are commonly used as active elements in parametric
amplifiers.
• Some parametric amplifiers are cooled to lower the noise generated by the
base or spreading resistance of the devices used.
• Unlike conventional amplifiers such as those using BJTs in which a DC power
source is used, parametric amplifiers typically use an “ac” energy source. A
part of the energy supplied by the source is imparted to an input signal
resulting to amplification of the input signal.
 Parametric Amplifiers

• Below is a simplified circuit which could be used as a parametric amplifier

using degenerate mode.
• The pump in signal (Energy source) has a frequency equal to two (2) times
the input signal frequency. Positive to Input Signal To Be Amplified
Tuned circuit Input Signal Negative (frequency = fin)
Voltage transition

0 volt Time
C
L Pump in signal
Varactor (Energy source) Pump In Signal (Energy Source)
diode Voltage (frequency = 2 fin)

0 volt Time

Energy is released
by diode capacitance to input
Output (Amplified)
signal
Signal
Voltage
Additional energy
is supplied to diode 0 volt Time
capacitance by
pump in signal
(capacitance is lower)
 Parametric Amplifiers

• The input signal to be amplified supplies charges to the capacitance of the

varactor diode.
• During the negative half of the pump in signal (energy source), the depletion
region of the diode capacitance becomes wider and the capacitance becomes
lower.
• During the positive half of the pump in signal, the depletion region of the
diode capacitance becomes thinner and the capacitance becomes higher.
• Using the pump in signal (energy source):
– The diode capacitance is decreased during the positive and negative peak
amplitude of the input signal to be amplified.
– This is when the pump in signal (energy source) is going to its negative
peak amplitude wherein the diode depletion region becomes wider and
diode capacitance is lower.
– The decrease in diode capacitance (with charges on the capacitance
remaining as is) translates to an increase in voltage across the diode
capacitance, or increase in energy stored by the diode capacitance
(Voltage = q / C).
– Thus, energy is supplied by the pump in signal to the diode capacitance.
 Parametric Amplifiers

– During the transition of the input signal from positive to negative and
negative to positive, the diode capacitance is returned to its original state
(original width of depletion region).
– The voltage of the diode capacitance decreases, and energy is released by
the diode capacitance to the input signal, resulting to amplification of the
input signal.

• Other circuits can be used as parametric amplifiers.

• If the pump in frequency is not equal to two times the input signal frequency,
a nondegenerate mode exists.
 Tunnel Diode
• Tunnel or Esaki Diode is a diode with a negative resistance region in which its
current decreases as its voltage is increased.
– Its negative resistance is present when the forward bias voltage is small.
– Its doping is 100 to several thousand times that of a typical p-n junction diode,
resulting to a greatly reduced depletion region.
– It has short transit time because of the thin junction making it suitable for
microwave applications.
– Many carriers can “tunnel” through the thin depletion region.
– It is an active device, and is used in high frequency circuits,
Anode
microwave applications, oscillators,
and amplifiers. Cathode
Tunnel Diode Schematic Symbol
– Germanium and gallium arsenide
are the materials most commonly I Peak Negative
voltage Resistance Region
used for tunnel diodes, because of
their higher carrier mobility. Valley
voltage
– Its reverse breakdown voltage Response curve of ordinary p-n
junction diode
is practically 0 volt because of the
0.6 v V
large number of carriers. Tunnel Diode Characteristic Curve
 Tunnel Diode
• The negative resistance is due to the following:
– When the applied voltage is zero, a small amount of conduction band electrons
on the p or n type material could “tunnel” (pass) through the depletion region
in either direction, without gaining or losing energy, because the region is very
thin (because of very heavy doping). The net current flow is zero.
– When a small forward voltage is applied, conduction band electrons on the n
type material are still able to tunnel to the p type material, but no electrons on
the p type material tunnels to the other side because they are now attracted by
the positive potential at the p type material.
– This results to an initial sudden increase in current (higher than that of
ordinary diode) until the peak current is reached.
– The conduction band electrons which are able to tunnel from the n type
material to p type material are able to do so because they find valence band
vacant states on the p type material.
– A point is reached when maximum tunneling is achieved (peak current),
beyond which tunneling will decrease because fewer conduction band
electrons from the n type material find valence band vacant states at the p type
material.
– The tunneling will decrease until it stops when it reaches the valley current.
This is when conduction band electrons at the n type material have no
corresponding valence band vacant states at the p type material.
 Tunnel Diode
• The specifications usually given for tunnel diodes are:
– Peak voltage - the maximum forward bias voltage before the diode enters the
negative resistance region.
– Valley voltage - the voltage above which the diode exits the negative resistance
region.
– Peak current - the diode current when the applied voltage is equal to the peak
voltage
– Peak to valley current ratio – the ratio of the peak current and the diode current
when applied voltage is equal to the valley voltage
 Gunn Diode
• A Gunn diode was named after the discoverer of Gunn effect which was
initially called transferred electron effect.
• It was earlier called transferred electron device.
• It has almost the same characteristic curve as a tunnel diode (with negative
resistance) but because of different reasons.
• It is not a real diode, it has no rectification capability, and it is only called a
diode because of its two terminals.
• It does not rely on a p-n junction or contact properties to operate but relies on
the bulk properties of the semiconductor materials used.
• GaAs and Indium Phosphide are among the materials which exhibit Gunn
effect. Anode
Gold wire
• Not all semiconductor materials
exhibit Gunn effect.
n + substrate Gold alloy contacts
• It is an active device Active n layer
and is used for
amplifiers. Heat sink

Cathode

Construction Of A Gunn Diode

 Gunn Diode
• The Gunn effect, which is exhibited by n type materials only, can be
described as follows:
– Below is a diagram showing the energy levels (bands) in a GaAs.
– GaAs has an empty energy band which is higher than its conduction
band.
– When electrons are in the conduction band and sufficient additional
energy is imparted to them, they could enter the empty energy band.
This gives rise to the term transferred electron effect.
– When electrons are in the empty energy band, they become less mobile
resulting to lower current in the material even if the applied voltage is
increased. This results to a Empty energy band
negative resistance. (higher energy level)
Narrow forbidden energy gap
– Application of additional
amount of energy could remove Partly filled energy band

the electrons from the empty Forbidden energy gap

energy band and return them Filled Energy Band

to the conduction band which Other energy bands below
ends the negative resistance. (lower energy levels)
GaAs Energy Bands
 Gunn Diode

• When a relatively small dc voltage is applied across a thin, n type GaAs, it

could exhibit the Gunn effect or negative resistance provided that the
voltage gradient exceeds about 3300 volts per cm, so that electrons in the
conduction band could have sufficient additional energy to move to the
empty energy band.

• When a GaAs is doped, there would be uneven concentration of doping

materials, resulting to regions with more electrons in the conduction band
and areas with less electrons in the conduction band.
– This results to areas with higher voltage gradient, and areas entering the
empty energy band earlier than the others.
– This also results to the formation of bunches of electrons which move to
the positive side of the applied voltage.
– The bunches of electrons play an important part in producing
oscillations in Gunn diode circuits, because it supplies energy in pulses.
 IMPATT Diode
• An IMPATT diode (Impact Avalanche and Transit Time Diode) is a diode
which also has a negative resistance wherein the applied voltage is 180 degrees
out of phase with the current.
• The 180 degrees phase difference in voltage and current is due to the delay
involved in generating an avalanche current and due to transit time through a
drift space.
• Silicon, GaAs or Indium phosphide are used for IMPATT diodes
• The construction of the diode which is reversed biased is shown below.
• The diode is an active device and is used in oscillators and narrowband
amplifiers. Metal P+ N N+ Metal

- -+ + -+ + ++
- + + + + ++
- + + + + ++
Anode - + + + + ++ Cathode
- + + + + ++

Junction Drift space / region

(Avalanche region)
RF voltage Electron flow

IMPATT Diode With Reverse Biased Voltage

 IMPATT Diode
• The anode is connected to a heavily doped p type material while the cathode is
connected to a heavily doped n type material, and the two materials are separated by
a lightly doped n type material.
• To produce the current which is 180 degrees out of phase with the applied voltage, a
high voltage gradient, which makes the diode reverse biased, is applied.
• The diode in the diagram is reverse biased by a dc voltage in series with an RF
source.
• The magnitude of the dc voltage is higher than the positive and negative peak
amplitude of the RF signal.
• The dc voltage is at the threshold of creating an avalanche of current at the reverse
biased p-n junction.
• During the positive half of the RF signal wherein the reverse bias voltage across the
diode becomes higher than the threshold voltage, a great number of secondary
emissions (impact ionization) occur, and an avalanche of carriers is triggered
between the p-n junction during the time that the RF signal transitions from positive
half to negative half.
• The delay in the avalanche of current is due to the high frequency (short
wavelength) of the RF signal and the snowballing effect of the secondary emissions.
• The diode is also designed to withstand the high voltage gradient, the avalanche of
current, and the high power dissipated at the diode.
 IMPATT Diode
• A 90 degrees phase difference between the applied voltage and the diode current is
achieved when the avalanche of current occurs at the positive to negative
transition of the applied voltage.
• Another 90 degrees phase difference is achieved when the avalanche of current
passes through the drift space / region provided by the heavily doped n type
material. The length of the n type material is designed to provide a delay of 90
degrees for the avalanche of current to travel from the p-n junction to the cathode
terminal of the diode.
DC Reverse
• One disadvantage Positive to Bias Voltage
Diode Reverse Negative
of the IMPATT RF Signal (Equal to avalanche
Bias Voltage transition threshold voltage)
diode is the relatively
much higher noise
generated because 900 900
of the avalanche 0 volt Time
created. Noise is Time for avalanche current to
higher than that T travel from p-n junction
Diode to cathode terminal
of klystron and Current
Avalanche current arrives
other tubes. Avalanche current at cathode terminal
at p-n junction
0A Time
 TRAPATT Diode

• The TRAPATT diode (Trapped Plasma Avalanche Triggered Transit Diode)

was developed from the IMPATT diode.
• The diagram below shows a construction of a TRAPATT diode.
• While operating, the resulting voltage at the cathode is smaller than that of
IMPATT diode which results to:
– Much lower drift velocity of carriers
– Longer transit time
– Lower power dissipation
• It is an active device and it is used for amplifying signals.
• One disadvantage of the
Metal N+ P P+ Metal
diode is the relatively much
higher noise generated -+ - - - - - -
+ - - - - - -
+ - - - - - -
because of the avalanche Cathode + - - - - - - Anode
(connected to + - - - - - -
created. Noise is higher heat sink)
than that of klystron Drift region
Junction
and other tubes. (Avalanche region)

TRAPATT Diode Construction

 PIN Diode
• A PIN diode is a diode made up of an intrinsic semiconductor sandwiched
between a narrow p-type material and a narrow n-type material.
• It is often used as variable resistor at RF frequencies especially at microwave
frequencies.
• Its microwave resistance of around 5 kohm to 10 kohm when reverse biased
changes to around 1 to 10 ohms when forward biased.
• It acts like an ordinary diode at frequencies below around 100 Mhz.
• It is used in power switching, limiting and modulation circuits.
• It is a passive device not capable of amplification.
• When it is connected across a coaxial cable, it presents a high impedance
while reverse biased and transmission is unaffected, and it presents a very low
resistance while forward bias and signals are reflected back. Thus, it could
act like a switch. Intrinsic
(slightly n
Metal doped) Metal Anode P

P I N
Cathode
Anode Cathode

PIN Diode Construction PIN Diode Schematic Symbol

 Schottky-Barrier Diode (Schottky Diode )

• A Schottky Diode is a diode constructed using a thin layer of metal, such as

aluminum, gold, silver or platinum, attached to a lightly doped n-type silicon.
– It is also called ESBAR (Epitaxial Schottky barrier) diode or hot-electron
diode.
– Its forward diffusion capacitance has negligible value, which results to
lower reverse recovery time.
– Its storage time is essentially zero because there is no minority carrier
storage in the junction of the metal and the semiconductor.
– Its switching time is very short compared to that of a p-n junction diode.
– It is used in microwave frequency range and digital switching
applications.
– It is a passive device not capable of amplification. Anode

– It is used in detectors and mixers.

Cathode

Schottky Diode
 Backward Diode
• A backward diode (also called tunnel rectifier) is made up of heavily doped p
type and n type materials, but tunneling is prevented by suitable doping and
etching.
• The negative resistance region of a tunnel diode is removed.
• For small forward voltages, the current is smaller than the reverse biased
current which is higher because of heavy doping.
• It can be used as a small signal rectifier, wherein current passes through
when reverse biased and current is very small when the forward bias voltage
is small.
• It is used in low-level mixing and video detection.
• It is a passive device not capable of amplification.
Tunnel Diode
Characteristic
I Peak Curve
voltage
Backward Diode
Characteristic
Valley
Curve
voltage
Ordinary Diode
Characteristic
V Curve
0.6 v
Backward Diode Characteristic Curve
 MASER
• MASER stands for Microwave Amplification Stimulated Emission of
Radiation.
• Masers are used in extremely low-noise microwave amplifiers, and it was the
first low noise microwave amplifier.
• It is used in radioastronomy and extraterrestrial communications.
• It uses a quantum mechanical process described as follows:
– A material which can resonate magnetically at frequencies determined by
its atomic structure and the strength of a magnetic field is used (such as
ruby doped with chromium).
– The material is cooled to almost absolute 0 degrees.
– Low noise amplification is achieved because the system has no resistance
to generate thermal noise, and there is no stream of electrons to generate
shot noise.
– Energy at the correct pump frequency Third Energy Level

is added to the material, which raises Energy is given

to electrons
the energy level of the electrons Second Energy Level
Energy is released
maybe two steps higher than its by electrons
Original Energy Level
original energy level.
 MASER
– Electrons at the third energy level are made to release a part of their
energy such that they go down to the intermediate or second energy level.
– This is stimulated by using a cavity surrounding the material, which is
resonant at the desired frequency, and by an input signal whose frequency
is the same as the cavity resonant frequency.
– Usually, the input signal is the signal being amplified.
– The input signal has lower power compared to the power released by the
electrons when it goes to the intermediate energy level, resulting to
amplification of the input signal.
– The energy released does not exceed the energy the electrons absorb when
they are raised to the third energy level.
– The electrons simply generate a signal with a higher power than the input
signal and whose frequency is the same as the frequency of the input
signal.
 MASER
• The diagram below shows a maser amplifier for received microwave signals.
Input signal - Signal to Amplified signal going to
be amplified mixer (same frequency as
(from receive antenna) input signal)
Pump signal
(used to energize
ruby electrons)

Circulator
Pump input
window
Cavity Liquid
resonator nitrogen
(coolant)
Third Energy
Level Ruby
Energy is given
to electrons Liquid
Second Energy
Level
helium
Energy is released (coolant)
by electrons
Original Energy
Level
Different Electron Energy Levels MASER Amplifier Using Ruby
 MASER
• The maser amplifier uses liquid helium and liquid nitrogen as coolant.
• Cooling is done to significantly reduce noise.
• A pump signal is fed to the ruby located inside the cavity resonator, which
raises the energy level of ruby electrons.
• The cavity resonator has a resonant frequency the same as the frequency of
the input signal received from the antenna.
– This helps to resonate the ruby to the wanted frequency.
• When the input signal (from the antenna) reaches the ruby, its electrons
release energy higher than the energy of the input signal.
• The released energy generates a signal with a frequency the same as that of
the input signal. Thus amplification of the input signal is achieved.
• The energy released by the ruby goes to the circulator wherein it is directed
towards the mixer for further processing.