Satellite Communications

Prepared by: Armando V. Barretto

 References
• Electronic Communication Systems by Kennedy and Davis
• Electronic Communications Systems Fundamentals Through Advance by
Wayne Tomasi
• Engineering Considerations for Microwave Communications Systems by GTE
Lenkurt Incorporated
• Telecommunication Transmission Handbook by Freeman
• Electronic Communication Systems by Blake
 Satellite Communications
• A satellite is a celestial body that orbits around a planet (such as the moon).
• Satellites remain in orbit as a result of balance between the centrifugal force
and the gravitational force.
• A communications satellite is a man-made satellite which orbits the earth,
providing communication functions to a variety of users.
• Communications satellite uses the same transmission techniques as Terrestrial
Microwave Communications.
• It is a microwave repeater in the sky.
• It overcomes the tower height limitation of terrestrial microwave systems.
• Terrestrial microwave distance limitation is also overcome.
• Space waves are also used for this system but the waves are propagated
towards the satellite, and from the satellite towards the earth’s surface, or from
one satellite to another.
• Many channels could be used at the same time because of the available high
bandwidth (frequency used is in Ghz range)
• Because of the long delay in the propagation of radio signals, it is not
advisable for delay sensitive applications, and half duplex error control.
• Because of the long distance between earth station and satellite, atmospheric
absorption loss becomes significant and is typically considered.
 Typical Satellite Communications System

Satellite (Transmitter / Receiver Satellite (Transmitter / Receiver

or transponder) or transponder)

Satellite cross-link

Earth station and Earth station and

Satellite downlink Earth station and
Satellite uplink Satellite uplink
Earth station and
Satellite downlink
Earth station and
Earth station Satellite downlink Earth station
transmitter transmitter
/receiver /receiver
Terrain
Earth station Earth station

Mean Sea Level

 Satellite Communications
• Security of data being transmitted should be considered.
• Satellite transmissions can be categorized as:
– Bus – includes control mechanisms that support the payload (user
information) operation.
– Payload – actual user information.
• The most common carrier frequencies used are 6/4 Ghz and 14/12 Ghz
bands. The first number is the uplink (earth station to satellite) and second
number is downlink (satellite to earth station).
• Most domestic satellites used the 6/4 Ghz band.
• With frequency reuse, different beams of the same frequency can be
directed to different geographical areas.
• The geographical representation of a satellite antenna’s radiation pattern, or
the outline of a satellite antenna pattern on earth, is called footprint or
footprint map.
– The shape of a satellite’s footprint depends on the satellite’s orbital
path, height, and antenna used.
 Satellite Communications
• Satellites may be classified as Passive repeater or Active repeater.
• Passive repeater / passive communications satellite (passive reflector) –
simplest type of satellite which simply reflects radio signals towards certain
direction/s.
– The moon is a natural satellite which could be used as a passive repeater.
The moon was the first passive satellite when the US Navy used it as
such in 1954.
– Some passive satellites require a radio beacon transmitter for tracking
and ranging purposes.
– A beacon is a device which continuously transmits unmodulated carrier
that an earth station can lock on to, so that it could determine the exact
location of the satellite.
– One disadvantage of this type of satellite is the inefficient use of
transmitted power. Relatively high power is needed.
– As little as 1 part in every 1018 of an earth station transmitted power is
actually returned to earth station receiving antennas.
– Echo was a passive satellite launched by the US in 1960 and it was the
first satellite used in transatlantic transmission.
• Active repeater / active communications satellite (transponder) - is capable
of receiving, amplifying, reshaping, regenerating, and retransmitting
information to and from earth stations.
• A transponder is a satellite radio active repeater. A satellite can have many
transponders.
 Satellite Communications
• An active communications satellite typically consists of one or more of the
following:
– Receiver, transmitter, amplifier, regenerator, filter, onboard computer,
multiplexer, demultiplexer, antenna, waveguide, and other electronic
circuits used in communications and data processing.
• An active communications satellite system consists of:
– Active communications satellite (with transponder which is a satellite
radio repeater consisting of receiver, amplifier, transmitter).
– Ground based station to control operation of the system.
– User network of earth stations that provide the facilities for transmission
and reception of communications traffic to and from the satellite.
• The sections of an active communications satellite system are:
– Uplink (earth station transmitter) - Earth station transmitter consists of
IF modulator, IF to RF microwave up converter, high power amplifier,
bandpass filter.
– Transponder – consists of an input band-limiting device (BPF), input
low noise amplifier (LNA), frequency translator, low level power
amplifier, output bandpass filter (BPF).
– Downlink (earth station receiver) – consists of an input bandpass filter,
low noise amplifier (LNA), and an RF to IF down converter.
 Man-Made Communications Satellite
• Sputnik 1 was the first active satellite. It was launched by Russia in 1957.
– It transmitted telemetry signals for 21 days.
• Explorer 1 was the second active satellite. It was launched by the US in
1957.
• Score 1 was the first active satellite used for relaying terrestrial
communications, and it was launched by the US in 1958.
– It was a delayed repeater; received transmissions are stored on magnetic
tape and then rebroadcast later.
• Courier was the first transponder type satellite.
• Telstar 1 was the first satellite to receive and transmit simultaneously. It was
launched in 1962 by AT&T.
• Syncom 1 was the first attempt to place a geosynchronous satellite.
• Intelsat 1 (called early bird) was the first commercial telecommunications
satellite.
• Intelsat 1 was followed by Intelsat II, Intelsat III, Intelsat IV, Intelsat V and
Intelsat VI. (Intelsat is a consortium of 120 nations)
• Today, there are also many domestic satellites (Domsats) which are
satellites owned and used by a single country.
 Satellite Orbit
Semi-major
axis
Minor Axis

Semi-minor
axis
Apogee
Earth

Perigee
Major Axis High altitude
Low altitude
Circular orbit Medium altitude Geosynchronous orbit
(100-300 mi.) Elliptical Orbit (22,300 mi.)
(6,000 to 12,000 mi.)
•Apogee is the farthest distance from earth a satellite orbit reaches.
•Perigee is the minimum distance from earth a satellite orbit reaches.
•Major axis – line joining the apogee and perigee through the center of the earth.
It is also called Line of apsides.
•Minor axis – line perpendicular to the major axis and halfway between the
perigee and apogee.
•Note that some use the center of the earth as a basis for determining the
apogee and perigee. In such cases, the radius of the earth is taken into account.
 Satellite Orbital Paths
• Satellite orbital paths can be classified as equatorial, polar and inclined.
• Equatorial orbit is when a satellite rotates in an orbit above the equator,
usually in a circular path.
– For an equatorial orbit, angle of inclination is equal to 0 degrees, there are
no ascending node, descending node, and line of nodes.
• Polar orbit is when a satellite rotates in an orbit that takes it over the north
and south poles, in an orbit perpendicular to the equatorial plane.
– Satellite could cover all areas at the earth but not at the same time.
– Satellite follows a low-altitude path that is close to earth and passes over
and very close to the North and South Poles.
– Angle of inclination is nearly 90 degrees.
– Every location on Earth lies within the radiation pattern of a satellite
twice a day.
• Inclined orbit is when orbit is other than equatorial or polar.
– The angle of inclination is the angle between the earth’s equatorial plane
and the orbital plane of a satellite.
 Satellite Orbital Paths
• Ascending node is the point where a polar or inclined orbit crosses the
equatorial plane traveling from south to north.
• Descending node is the point where a polar or inclined plane crosses the
equatorial plane traveling from north to south.
• Line of nodes is the line joining the ascending and descending nodes through
the center of the Earth.

• All satellites rotate around the Earth in an orbit whose plane passes through
the center of gravity of the earth called geocenter.
• If satellite is orbiting in the same direction as the earth’s rotation
(counterclockwise), and at an angular velocity greater than the earth, the
orbit is called prograde or posigrade orbit.
• If the satellite is orbiting in the opposite direction as earth’s rotation, or in the
same direction but at an angular velocity less than that of earth, the orbit is
called retrograde orbit.
 Satellite Orbital Paths
• Rotation of the line of apsides is a phenomena wherein the elliptical orbits
rotate in a manner that causes the apogee and perigee to move around the
Earth because of the equatorial bulge.
• For an angle of inclination of 63.40 (referred to as 63.40 slot), the rotation of
the line of apsides is zero.
 Non-synchronous And Geosynchronous Satellites

• Satellites may be classified as nonsynchronous or orbital satellite and

geosynchronous or geostationary satellite :
• Nonsynchronous or orbital satellite – usually rotates around the earth in a
low altitude elliptical or circular pattern.
– For circular orbit, speed of rotation is constant.
– For elliptical orbit, speed of satellite is dependent on the distance of the
satellite. Speed is faster when satellite is close to earth.
– Most non-geosynchronous satellites have prograde orbits.
– For low altitude circular orbit satellites, altitude is typically from 100 to
300 miles above earth’s surface.
– For medium altitude medium orbit satellites, altitude is typically from
1,000 to 6,000 miles above earth’s surface.
– Propulsion rockets are not required onboard non-geosynchronous
satellites.
– Disadvantages are:
• Satellite may not be available for use all the time.
• Needs complicated and expensive tracking equipment.
 Non-synchronous And Geosynchronous Satellites
– Geosynchronous or stationary / geostationary satellite – orbits with a circular
pattern, in the same direction and angular velocity (one revolution per day) as
that of earth.
• It orbits above the equator (0 degree inclination).
• Its orbit is also called Clarke orbit or Clarke belt (named after proponent of
geosynchronous satellites).
• Remains in a fixed position with respect to a given point on earth.
• Easier to track.
• Usually used for commercial applications.
• Requires sophisticated and heavy propulsion devices on board to keep them
in orbit.
• The process of maneuvering a satellite to keep it within an assigned window
is called station keeping.
• Orbital time is same as earth’s (24 hours).
• Altitude is 22,300 miles.
• Velocity is 6,840 miles per hour.
• Round trip delay is around 238 ms for earth station directly below satellite.
• Round trip delay could be 500 to 600 milliseconds for other stations.
• A single high-altitude geosynchronous satellite can cover 40 % of the earth.
• Three equally spaced satellites rotating above the equator can cover the
entire earth except for the unpopulated areas of the north and south poles.
 Non-synchronous And Geosynchronous Satellites
– Geosynchronous, stationary or geostationary satellite – (continuation)
• Satellites are separated by at least 1833 miles (4 degrees) based on previous
international agreement, which limits geosynchronous satellites to less than
100. (Today, at least 1 degree to 4 degree separation is required).
• The spatial separation between satellites is dependent on:
– Beamwidth and side lobe radiation of earth station and satellite antennas
– RF carrier frequency
– Encoding and modulation technique
– Acceptable limits of interference
– Transmit carrier power
• Semimajor axis is distance from satellite to center of the Earth.
• Advantages are:
– Tracking equipment are no longer needed because it remains almost
stationary relative to earth.
– Available to all earth stations within its shadow 100 % of the time.
(Shadow of a satellite includes all earth stations that have a line of sight
path to the satellite and lie within the radiation pattern of the satellite’s
antennas.)
– No need to switch from one satellite to another (no transmission break).
– Doppler shift effects are negligible.
 Non-synchronous And Geosynchronous Satellites
– Geosynchronous, stationary or geostationary satellite – (continuation)
• Disadvantages are:
– Requires propulsion devices to keep it in fixed orbit.
– Longer propagation delay.
– Requires higher transmit power because of longer distances between
transmitters and receivers resulting to higher free space path loss.
– Requires high precision spacemanship.
– Using Kepler’s equation, the required altitude for geosynchronous satellites
can be computed.
α  AP 2/3  mean distance between the primary and the satellite (kilometers)
 semimajor axis of ellipse
where : A  42,241.0979  constant (unitless)
ts
P   0.9972  mean solar earth days
te
 Ratio of the time of one sidereal day (ts  23 hours and 56 minutes)
to the time of one revolution of the earth on its own axis (te  24 hours)
α  AP 2/3  mean distance between the primary and the satellite (kilometers)
 (42,241.0979)(0.9972) 2/3
 42,164km  distance of satellite from center of the earth.
height of satellite from surface of the earth  42,164 km - 6378 km  35,786 km
 22,300 miles
 Satellite Classification According to Elevation

• Satellites may be classified according to their elevation. The classifications are low
earth orbit (LEO) satellites, medium earth orbit (MEO satellites, geosynchronous
earth orbit (GEO) satellites, and near–synchronous orbit satellites.
• LEO satellites:
– Orbit between 100 to 300 miles above the earth.
– Operate in the 1.0 Ghz to 2.5 Ghz range.
– Has lower path loss compared to MEO and GEO satellites.
– Satellites 100 miles above the earth travel at approximately 17,500 mph, and
rotates around the earth in approximately 1.5 hours.
• MEO satellites:
– Orbit between 6000 miles and 12,000 miles above the earth.
– Most MEO satellites operate in the 1.2 Ghz to 1.66 Ghz range.
– Satellites have rotation period of 5 to 12 hours and remain in line of sight of an
earth station between 2 and 4 hours.
 Satellite Classification According to Elevation
• GEO satellites:
– Orbit 22,300 miles above the earth.
– Orbit in a circular pattern with an angular velocity equal to earth.
– Orbital time approximately equal to earth (24 hours)
– Appear stationary relative to earth.
– Most MEO satellites operate in the 2 Ghz to 18 Ghz range.
– Most commercial satellites are GEOs.
• Near-synchronous orbit satellites are those in high elevation, non-synchronous
orbits between 19,000 miles and 25,000 miles above earth.
 Spinners and Three Axis Stabilizer Satellites
• Satellites may be classified Spinners and Three Axis Stabilizer satellites
• A spinner satellite uses the angular momentum of its spinning body to provide
roll and yaw stabilization.
• Three axis stabilizer satellite has its body fixed relative to earth, while an
internal system provides roll and yaw stabilization.

Spinner Satellite Three Axis Stabilizer Satellite

 Satellite Antenna Beams
• Satellite antenna beams can be classified as: spot, zonal, hemispherical, or earth
(global).
• Spot beam – the smallest beam which covers a small area (covers less than 10
% of Earth’s surface).
• Zonal beam covers a larger area than spot beam but smaller than that of
hemispherical beam. (covers less than 10 % of Earth’s surface)
• Hemispherical beam target up to 20 % of earth’s surface.
• Have EIRPs that are 3 db or 50 % lower than those transmitted by spot
beams.
• Earth (Global) beam covers up to 42 % of earth’s surface.
• Have beamwidth of approximately 170.

• The limit of visibility determines the farthest satellite that can be seen by an earth
station.
• The earth’s curvature establishes the limit of visibility of a satellite for an earth
station.
 Satellite Frequency Allocation And Bandwidth Available
in The US
Band Uplink (Ghz) Cross Link Downlink Bandwidth
(Ghz) (Ghz) (Mhz)
C 5.9 – 6.4 3.7 - 4.2 500
X 7.9 – 8.4 7.25 – 7.75 500
Ku 14 – 14.5 11.7 - 12.2 500
Ka 27 – 30 17 - 20 -
30 - 31 20 - 21 -
Q - 40 - 41 1000
- 41 - 43 2000
V 50 - 51 - 1000
Intersatellite 54 - 58 3900
Link (ISL) 59 - 64 5000

Note: 1. World Administrative Radio Conference allocates frequencies which

could be used for radio communications including satellites.
2. 6/4 Ghz band is also widely used in terrestrial microwave systems.
3. ISL is used for communications between satellites.
 Satellite Frequency Reuse
• Frequency reuse is using the same frequencies for more than one satellite
communications.
• Frequency reuse is possible by doing the following:
• Different beams of the same frequency can be directed to different
geographical areas of the Earth.
• Using signals with the same frequencies but with different polarization
(dual polarization). Electromagnetic polarizations are 900 out of phase
(Orthogonal manner).
• Dual polarization is less effective because the earth’s atmosphere has a
tendency to reorient the polarization of EM waves.
 Satellite Cross-Links
• Satellite cross-links or intersatellite links (ISLs) are used to establish
communications between two or more satellites.
Satellite (Transmitter / Receiver) Satellite (Transmitter / Receiver)

Satellite cross-link

Earth station and satellite Earth station and satellite

uplink/downlink uplink/downlink

Earth station Earth station

transmitter transmitter
/receiver /receiver
Terrain
Earth station Earth station

Mean Sea Level

 Satellite Velocity And Orbital Period
• The velocity of a satellite orbiting the earth can be computed as:

4 x 1011
v  satellite velocity (meter per second)
d  6400

where : d  distance of satellite above the surface of the earth (km)

• Above equation shows that a satellite’s velocity is faster if it is closer to the

earth and slower if it is farther from the earth.
• Orbital time is the time it takes for a satellite to complete one orbit.
• A geosynchronous satellite’s orbital time is 24 hours.
 Satellite Velocity And Orbital Period
• Example: Determine the velocity and orbital period of a satellite with
circular orbit and distance of 36,000 km above the earth’s surface.

4 x 1011 4 x 1011
v   3,071 meters per second
d  6400 36,000  6,400

r  radius of orbit  radius of earth  d  6400 km  36,000 km  42,400 km

C  2 r  2 (42,400)  266,407 km  circumference of orbit

 266,407,000 meters

C 266,407,000
Orbital time    86,749 seconds
v 3,071
 24 hours

Above results show that a geosynchronous satellite has a velocity of 3,071 meters per second
and altitude of around 36,000 km (22,300 miles)
 Satellite Earth Station Antenna Look Angles
• Earth station antenna look angles include azimuth angle and elevation angle.
• The look angles must be correct to optimize the performance of a satellite
communications system.
• Azimuth angle is the horizontal pointing angle from a reference direction.
– For satellite earth stations, it is usually measured in a clockwise direction
from true South. (unlike navigational systems which use true North).
• Elevation angle (angle of elevation) is the vertical angle formed between the
direction of electromagnetic wave from earth station towards a satellite, and the
horizontal plane.
• Generally, 5 degrees is the minimum acceptable angle of elevation (to
minimize travel of wave through the earth’s atmosphere, which could cause
a lot of path loss, absorption loss, and noise).
• Rain and heavy fog contributes significantly to absorption loss.
• The direction of maximum antenna gain of an earth station is called boresight.
• The location of a satellite is identified by a point on the Earth directly below the
satellite, which is called the subsatellite point.
• Subsatellite points are described using standard latitude and longitude
coordinates.
 Distance of Earth Station to Satellite
• The distance between an earth station antenna and a satellite affects the
intensity of a received signal.
• The distance of an earth station to a geosynchronous satellite can be
computed as:

R  D  (r  h) 2  (r cos ) 2  r sinθ
 distance between earth station antenna and geosynchronous satellite (km)

where : r  radius of the earth in km (6400 km)

h  height of satellite above equator in km (36,000 km)
θ  angle of elevation to satellite of earth station antenna (degrees)

• Free space path loss (Lp) increases as the distance between the earth station
antenna and the satellite increases.
 Free Space Path Loss (Free Space Path Attenuation)
• Free space path loss (Lp) (also called free space loss or free space path
attenuation) is a fabricated engineering quantity that evolved from
manipulating communications system link equations.
• Free space path loss (Lp) is also defined as loss incurred between two
isotropic antennas in free space, wherein there is no air, precipitation, or
obstruction.
– Its use assumes ideal atmospheric conditions so no electromagnetic
energy is lost or dissipated as it propagates in the atmosphere, but that the
energy simply spreads out resulting to lower relative power densities as
the wave propagates.
– Its use usually assumes that all transmitted power are propagated in a
sphere regardless of what type of transmit antenna is used. Such
propagation requires an isotropic antenna which is nonexistent.
– This assumption is compensated in the communications system link
equations by the use of directive gain of transmit antenna and receive
antenna gain, both relative to an isotropic antenna.
– An antenna directive gain does not actually increase the amount of power
transmitted from the antenna but it is actually a measure of how effective
an antenna is in focusing transmitted power towards certain direction/s
relative to an isotropic antenna.
– No energy is actually multiplied, dissipated or lost.
 Free Space Path Loss (Free Space Path Attenuation)
• The free space path loss (Lp) increases as the distance between the earth
station antenna and the satellite increases.
• Free space path loss can be computed as: (as with terrestrial microwave
communications systems)

16 2 R 2
Lp   free space path loss (unitless)
2

where : R  D  distance between the earth station antenna and satellite (meter)
  wavelength of signal (meter)
 Free Space Path Loss (Free Space Path Attenuation)

• For frequencies in Mhz and distance in kilometers, free space path loss in
dB can be computed as:
Lp(dB)  32.44  20 log f (Mhz)  20 log D(km)
where : D  distance from transmit antenna (kilometers)
f  frequency (Mhz)

• For frequencies in Ghz and distance in kilometers, free space path loss in
dB can be computed as:
Lp(dB)  92.4  20 log f (Ghz)  20 log D(km)
where : D  distance from transmit antenna (kilometers)
f  frequency (Ghz)

• For frequencies in Ghz and distance in miles, free space path loss in dB
can be computed as:
Lp(dB)  96.6  20 log f (Ghz)  20 log D(miles)
where : D  distance from transmit antenna (miles)
f  frequency (Ghz)
 Losses Due to Atmosphere
• Losses due to atmosphere (Lu) are mainly due to:
– Atmospheric absorption - atmospheric gases absorbs microwave energy
and thus attenuates radio signals.
• Most of the atmospheric absorption is due to oxygen and water
vapor.
• The attenuation due to oxygen absorption increases slightly as
frequency increases.
– Rain which could attenuate microwave radio signals.
• Attenuation due to rain increases rapidly as the frequency increases,
and the attenuation due to rain at frequencies above 10 Ghz is very
significant except if the precipitation is very light.
• The attenuation increases when there is an increase in instantaneous
rate of the rainfall, rain drop size, and length traveled by the radio
wave.
 Satellite System Parameters
• Back-off loss (Lbo)– is the loss incurred when the output level of amplifiers is
reduced (backed off) from rated levels, so that the amplifier could operate on a
more linear portion of the device characteristic curve.
– High power amplifiers (HPA) used in Earth stations and traveling wave
tubes (TWT) used in satellite transponders are nonlinear devices.
– The transmitter saturated power output is usually reduced by this amount to
avoid distortion in the output signal.
• Transmit Power (Pt )– is the amount of transmitted power either from the earth
station or from the satellite. Power transmitted from earth stations and from
satellites are usually higher compared to terrestrial microwave systems because
of the long distances to be covered.
– Power amplifiers should operate as close as possible to saturation to operate
efficiently.
– Because of the high transmit power in satellite communications systems,
power is usually expressed in dbw instead of dbm which is usually used for
terrestrial microwave communications systems.
 Satellite System Parameters
• Bit energy or energy per bit (Eb)- is the energy present in a single bit of
information signal.
– For the transmitter output power of an earth station transmitter or satellite
transmitter, bit energy or energy per bit can be computed as:

Eb  Pt Tb  bit energy or energy per bit (joules per bit)

Pt

fb

where: Pt = Total saturated output power of transmitter (watts or joules per

second)
Tb = Time of single bit (second)
= 1/ fb
fb = 1/ Tb = bit rate of signal (bits per second)

– Most modern satellite communications systems (and terrestrial microwave

communications systems) use either phase shift keying (PSK) or
Quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) rather than conventional FM.
– These systems use digital signals to modulate a carrier.
 Satellite System Parameters
– The bit energy or energy per bit (Eb) at a certain point of the satellite
communications system can also be computed as:

Eb  C Tb  bit energy or energy per bit (joules per bit)

C

fb

Where: C = average wideband carrier power (including the sidebands) (watts or

joules per second)
Tb = Time of single bit (second)
= 1/ fb
fb = 1/ Tb = bit rate of signal (bits per second)
 Satellite System Parameters
• Example: An earth station transmitter has an output power of 1200 watts and its
transmission rate is 100 Mbps. Determine the time per bit in second, energy per
bit in joule/s per bit, energy per bit in db using 1 joule as the reference,
transmitter output power in dbw, energy per bit in dbw/bps.
1 1
Tb    1 x 10 8 second per bit  time per bit
fb 100,000,00 0

Pt 1200
Eb  P t T b    1.2 x 10 5 joule/bit
fb 100,000,00 0
 bit energy or energy per bit (joules per bit)

1.2 x 10 5 joule/bit 
Eb(dbJ)  10 log    49.208 dbJ  energy per bit in dbJ
 1 joule 

1200 
Pt(dbw)  10 log    30.792 dbw  trensmitter output power in dbw
 1 

Eb(dbw/bps)  Pt(dbw) - 10log fb

 30.792 - 10 log (100,000,000)
 - 49.208 dbw/bps
 Satellite System Parameters
• Effective isotropic radiated power (EIRP) – is an equivalent transmit power
towards the desired direction assuming an isotropic antenna is transmitting the
power. It can be computed as:

EIRP  (Pin)(APt)  Effective isotropic radiated power (watts)

(Pt)(APt)
  Effective isotropic radiated power (watts)
(Lbo)(Lbf)

where : Pin  transmit antenna input power (watts)

(Pt)
  transmit antenna input power (watts)
(Lbo)(Lbf)
APt  transmit antenna power gain (unitless)
Pt  saturated transmitter output power (watts)
Lbo  back - off loss of high power amplifier (HPA) of transmitter (ratio)
Lbf  total branching and feeder line loss (ratio)
 Satellite System Parameters
• Effective isotropic radiated power in dbw (EIRP(dbw))can be computed as
follows:
(Pin)(APt)
EIRP(dbw)  10 log  Effective isotropic radiated power (dbw)
1
 (Pt)(APt) 
 10 log    Effective isotropic radiated power (dbw)
 (Lbo)(Lbf)(1) 
 (Pt) 
 10 log   - 10log(Lbo) - 10 log(Lbf)  10 log(APt) (dbw)
 (1) 
 Pt(dbw) - Lbo(db) - Lbf(db)  APt(db) (dbw)
 Pin(dbw)  APt(db) (dbw)

where : Pt(dbw)  saturated transmitter output power (dbw)

Lbo(db)  10log(Lbo)  back - off loss of high power amplifier of transmitter (HPA) (db)
Lbf(db)  10 log(Lbf)  total branching and feeder line loss (db)
APt(db)  10 log(APt)  transmit antenna power gain (db)
Pin(dbw)  Pt(dbw) - Lbo(db) - Lbf(db)  transmit antenna input power (dbw)
 Satellite System Parameters
• Example: An earth station transmitter has a saturated output power (Pt) of 1200
watts , back-off loss of 2.5 db, and branching and feeder loss of 3 db. The
earth station transmit antenna has a power gain of 50 db. Determine the EIRP in
dbw.
1200 
EIRP(dbw)  10 log   - Lbo(db) - Lbf(db)  APt(db) (dbw)
 1 
1200 
 10 log    2.5  3  50
 1 
 75.29 dbw
 Satellite System Parameters
• Equivalent noise temperature (Te) – it is a hypothetical value that cannot be
directly measured. It is a convenient fiction.
– It is a convenient parameter often used rather than noise factor or noise figure in
low–noise, sophisticated VHF, UHF, microwave, and satellite radio receivers,
because it could show a greater difference in the noise performance of devices
or systems.
– It indicates the reduction in the signal to noise ratio a signal undergoes as it
propagates through a receiver (because of the noise introduced by the receiver)
– Equivalent noise temperature (Te) can be computed as:

Te  T(F  1)

where : Te  equivalent noise temperature of a device or system whose noise factor is F (kelvin)
T  environmental temperature (kelvin) (reference value is usually 290 degrees K)
Si / Ni
F  noise factor of device or system
So / No
Si / Ni  signal to noise ratio at the input of a receiver, device, or system (unitless)
So / No  signal to noise ratio at the output of a receiver, device, or system (unitless)
Si  power of signal at input of a receiver, device, or system (watt)
Ni  power of noise at input of a receiver, device, or system (watt)
So  power of signal at output of a receiver, device, or system (watt)
No  power of noise at output of a receiver, device, or system (watt)
 Satellite System Parameters
– Because noise produced from thermal agitation is directly proportional to
temperature, thermal noise can be expressed in degrees as well as watts or
dbm.
N
T  temperature in degrees kelvin
KB

where : N  thermal noise power (watt)

K  Boltzmann's constant  1.38 x 10-23 (J/K)
B  bandwidth (hz)

– Typically, equivalent noise temperature of receivers used in transponders

are about 1000 K, while that of earth station receivers are between 20 K and
1000 K.
 Satellite System Parameters
– Conversely, noise factor can be represented as a function of equivalent
noise temperature with the following formula:

Te
F  1  noise factor (unitless)
T

– Example: Determine the noise figure for an equivalent noise temperature of

75 degrees K (Use 290 K for the reference temperature).

Te 75
F  1  1  1.258
T 290

Noise figure  10 log 1.258  1db

– Example: Determine the equivalent noise temperature for a noise figure of 6

db. (Use 290 K for the reference temperature).
 NF  6
F  antilog    antilog   4
 10  10 
Te  T(F - 1)  290(4 - 1)  870 degrees K
 Satellite System Parameters
– Equivalent noise temperature in db using 1 degree kelvin as the reference
temperature (Te(dbK)) can be computed as:

Te(dbK)  10 log
T(F  1) (dbK)
1
Te
 10log (dbK)
1
 10log (Te ) (dbK)

where : Te  equivalent noise temperature of a device or system whose noise factor is F (kelvin)
T  environmental temperature (kelvin)

– Example: Determine the equivalent noise temperature in ratio and in dbK of a

receiver whose noise figure is 4.5 db. Use 300 K as the environmental temperature.
 NF   4.5 
F  antilog    antilog    2.818
 10   10 

Te  T(F - 1)  300(2.818 - 1)  545.4 degrees K

545.4
Te(dbK)  10log  27.36 dbK
1
 Satellite System Parameters
• Noise density (No)– is noise power normalized to 1 Hz bandwidth or the noise
power present in 1 Hz of bandwidth. It can be computed as:
N K Te B
No    K Te  noise density (watts per hz)
B B

where : K  Boltzmann’s constant  1.38 x 10-23 (J/K)

Te  equivalent noise temperature (Kelvin)
N  total noise power (watt)
B  bandwidth (Hz)
Example: A device has a bandwidth of 20 Mhz and noise power of 0.01 picowatt.
What is the noise density and the equivalent noise temperature.

N 0.01x 10-12
No   6
 5 x 10 -22 watt per Hz
B 20 x 10

No(dbw per hertz)  10 log 5 x 10 -22  213 dbw/Hz

No 5 x 10-22
Te    36.23 K
K 1.38x 10 -23

Te(dbK)  10 log 36.23  15.59 dbK

 No - 10log K  -213 - 10 log1.38x 10 -23  15.6 dbK
 Satellite System Parameters
• Carrier to noise density ratio (C / No) – is the ratio of the average wideband carrier
power to noise density. It can be computed as:

C / No = C / (K Te) = carrier to noise density ratio

C / No (db) = C(dbw) – No (dbw)

where: C = average wideband carrier power including the sidebands (watt)

No = K Te = noise power density (watt per hz)
K = Boltzmann’s constant =1.38x10-23 J/K
Te = equivalent noise temperature (Kelvin)
 Satellite System Parameters
• Energy of bit to noise density ratio (Eb / No) – is the ratio of the energy per bit to
the noise density. It can be computed as:

Eb / No = ( C / fb ) / (N / B) = Energy of bit to noise density ratio

= ( C / N ) (B / fb) = Energy of bit to noise density ratio

Eb / No (db) = ( C / N ) (db) + (B / fb) (db)

where: C = average wideband carrier power including the sidebands (watts)

fb = bit rate (bits per second)
N = noise power (watt)
B = bandwidth (Hz)
No = N / B = noise power density (watt per Hz)
Eb = energy of one bit (joules per bit)
C / N = carrier to noise ratio
B / fb = noise bandwidth to bit rate ratio
 Satellite System Parameters
– The energy of bit (Eb) will remain constant if the carrier power (C) and the
transmission rate (fb) remain constant.
– The noise density (No) will remain constant if the noise temperature
remains constant.
– For a certain carrier power, bit rate and noise temperature, the energy of bit
to noise density ratio will remain constant regardless of the encoding
technique, modulation scheme or bandwidth.
 Satellite System Parameters
• Gain to equivalent noise temperature ratio – is a figure of merit used to represent the
quality of a satellite or earth station receiver. It can be computed as:

G / Te = Apr / Te = Gain to equivalent noise temperature ratio

In db,
G / Te (db) = G (db) – 10 log (Te) (unit is dB/K or dbK-1)
where:
G = Apr= receive antenna power gain (unitless)
G (db) = receive antenna power gain in db
Te = Ts = Ta + Tr = system noise temperature of the receiver together with antenna (kelvin)
= operating or system noise temperature (kelvin)
Ta = receiver antenna noise temperature (degrees kelvin)
(includes noise coming from extraterrestrial, terrestrial sources, antenna and feedline)
Tr = receiver effective input noise temperature (degrees kelvin)
= receiver equivalent noise temperature
Reference temperature is 1 degree kelvin
 Satellite System Parameters
– The receiver antenna gain (G) and the equivalent noise temperature
(Te = Ta + Tr)) must be taken at the same reference point.
– Usually, the first receiver stage is a low noise amplifier (LNA) located at
the feedhorn of the receiver parabolic dish antenna.
– In such a case, the reference point for the gain to equivalent noise
temperature ratio (G/Te) is the input of the LNA.
– The effective noise temperature of a receive antenna and feedline (Ta)
(going to receiver), referenced to the receiver antenna input can be computed
as:
(L - 1) 290  Tsky
Ta   effective noise temperature of an antenna and
L
feedline referenced to the receiver antenna input

where : L  loss in antenna and feedline (ratio) (unitless)

Tsky  effective sky noise temperature (kelvin)
 Satellite System Parameters
– Example: Determine the antenna noise temperature (Ta) and the gain to
equivalent noise temperature (G/Te) of an earth station antenna and receiver
system with a receiver antenna gain of 40 db, antenna looking at a sky with
noise temperature of 15 degrees kelvin, loss due to feedhorn of 0.5 db, and
low noise amplifier (LNA) equivalent noise temperature of 38 degrees
kelvin.
0.5
L  antilog  1.122  loss due to feedhorn (ratio - unitless)
10

G(db)  Apr(db)  40db  0.5db  39.5 db  gain of receive antenna minus loss due to feedhorn

(L - 1) 290  Tsky (1.122 - 1) 290  15

Ta    44.901 kelvin
L 1.122
 effective noise temperature of antenna and feedorn referenced to the
receiver antenna input

G/Te(db)  Apr/Te(db)  Apr(db) - 10log(Te)  Apr(db) - 10log(Ta  Tr)

 39.5 db  10log(44.901  38)  20.314 db/K
 Gain to equivalent noise temperature ratio of antenna and receiver system
 Satellite System Link Equations
• The diagram below shows a typical satellite communications system.

Satellite

Uplink (f1) Uplink (f4)

Downlink (f2) Downlink (f3)

Terrain
Earth station Earth station

Mean Sea Level

The satellite is using different frequencies for each link to avoid interference.
 Satellite System Link Equations
Feeder (Coaxial Cable Satellite
or Waveguide and other
devices) (with loss = Lbf)
Transmit / Receive Received power at input of receiver
Parabolic Antenna 2
 4R   4D 
2
= Pcap /(Lbf at satellite)
Lp   
(Has power gain (APT)  λ   λ  = C / (Lbf at satellite)
and directive gain (ADT) )  Free space
Captured Power
path loss Receive/Transmit
Input power of antenna (C or Pcap)
Pt Lu (Loss due Antenna (Has power
Pin  at antenna output
(Lbo)(Lbf) to atmospahere) gain and directive
gain)  APr 2 
Pcap  C  (Pden)(Ac)  (Pden )  
Feeder and branching  4 
(Coaxial Cable or waveguide  2   1  Pin APtAPr  1 
 Pin APtAPr  2 2    Lu 
and other Devices) 16 R   Lu  Lp  
Power density (Pden)
(with loss = Lbf)
=  Pin APt   1   Prad ADt   1   EIRP   1 
 4R 2   Lu    4R 2    Lu    4R 2   Lu 
Source/ Transmitter Radiated         
Destination / Receiver power
(HPA) Prad  (Pin)( )
Notes:
EIRP  Prad ADt 1. The uplink and downlink path may be different
Lbo (Backoff loss)
 PinADt 2. Analysis for uplink is the same for downlink
Transmitter 3. Two of the differences in the diagram presented for
 PinAPt
output power (Pt / Lbo) terrestrial microwave system is the presence of
APt  ADtη Backoff loss (Lbo) and loss due to atmosphere (Lu)
 Typical Microwave Communication System
• The power received or captured by a receive antenna is the product of the
power density in the space immediately surrounding the antenna and the
antenna’s effective capture area:
 EIRP   1   Pin APt   1   Pin ηADt   1   Prad ADt   1 
Pcap  C  (Pden)(Ac)   2   (AC) 
 2   (AC) 
 2   (AC) 
 2   (AC)
 4R   Lu   4R   Lu   4R   Lu   4R   Lu 
 Pin APt   1   APr    2   1 
2
 2      (Pin)(APt)(APr )  2 2  
 4R   Lu   4  16 R   Lu 
 1  1   1  1 
 (Pin)(APt)(APr)      (EIRP)(APr)    
 Lp   Lu   Lp   Lu 
where : Pcap  C  captured power at receive antenna  power at output of receive antenna (watts)
Pden  Power density at a distance R (or D) from transmit antenna
(watts per meter squared)
 APr 2 
Ac     receive antenna effective capture area (meter squared)
 4 
Pt (APt)
EIRP  (Pin)(APt)   Effective isotropic radiated power (watts)
(Lbo)(Lbf)
Pt
Pin  transmit antenna input power (watts)
(Lbo)(Lbf)
Pt  saturated transmitter output power (watts)
Lbo  back - off loss of high power amplifier (HPA) of transmitter (ratio)
Lbf  total branching and feeder line loss at transmitter (ratio)
 Typical Microwave Communication System
where : APt  ηADt  transmit antenna power gain (unitless)
η  efficiency of transmit antenna
ADt  transmit antenna directive gain (unitless)
APr  receive antenna power gain (unitless)
Prad  η(Pin)  radiated power from transmit antenna (watts)
R  D  distance from transmit antenna where power density is being taken (meters)
16 2 R 2
Lp   free space path loss according to Tomasi
 2

Lu  additional loss due to atmosphere (atmospheric absorption loss is substantial because

of the long distance between the earth station and the satellite)
EIRP  (Pin)(Apt)  Effective isotropic radiated power from transmit antenna
 (Pin)(Apt)  Pt (Apt)
EIRP(dbw)  10 log    10log  Pt(dbw) - Lbo(db) - Lbf(db)  Apt(db)
 1 watt  (Lbo )(Lbf)
 Satellite System Link Equations
• Uplink equation (from earth station to satellite) can be written as:
C PinAPt (Lpr)(Lur)APr  PinAPt (Lpr)(Lur)   APr   PinAPt (Lpr)(Lur)   G 
        Te 
No K (Te)  K Te
   K
PinAPt APr  PinAPt   APr   PinAPt  G 
  
(Lp)(Lu)(K) (Te)  (Lp)(Lu)(K)   Te   (Lp)(Lu)(K)   Te 
 Carrier (power) to Noise Density ratio at output of satellite receive antenna

C C PinAPt (Lpr)(Lur)APr  PinAPt (Lpr)(Lur)   APr   PinAPt (Lpr)(Lur)   G 

        Te 
N No B K (Te) B  KB   Te   KB  
PinAPt APr  PinAPt   APr   PinAPt  G 
  
(Lp)(Lu)(K) (Te)(B)  (Lp)(Lu)(K)(B)   Te   (Lp)(Lu)(K)(B)   Te 
 Carrier (power) to Noise power ratio at output of satellite receive antenna
where :
C  Pin APt (Lpr)(Lur)APr  average wideband carrier power at output of satellite receive antenna
(watts)
No  K Te  N/B  noise power density at output of satellite receive antenna (watt per Hz)
Pt
Pin   transmit antenna input power (at earth station) (watts)
(Lbo)(Lbf)
Pt  saturated transmitter output power at earth station (watts)
N  K Te B  noise power at output of satellite receive antenna (watts)
B  bandwidth
 Satellite System Link Equations
where :
Lbo  back - off loss of high power amplifier (HPA) of transmitter at earth station (ratio)
Lbf  total branching and feeder line loss at earth station (ratio)
Lpr  1 / Lp  free space path loss for uplink expressed in value less than 1
2
  1 / free space path loss for uplink according to Tomasi (unitless)
16 R2 2

16 2 R 2
Lp   free space path loss for uplink according to Tomasi (unitless)
2
Lur  1/Lu  additional uplink losses due to atmosphere expressed in value less than 1 (unitless)
Lu  additional uplink losses due to atmosphere (unitless)
APt  transmit antenna power gain (at earth station) (unitless)
APr  G  receive antenna power gain (at satellite) (unitless)
K  Boltzmann's constant  1.38x10-23 (J/K)
Te  equivalent noise temperature at satellite (kelvin)
R  distance from transmit antenna (earth station) to receive antenna (satellite) (meters)
λ  wavelength of signal (meter)
 APr   G 
 Te    Te   Gain to equivalent noise temperature ratio at satellite
EIRP  (Pin)(Apt)  Effective isotropic radiated power from earth station transmit antenna
 (Pin)(Apt)  Pt (Apt)
EIRP(dbw)  10 log    10log  Pt(dbw) - Lbo(db) - Lbf(db)  Apt(db)
 1 watt  (Lbo)(Lbf)
 Satellite System Link Equations
• Uplink equation (from earth station to satellite) in db can be written as:
C Apr
(db)  10 log(APt Pin) - 10 log Lp  10 log Lu  10 log  10 log K
No Te
16 2 R 2 Apr
 10log(APt Pin) - 10 log  10 log Lu  10log  10log K
2 Te
Apr
 EIRP (dbW) - Lp (db)  Lu (db)  (dbK -1 )  K (dbWK)
Te
 Carrier (power) to noise density ratio at output of satellite receive antenna (db)

C Apr
(db)  EIRP (dbW) - Lp (db)  Lu (db)  (dbK -1 )  K (dbWK - 10 log B
N Te
 Carrier (power) to noise power ratio at output of satellite receive antenna (db)
where :
C  Pin APt (Lpr)(Lur)APr  average wideband carrier power at output of satellite receive antenna
(watts)
No  K Te  N/B  noise power density at output of satellite receive antenna (watt per Hz)
Pt
Pin   transmit antenna input power (at earth station) (watts)
(Lbo)(Lbf)
Pt  saturated transmitter output power at earth station (watts)
N  K Te B  noise power at output of satellite antenna receiver (watts)
B  bandwidth
 Satellite System Link Equations
where :
Lbo  back - off loss of high power amplifier (HPA) of transmitter at earth station (ratio)
Lbf  total branching and feeder line loss at earth station (ratio)
Lpr  1 / Lp  free space path loss for uplink expressed in value less than 1
2
  1 / free space path loss for uplink according to Tomasi (unitless)
16 2 R 2
16 2 R 2
Lp   free space path loss for uplink according to Tomasi (unitless)
2
Lur  1/Lu  additional uplink losses due to atmosphere expressed in value less than 1 (unitless)
Lu  additional uplink losses due to atmosphere (unitless)
APt  transmit antenna power gain (at earth station) (unitless)
APr  G  receive antenna power gain (at satellite) (unitless)
K  Boltzmann's constant  1.38x10-23 (J/K)
Te  equivalent noise temperature at satellite (kelvin)
R  distance from transmit antenna (earth station) to receive antenna (satellite) (meters)
λ  wavelength of signal (meter)
 APr   G 
 Te    Te   Gain to equivalent noise temperature ratio at satellite
EIRP  (Pin)(Apt)  Effective isotropic radiated power from earth station transmit antenna
 (Pin)(Apt)  Pt (Apt)
EIRP(dbw)  10 log    10log  Pt(dbw) - Lbo(db) - Lbf(db)  Apt(db)
 1 watt  (Lbo )(Lbf)
 Satellite System Link Equations
• Downlink equation (from satellite to earth station) can be written as:
C PinAPt (Lpr)(Lur)APr  PinAPt (Lpr)(Lur)   APr   PinAPt (Lpr)(Lur)   G 
  
No K (Te)  K   Te
    K   Te 
PinAPt APr  PinAPt   APr   PinAPt  G 
  
(Lp)(Lu)(K) (Te)  (Lp)(Lu)(K)   Te   (Lp)(Lu)(K)   Te 
 carrier (power) to noise density ratio at output of earth station receive antenna

C C PinAPt (Lpr)(Lur)APr  PinAPt (Lpr)(Lur)   APr   PinAPt (Lpr)(Lur)   G 

         Te 
N NoB K (Te)B  KB   Te   K B  
PinAPt APr  PinAPt   APr   PinAPt  G 
  
(Lp)(Lu)(K) (Te)(B)  (Lp)(Lu)(K)(B)   Te   (Lp)(Lu)(K)(B)   Te 
 carrier (power) to noise power ratio at output of earth station receive antenna
where :
C  Pin APt (Lpr)(Lur)APr  average wideband carrier power at output of earth station receive antenna
(watts)
No  K Te  noise power density at output of earth station receive antenna (watt per Hz)
Pt
Pin   transmit antenna input power (at satellite) (watts)
(Lbo)(Lbf)
Pt  saturated transmitter output power at satellite (watts)
N  K Te B  noise power at output of earth station receive antenna (watts)
B  bandwidth
 Satellite System Link Equations
where :
Lbo  back - off loss of high power amplifier (HPA) of transmitter at satellite (ratio)
Lbf  total branching and feeder line loss at satellite (ratio)
Lpr  1 / Lp  free space path loss for downlink expressed in value less than 1
2
  1 / free space path loss for downlink according to Tomasi (unitless)
16 2 R 2
16 2 R 2
Lp   free space path loss for downlink according to Tomasi (unitless)
2
Lur  1/Lu  additional downlink losses due to atmosphere expressed in value less than 1 (unitless)
Lu  additional downlink losses due to atmosphere (unitless)
APt  transmit antenna power gain (at satellite) (unitless)
APr  G  receive antenna power gain (at earth station) (unitless)
K  Boltzmann's constant  1.38x10-23 (J/K)
Te  equivalent noise temperature at earth station (kelvin)
R  distance from transmit antenna (satellite) to receive antenna (earth station) (meters)
λ  wavelength of signal (meter)
 APr   G 
 Te    Te   Gain to equivalent noise temperature ratio at earth station receiver
EIRP  (Pin)(Apt)  Effective isotropic radiated power (from satellite transmit antenna)
 (Pin)(Apt)  Pt (Apt)
EIRP(dbw)  10 log    10log  Pt(dbw) - Lbo(db) - Lbf(db)  Apt(db)
 1 watt  (Lbo)(Lbf)
 Satellite System Link Equations
• Downlink equation (from satellite to earth station) in db can be written as:
C Apr
(db)  10 log(APt Pin) - 10 log Lp  10 log Lu  10 log  10 log K
No Te
16 2 R 2 Apr
 10log(APt Pin) - 10 log  10 log Lu  10log  10log K
2
Te
Apr
 EIRP (dbW) - Lp (db)  Lu (db)  (dbK -1 )  K (dbWK)
Te
 carrier (power) to noise density ratio at output of earth station receive antenna (db)

C Apr
(db)  EIRP (dbW) - Lp (db)  Lu (db)  (dbK -1 )  K (dbWK) - 10log B
N Te
 carrier (power) to noise power ratio at output of earth station receive antenna (db)
where :
C  Pin APt (Lpr)(Lur)APr  average wideband carrier power at output of earth station receive antenna
(watts)
No  K Te  noise power density at output of earth station receive antenna (watt per Hz)
Pt
Pin   transmit antenna input power (at satellite) (watts)
(Lbo)(Lbf)
Pt  saturated transmitter output power at satellite (watts)
N  K Te B  noise power at output of earth station receive antenna (watts)
B  bandwidth
 Satellite System Link Equations
where :
Lbo  back - off loss of high power amplifier (HPA) of transmitter at satellite (ratio)
Lbf  total branching and feeder line loss at satellite (ratio)
Lpr  1 / Lp  free space path loss for downlink expressed in value less than 1
2
  1 / free space path loss for downlink according to Tomasi (unitless)
16 2 R 2
16 2 R 2
Lp   free space path loss for downlink according to Tomasi (unitless)
2
Lur  1/Lu  additional downlink losses due to atmosphere expressed in value less than 1 (unitless)
Lu  additional downlink losses due to atmosphere (unitless)
APt  transmit antenna power gain (at satellite) (unitless)
APr  G  receive antenna power gain (at earth station) (unitless)
K  Boltzmann's constant  1.38x10-23 (J/K)
Te  equivalent noise temperature at earth station (kelvin)
R  distance from transmit antenna (satellite) to receive antenna (earth station) (meters)
λ  wavelength of signal (meter)
 APr   G 
 Te    Te   Gain to equivalent noise temperature ratio at earth station receiver
EIRP  (Pin)(Apt)  Effective isotropic radiated power (from satellite transmit antenna)
 (Pin)(Apt)  Pt (Apt)
EIRP(dbw)  10 log    10log  Pt(dbw) - Lbo(db) - Lbf(db)  Apt(db)
 1 watt  (Lbo)(Lbf)
 Satellite System Link Equations
• Example:
Given the following, determine the uplink budget equation.
Earth station saturated transmitter output power (Pt)  30 dbw
Earth station transmitter HPA back off loss (Lbo)  2 db
Earth station branching and feeder loss (Lbf)  4 db
Earth station transmitter antenna gain  60 db
Additional uplink atmospheric losses  Lu  0.5 db
Free space path loss  Lp(db)  200 db
Satellite receiver Apr / Te  G / Te ratio  - 5 dbK -1
Satellite branching and feeder loss  0 db
Bandwidth (B)  20 Mhz
Bit rate  100 Mbps
Modulation scheme : 8 PSK

EIRP (dbw)  Pt(dbw) - Lbo(db) - Lbf(db)  Apt(db)  30dbw - 2 db - 4 db  60 db  84 dbw

C Apr
(db)  10 log(APt Pin) - 10 log Lp  10 log Lu  10 log  10 log K
No Te
16 2 R 2 Apr
 10log(APt Pin) - 10 log  10 log Lu  10log  10log K
2 Te
Apr
 EIRP (dbW) - Lp (db)  Lu (db)  (dbK -1 )  K (dbWK)
Te
 84 dbW - 200 db - 0.5 db  (5dbK 1 ) - 10log (1.38x10-23 )
 107 db  carrier power (including sidebands) to noise density ratio at input of satellite receiver
 Satellite System Link Equations
Eb C / fb  C   1 
       Energy of bit to noise density ratio at input of satellite receiver
No No  No   fb 

Eb C
(db)  (db)  10log (fb)  107db  10 log 100 x 10 6  27db
No No

 Energy of bit to noise density ratio at input of satellite receiver in db

Eb 27
 Antilog  501.18  Energy of bit to noise density ratio at input of satellite receiver
No 10

C C (Eb)(fb)
   carrier to noise ratio at input of satellite receiver
N (No)(B) (No)(B)

C Eb B 20 x 106
(db)  (db) - (db)  27  10 log  33.99 db
N No fb 100 x106
 carrier to noise ratio at input of satellite receiver in db
 Satellite System Link Equations
• Example (continuation of preceding example):
Given the following, determine the downlink budget equation.
Satellite transmitter output power (Pt)  9 dbw
Satellite back off loss (Lbo)  0.2 db
Satellite branching and feeder loss (Lbf)  0.5db
Satellite transmit antenna gain  20 db
Additional downlink atmospheric losses  Lu  0.6 db
Free space path loss  210 db
Earth station receiver antenna gain  60 db
Earth station receiver Apr / Te  G / Te ratio  40 dbK -1
Earth station branching and feeder loss  0 db
Bandwidth (B)  20 Mhz
Bit rate  100 Mbps
Modulation scheme : 8 PSK
EIRP (dbw)  Pt(dbw) - Lbo(db) - Lbf(db)  Apt(db)  9 dbw - 0.2 db - 0.5 db  20 db  28.3 dbw
C Apr
(db)  10 log(APt Pin) - 10 log Lp  10 log Lu  10 log  10 log K
No Te
16 2 R 2 Apr
 10log(APt Pin) - 10 log  10 log Lu  10log  10log K
 2
Te
Apr
 EIRP (dbW) - Lp (db)  Lu (db)  (dbK -1 )  K (dbWK)
Te
 28.3 dbW - 210 db - 0.6 db  40 dbK 1 - 10log (1.38x10-23 )
 86.3 db  carrier power (including sidebands) to noise density ratio at input of earth station receiver
 Satellite System Link Equations
Eb C / fb  C   1 
       Energy of bit to noise density ratio at input of earth station receiver
No No  No   fb 

Eb C
(db)  (db)  10log (fb)  86.3 db  10 log 100 x 106  6.3 db
No No
 Energy of bit to noise density ratio at input of earth station receiver in db
Eb 6.3
 Antilog  4.266  Energy of bit to noise density ratio at input of earth station receiver
No 10

C C (Eb)(fb)
   carrier to noise ratio at input of earth station receiver
N (No)(B) (No)(B)

C Eb B 20 x 106
(db)  (db) - (db)  6.3  10 log 6
 13.289 db
N No fb 100 x10
 carrier to noise ratio at input of earth station receiver in db

The overall energy of bit to noise density ratio (Eb/No) overall , which includes the combined effect
of the uplink ratio (Eb/No)up and the downlink ratio (Eb/No)do can be computed as :
 Eb   Eb 
 No (up)   No (do)  (501.18)(4.266)
Eb
(overall)    4.23
No Eb Eb 501 .18  4 .266
(up)  (do)
No No
 10 log 4.23  6.26 db
 Kepler’s Laws
• Satellites’ movement around the earth can be described using Kepler’s Laws.
• Kepler’s Laws (named after German Astronomer Johannes Kepler) state that:
1. Planets move in ellipses with the sun as one focus.
2. The line joining the sun and a planet sweeps out equal areas in equal
intervals in time. (Law of Areas)
3. The square of the time of a revolution of a planet divided by the cube of its
mean distance from the sun gives a number that is the same for all planets.
(Harmonic Law).
Kepler’s third law can also be stated as: The square of the periodic time of
orbit is proportional to the cube of the mean distance between the primary
and the satellite.
- The mean distance is equal to the semimajor axis of the ellipse.
• Kepler’s laws can be applied to any two bodies (including man-made
satellites).
• The larger of the two bodies is called primary and the smaller is called
secondary or satellite.
• Kepler’s first law states that a satellite will orbit a primary body (like earth)
following an elliptical pattern.
 Kepler’s Laws
• Kepler’s second law states that for equal intervals of time, a satellite will
sweep out equal areas in the orbital plane, focused at the center of the mass
(barycenter).
– The center of the mass of the two body system will always coincide with
the center of the earth because the mass of the earth is substantially
greater than that of the satellite.)
– One of the foci of the ellipse is normally chosen to be the center of the
earth.
– The velocity of the satellite will be greatest at the closest approach to
earth (perigee) and the velocity will be least at the farthest point from
earth (apogee).
Area 2 Distance 2 Assuming that distance 1
Velocity 2 and distance 2 were traveled in
Earth 1 second each, area 1 will be
equal to area 2, and velocity 1
will be faster than velocity 2.

Satellite will travel faster

while traveling through
Area 1 Distance 1 distance 1 than when it is
Velocity 1 traveling through distance 2.
 Kepler’s Laws
• Kepler’s Third Law can be stated as:

α  AP 2/3  mean distance between the primary and the satellite (kilometers)
 semimajor axis of ellipse
where : A  constant (unitless)
P  mean solar earth days

P  mean solar earth days

 Ratio of the time of one sidereal day (ts  23 hours and 56 minutes)
to the time of one revolution of the earth on its own axis (te  24 hours)
ts
  0.9972
te

For the earth, above equation can be used to compute the value of A

A  42,241.0979
 Kepler’s Laws
• One sidereal day (also called period or sidereal period) is the time it takes
for the Earth to rotate back to the same constellation or reference star.
• The equation in the preceding slide is applicable for a perfect spherical body
with no external forces being exerted on the body.
– The earth’s equatorial bulge and external forces causes deviations in
the satellite’s motion.
– Compensation is done to counteract the effects of the earth’s bulge and
external forces.
 Satellite Multiple Accessing Arrangement
• It is possible that one satellite could be using more than one carrier
(multiple carriers) for the uplink and more than one carrier for the downlink.
• It is also possible that one satellite could have multiple transponders
(transmitters and receivers) being used for communications by a multiple
of earth stations.
• One way to allow a satellite to be used by multiple earth stations is to use
different set of frequencies for each earth station and to use multiple
transponders in a satellite, wherein each transponder is used by two
dedicated earth stations communicating with each other. However, it has the
following disadvantages:
– Frequency spectrum could be wasted.
– Available bandwidth could be under-utilized and wasted.
– Each earth station could communicate with only one other earth station.
• It is possible to allow earth stations to communicate with a multiple of other
earth stations while using only one transponder in a satellite, through the
use of multiple accessing techniques.
– Multiple accessing is also called multiple destination because each
transmission by an earth station is relayed by a transponder in a satellite
to all other earth stations using the transponder.
 Satellite Multiple Accessing Arrangement
• The three most commonly used multiple accessing arrangement for satellites are:
– Frequency Division Multiple Accessing (FDMA)
 Each earth station is assigned specific uplink and downlink frequency
bands (subdivisions) within an allotted satellite bandwidth.
 Available bandwidth (frequency spectrum) is divided for sharing by
earth stations.
 Frequency assignment may be preassigned or demand assigned.
– Time Division Multiple Accessing (TDMA)
 Each earth station transmits a short burst of information during a
specific time slot (epoch) within a TDMA frame.
– Code Division Multiple Accessing (CDMA)
 All earth stations may transmit within the same frequency band, and
have no limitations on when they may transmit or on which carrier
frequency they will transmit.
 Signal separation is achieved using envelope encryption and decryption
techniques.
 Each earth station’s transmission are encoded with a unique binary word
called a chip code.
 It is also called spread spectrum multiple access.
 Satellite Multiple Accessing Arrangement
• Code Division Multiple Accessing (CDMA) – continuation.
• Direct sequence spread spectrum is a form of CDMA which is
produced by linearly multiplying a bipolar data-modulated signal by
the spreading signal in a special balanced modulator.
• Frequency hopping spread spectrum is a form of CDMA where a
digital code is used to continuously change the frequency of the
carrier.
• The total bandwidth is partitioned into smaller frequency
bands, and the total transmission time is subdivided into smaller
time slots.
• A station transmits within a limited frequency band for a short
time, and then switch to another frequency band.
 Brief History of Satellites
• 1954 – The moon became the first passive satellite when the US navy
successfully transmitted the first message over an Earth-to-moon-to Earth
communications system.
– A passive satellite is a satellite which simply reflects (bounces) signals
from one place to another.
– There are man-made passive satellites.
– A passive satellite has an advantage that it does not require sophisticated
electronic equipment on board.
– Some passive satellites require radio beacon transmitters for tracking and
ranging purposes. A beacon is a continuously transmitted unmodulated
carrier that an earth station can lock on to and use to determine the exact
location of the satellite.
– Passive satellites have the disadvantage that as little as 1 part in every
1018 of an earth’s station transmitted power is returned to the earth station
receivng antennas.
• 1956 – a relay service was established between Washington and Hawaii, and
until 1962, the service offered reliable long-distance communications limited
only by the availability of the moon.
 Brief History of Satellites
• 1957 – Russia launches the first active man-made satellite (Sputnik I)
– An active satellite is capable of receiving, amplifying, reshaping,
regenerating, and retransmitting information.
– Sputnik I transmitted telemetry signals for 21 days.
• 1957 – United States launched the satellite called Explorer I.
• 1958 – NASA launched Score, 1 150-pound conical-shaped satellite. Score
was the first artificial satellite used for relaying terrestrial communications.
• 1960 – NASA launched Echo, a 100 foot diameter plastic balloon with an
aluminum coating. Echo was a passive satellite. Echo was used in the first
transatlantic transmission.
• 1960 – US Department of Defense launched Courier, which was the first
transponder-type satellite.
• 1962 – AT&T launched Telstar I, the first active satellite to simultaneously
receive and transmit radio signals.
• 1963 – Telstar II was launched, which was used for telephone, television,
facsimile and data transmissions.
• 1963 – Syncom I was launched. It was the first attempt to place a
geosynchronous satellite.
 Brief History of Satellites
• 1963 – Syncom II, a geosynchronous satellite, was launched.
• 1964 – Syncom III, another geosynchronous satellite, was launched. It was
used to broadcast the 1964 Olympic games from Tokyo.
• 1965 (April 6, 1965)– Intelsat I (also called Early Bird), which was the first
commercial communications satellite was launched.
– Intelsat stands for International Telecommunications Satellite
Organization.
– Intelsat is a consortium of over 120 nations with the commitment to
provide worldwide, nondiscriminatory satellite communications using
four basic services: international public switched telephony ,
broadcasting, private line/business networks, and domestic/regional
communications.
• 1966-1987 – Intelsat launched a series of satellites designated as Intelsat II,
III, IV, V, and VI. Intelsat VI has a capacity of 80,000 voice channels.
• 1966 – Soviet Union launched the first domestic satellites (Domsats), and
named them Molniya.
– Domsats are satellites owned, operated, and used by a single country.
 Brief History of Satellites
• 1969 - The world's first global satellite communications system is complete
with the Intelsat III satellite covering the Indian Ocean Region.
• 1996 - PLDT-led consortium Mabuhay Philippines Satellite Corp (MPSC)
bought one of Indonesia’s orbiting satellite, Palapa B2P, and renamed it
Agila 1. The satellite was christened with the name Agila by then Pres. Fidel
V. Ramos to honor the Philippine-Monkey Eating Eagle, Pithecophaga
Jefferyi, the national bird of the Philippines.
• 1997 (August 20) - Mabuhay Philippines Satellite Corporation (MPSC),
successfully launched Agila2 satellite.
– Agila 2 began operation in 1998.
– Agila 2 uses C-Band, Extended C-Band, and Ku-Band
• 2003 (15 February) -Intelsat 907 satellite is launched aboard an Ariane 44L
vehicle from Kourou, French Guiana.
• 2004 - Intelsat's IS-10-02 satellite was launched.
• 2005 - Intelsat's IA-8 satellite was launched.
 Brief History of Satellites
• 2009 (February 10)– the first accidental collision between two intact
artificial satellites (Iridium 33 and Kosmos 2251) occurred at 789 kilometers
(490 mi) above the Taymyr Peninsula, Siberia. The satellites collided at a
speed of 11.7 kilometres per second (7.3 mi/s), or approximately
42,120 kilometres per hour (26,170 mph)
 INMARSAT (source: Inmarsat)
• Inmarsat has been providing mobile satellite services for over 31 years.
• Inmarsat was founded in 1979 to ensure that ships could stay in constant
touch by telephone.
• Inmarsat’s current fleet of 11-satellites provides seamless mobile voice and
data communications around the world, enabling users to make phone calls or
connect to the internet - whenever and wherever they need - on land, at sea
or in the air.
• Inmarsat's Broadband Global Area Network (BGAN) service, makes it
possible for TV broadcasters to beam live breaking news from remote
locations into millions of homes.
• As of August 2010, Boeing, the US aerospace manufacturer, has been
contracted by INMARSAT to build a pioneering new constellation of
satellites - the Inmarsat-5s. They will form the backbone of the planned
Inmarsat Global Xpress™ network, delivering mobile broadband speeds of
up to 50 megabits per second.
• Inmarsat C – supports Land Earth Station Operators. As a wholesaler of
satellite airtime, Inmarsat provides comprehensive online and telephone
support to Land Earth Station Operators (LESOs), who manage the gateway
between the satellite network and the terrestrial telephone and data networks.
 INMARSAT (source: Inmarsat)
• R-BGAN, also known as Regional BGAN, was Inmarsat's first "always-on"
IP data service for the land-mobile market, launched in 2002. The R-BGAN
service was closed at the end of 2008. It has now been superseded
by Inmarsat's BGAN service, which offers simultaneous voice and broadband
data connectivity at up to 492kbps.
• satPhone - Service for IsatPhone is being withdrawn on 31 December 2011,
to upgrade to IsatPhone Pro.
 Iridium Communications Inc. (source: Iridium /
Wikipedia)
• Iridium Communications Inc is a company, based in McLean, VA, United
States which operates the Iridium satellite constellation, a system of 66
active satellites used for worldwide voice and data communication from
hand-held satellite phones and other transceiver units.
• The Iridium network is unique in that it covers the whole Earth, including
poles, oceans and airways.
• The company derives its name from the chemical element iridium. The
number of satellites projected in the early stages of planning was 77, the
atomic number of iridium, evoking the metaphor of 77 electrons orbiting the
nucleus.
• Iridium SSC, Iridium communications service was launched on November 1,
1998. The first Iridium call was made by then-Vice President of the US Al
Gore.
• Motorola provided the technology and major financial backing to the
company.
• The founding company went into Chapter 11 bankruptcy, on August 13,1999.
• Their service was restarted in 2001 by the newly founded Iridium Satellite
LLC.
 Iridium Communications Inc. (source: Iridium /
Wikipedia
• Iridium’s satellites are in six polar low Earth orbit (LEO) planes at a height
of approximately 485 miles (780 km). Satellites communicate with
neighboring satellites via Ka band intersatellite links.
 Philcomsat (Source: Philcomsat)
• Philippine Communications Satellite Corporation, Inc. (Philcomsat), a wholly
owned subsidiary of Philippine Overseas Telecommunications Corporation
(POTC) is an enfranchised and licensed Philippine Public
Telecommunications Entity (PTE) 35% owned by the government of the
Republic of the Philippines.
• It is the Philippines’ designated Intelsat signatory.
• It uses the C- and Ku-band frequencies.
• Philcomsat’s services include:
– International and National Lease Circuits
– Intelsat Business Service (IBS)
– Inmarsat – maritime or vessel-to-shore or vessel-to-vessel
communications
– Aeronautical or air-to-air communications for the air transport service
– Broadcast TV Service
 NAVSTAR
• NAVSTAR is satellite-based global positioning system (GPS) owned and
operated by the US Department of Defense.
• NAVSTAR is an acronym for Navigation System with Time and Ranging.
• It uses 21 working and 6 spare Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) working
satellites.
• The height of the satellites is 9,500 miles above the earth.
• It is an open navigation system, which means that anyone equipped with a
GPS receiver can use it.
 GPS Services
• GPS Standard Positioning Service (SPS) is a positioning and timing service
that is available to all GPS users.
– Positioning accuracy is within 100 meters horizontally, 156 meters
vertically, and 185 m in 3-D.
– Time transfer accuracy to Universal Transverse Mercator Grid (UTC) is
340 nanoseconds.
– The accuracy of the SPS service is degraded intentionally by the US DoD
through a technique called selective availability.
• GPS Precise positioning (PPS) is a highly accurate military positioning,
velocity, and timing service that is available to authorized users only.
– Positioning accuracy is within 22 meters horizontally, 27.7 meters
vertically, and 35.4 m in 3-D.
– Time transfer accuracy to UTC is 200 nanoseconds.
 Molniya Series of Satellites
• Molniya (also called Molnya or Molnia) series of satellites used by
Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), use highly elliptical orbit (HEO)
to provide services to more northerly regions where antennas would have to
be aimed too close to the horizon to use geostationary satellites.
• The apogee (40,000 km) is reached while the satellite is in the northern
hemisphere and the perigee (400 km) is reached while it is in the southern
hemisphere.
• The size of the ellipse is chosen to make the satellite’s period exactly one half
side real day (23 hours 56 minutes).
• Satellites have 12 hour orbit.
• Satellite is synchronous with the rotation of the earth because of its unique
orbit.
 Various Communications Satellites
• Anik-E communications satellites are domestic satellites (domsats) operated
by Telsat Canada.
Brief History of Electronic
Communications System

Prepared by: Armando V. Barretto

 Brief Electronic Communications Timeline
• 1830 –Joseph Henry transmitted the first practical electrical signal.
• 1837 – Samuel Finley Breese Morse invented the first workable telegraph.
– He used electromagnetic induction to transfer information in the form of dots,
dashes, and spaces (Morse code) using a metallic wire. Morse applied for a
patent for his invention in 1838 and patent was granted in 1848.
• 1843 – Alexander Bain invented the facsimile.
• 1861 – Johann Philip Reis completed the first nonworking telephone.
• 1864 – James Clark Maxwell released a paper “Dynamical Theory of
Electromagnetic Field”, which concluded that light, electricity and magnetism
are related.
• 1865 – Dr. Mahlon Loomis became the first person to communicate wireless
through the earth’s atmosphere.
• 1876 – Alexander Graham Bell and Thomas A. Watson successfully transferred
human conversation over a crude metallic wire communications system using a
device they called telephone.
• 1877 – Thomas Alva Edison invented the phonograph.
• 1880 – Heinrich Hertz discovered electromagnetic waves.
• 1887 – Heinrich Hertz discovered radio waves, Marchese Guglielmo Marconi
demonstrated wireless radio wave propagation.
 Brief Electronic Communications Timeline
• 1888 - Heinrich Hertz detects and produces radio waves.
• 1894 – Marchese Guglielmo Marconi builds his first radio equipment and
successfully transmitted the first wireless radio signals through the earth’s
atmosphere.
• 1895 - Marchese Guglielmo Marconi discovered ground wave radio signals.
• 1900 – Reginald A. Fessenden transmitted first human speech through
radio waves.
• 1901 – Reginald A. Fessenden transmitted world’s first radio broadcast using
continuous waves.
• 1903 – John Fleming invents the two electrode vacuum tube rectifier.
• 1905 - Marchese Guglielmo Marconi invents the directional radio antenna.
• 1906 - Reginald A. Fessenden invented amplitude modulation.
• 1906 – Lee DeForest invented the triode vacuum tube, which provided the
first practical means of amplifying signals.
• 1918 – Major Edwin Armstrong developed the superheterodyne radio
receiver.
 Brief Electronic Communications Timeline
• 1920 – Commercial radio broadcasting began when radio station KDKA
began broadcasting amplitude modulated (AM) signals out of Pittsburg,
Pennsylvania.
• 1923 – Vladimir Zworykin invented and demonstrated the television.
• 1931 – Major Edwin Howard Armstrong patented frequency modulation
(FM).
• 1935 – Commercial broadcasting of FM began.
• 1936 - Major Edwin Howard Armstrong developed the first successful FM
radio system
• 1937 – Alec H. Reeves invented binary coded pulse code modulation.
• 1939 – first regularly scheduled broadcasting of FM signals.
• 1945 – Television is born.
• 1946 – American Telephone and Telegraph company inaugurated the first
mobile telephone system for the public called MTS ( Mobile Telephone
Service).
• 1948 – John Von Neumann created the first stored program electronic
digital computer.
• 1957 – Russia launches the first man-made satellite (Sputnik)
• 1965 – first commercial communications satellite launched (Early Bird)