DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

Subject Name: ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS Subject Code: EE T34

UNIT V POSTIVE AND NEGATIVE FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS

Feedback concept – Gain with feedback – General characteristics of negative feedback amplifiers –
Four basic types of feedback – Multistage feedback amplifiers –Two stage CE amplifier with series
voltage negative feedback –Schmitt trigger- Frequency response and stability
Conditions for sustained oscillations – Barkhausen criterion – LC oscillators – Analysis of Hartley,
Colpitt, Tuned oscillators , RC Phase shift , Wein-bridge oscillators , Franklin – Armstrong and Twin
T oscillators – Analysis– Crystal oscillators and frequency stability – UJT relaxation oscillators..

FEEDBACK IN AMPLIFIERS
 The feedback is a process of injecting some energy from the output to the input.
 The amplifiers, which use the feedback principle, are called feedback amplifiers.
 The block diagram of amplifier with feedback is shown in figure below.
 The output quantity is sampled by a suitable sampler which is of two types namely
voltage and current sampler and fed to the feedback network.
 The output of feedback network which has fraction of the output signal is combined
with the external source ϕ, through a mixer and fed to the basic amplifier.
 Mixer is of two types namely, series mixer and shunt mixer.

Block diagram of an amplifier with feedback

∅𝑜
A-gain of the basic amplifier=
∅𝑖
∅𝑓
β-Feedback ratio=
∅𝑜
∅𝑜
𝐴𝑓 -gain of the feedback amplifier=
∅𝑠

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∅𝑠 -a.c signal in the input side (current or voltage)
∅𝑓 -feedback signal (current or voltage)

There are two types of feedback:

 Positive feedback:
 If the feedback signal (voltage or current) is applied in such a way that it is in phase
with the input signal and thus increases it, then it is called positive feedback.
 Sometimes it is also known as regenerative feedback (or) direct feedback.
 It increases the gain of the amplifier.
 Gain of the amplifier with positive feedback is given as follows:
∅o ∅o
Af = =
∅s ∅i −∅f
1
= ∅i ∅
− f
∅o ∅o
1
=
1
−β
A
𝐀
𝐀𝐟 =
𝟏 − 𝐀𝛃
 The product of the open loop gain and the feedback factor is called loop gain.i.e loop
gain =Aβ .
 If |Aβ|=1, then Af =infinity, then the gain of the amplifier with positive feedback is
infinite and the amplifier gives an ac output without a.c input signal.
 Thus the amplifier acts as an oscillator.
 Negative feedback:
 If the feedback signal (voltage or current)is applied in such a way that it is out of phase
with the input signal and thus decreases it ,then it is called negative feedback.
 It is also called degenerative feedback or inverse feedback.
 Gain of the negative amplifier is
∅o ∅o
Af = =
∅s ∅i +∅f
1
= ∅i ∅
+ f
∅o ∅o
1
=
1
+β
A
𝐀
𝐀𝐟 =
𝟏 + 𝐀𝛃
 Here |Af|<|A|.
 If |Aβ|>>1, then Af =1/β, where β is the feedback ratio.

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  Hence the gain depends less on the operating potentials and the characteristics of the
transistor or vacuum tube.
 Negative feedback is frequently used in small signal as well as large signal amplifier
circuits.
EFFECTS OF POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE FEEDBACK IN TERMS OF GAIN,
BANDWIDTH, DISTORTION AND NOISE (Nov 2013)
Effects of negative feedback
 It may be noted from the voltage gain expression of negative feedback that as the term
(1 + βAv ) >1, the value of Av’ is smaller thanAV .
 In other words gain of negative feedback amplifier𝐴𝑉 ’ is smaller than that of open loop
gain 𝐴𝑉 .Thus the negative feedback reduces the gain of the amplifier.
 The value of closed loop gain 𝐴𝑉 ’ may also be looked from the above angle
W.K.T the term 𝛽𝐴𝑉 >>1, therefore 1 + 𝛽𝐴𝑉 ≈ 𝛽𝐴𝑉
𝐴𝑉 1
Av’= =
𝛽𝐴𝑉 𝛽
The above equation indicates that the voltage gain of a negative feedback amplifier Av’ depends
only on the feedback ratio 𝛽 .Thought the value of voltage gain of a negative feedback amplifier
Av’ is quite low as compared to 𝐴𝑉 ,yet is found to be very stable.
 It means that the voltage gain Av’ is not affected by any change in device parameters,
supply voltage and from aging of circuit components.
 It may be noted that the stability of voltage gain Av’ comes only if the feedback network
is made up of stable elements such as resistors, capacitors and inductors. If the feedback
network has an active device, the gain will remain stable.
Effect of positive feedback
 It may be noted from the voltage gain expression of positive feedback that, as the term
(1 − βAv ) <1, 𝐴′𝑉 > 𝐴𝑉 .It shows that the voltage gain of the positive feedback
amplifier 𝐴′𝑉 is greater than the open lop gain 𝐴𝑉 .
 It is due to this fact that a positive feedback is called regenerative feedback.
 A very interesting situation occurs, when the product βAv becomes equal to unity.
 In that case (1 − βAv ) is equal to zero. Therefore the voltage gain of positive
feedback amplifier becomes infinity.
 It means that the circuit should give an output without any input.
 But in actual practice, it is not possible .As a matter of fact; the amplifier becomes an
oscillator which supplies its own input.
Advantages of negative feedback:
 Increased stability
 Increased bandwidth
 Less amplitude and harmonic distortion
 Decreased noise
 Less frequency distortion
 Less phase distortion
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GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF NEGATIVE FEEDBACK AMPLIFIER (April
2013, Nov 2014, April 2016)
 Stabilization of gain
 W.K.T, the voltage gain of a feedback amplifier (Av’) depends on the feedback network,
Av’.
 It means that the voltage gain of a feedback amplifier does not change with the variation
in transistor parameters due to temperature, ageing, etc.
 Thus the use of negative feedback provides a greater stability to the voltage gain of the
amplifier.
W.K.T ,
𝐴𝑉
Av’= … … … . (1)
1+𝛽𝐴𝑉
Differentiating both sides w.r.t Av we get,
𝑑Av ’ (1 + 𝛽Av )1 − Av β
=
𝑑Av (1 + 𝛽Av )2
𝑑Av ’ 1
=
𝑑Av (1 + 𝛽Av )2
𝑑Av
𝑑Av ’ =
(1 + 𝛽Av )2
Divide both sides by Av ’ we get,
𝑑Av ’ 𝑑Av 1
= . … … … . (2)
Av ′ (1 + 𝛽Av )2 Av ′
Sub (1) in (2),
𝑑Av ’ 𝑑Av 1 + 𝛽𝐴𝑉
= .
Av ′ (1 + 𝛽Av )2 𝐴𝑉
𝑑Av ’ 𝑑Av /𝐴𝑉
=
Av ′ 1 + 𝛽𝐴𝑉
𝑑Av ’
Av ′ 1
=
𝑑Av 1 + 𝛽𝐴𝑉
𝐴𝑉
𝑑Av ’
Where, -Voltage change in amplification with feedback
Av ′
𝑑Av
–fractional change in voltage gain amplification without feedback
𝐴𝑉
1
The term is called sensitivity. It indicates the ratio of percentage change in
1+𝛽𝐴𝑉
voltage gain with feedback to the percentage change in voltage gain without feedback. The
reciprocal of the term sensitivity is called desensitivity. The term desensitivity indicates the
factor by which the voltage gain has been reduced to feedback.
 Increase of bandwidth

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  Consider an amplifier, whose bandwidth is required to be found out when it is
subjected to negative feedback.
 Let,
BW=Bandwidth of an amplifier without feedback.
BW’=Bandwidth of an amplifier with feedback.
W.K.T, the negative feedback increases the bandwidth of an amplifier by a factor equal to
(1+β.Av)
BW’= (1+β.Av) BW
 It may be noted that the voltage gain of a feedbackamplifier reduces by the same factor
by which the bandwidth is increased (i.e 1+ β.Av).
 Thus the product of voltage gain and bandwidth of an amplifier without feedback and
with feedback remains the same.
 The bandwidth of an amplifier is given by the separation of the upper and lower 3dB
frequencies.
 Now let,f1-the lower 3dB frequency
f2 –the upper 3 db frequency
Bandwidth of the amplifier,BW=f2-f1
 It can be proved easily that with negative feedback the upper (f2’) is greater than f2 by
a factor of (1+ β.Av).
 Similarly if f1’, is smaller than f1 by a factor of (1+ β.Av).
 Since the product of voltage gain and bandwidth is same without feedback and with
feedback,
Av’.Bw’=Av.Bw
Av’ (f2’-f1’) =Av (f2-f1)
 Frequency distortion
 If the feedback network does not contain reactive elements, the overall gain is not a
function of frequency.
 Under such conditions frequency and phase distortion is substantially reduced.
 If β is made up of reactive components, the reactance of these components will change
with frequency changing the β.
 As a result, gain will also change with frequency.
 Amplitude distortion
 Consider a large amplitude signal applied to stage of an amplifier, so that the operation
of an active device extends slightly beyond its range of linear operation.
 As a result of this, the output signal is slightly distorted.
 Now if a negative feedback is introduced to the amplifier stage, the voltage gain
reduces.
 But if the input signal is increased, by the same amount the voltage gain will reduce,
the output signal amplitude remains the same.
TYPES OF FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS (Nov 2011, April 2013,April/May 2014)
There are four different combinations in which negative feedback may be accomplished, as
given below

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  Voltage series feedback
 Voltage shunt feedback
 Current series feedback
 Current series feedback
VOLTAGE SERIES FEEDBACK

 A fraction of the output voltage through the feedback network is applied in series with
the input voltage of the amplifier.
 The series connection at the input increases the input resistance.
 Since the feedback voltage Vf opposes Vs, input current Ii is less than it would be if Vf
were absent.
𝑉𝑠
 Hence the input resistance with feedback 𝑅𝑖𝑓 = is greater than the input resistance
𝐼𝑖
without feedback.
 The voltage feedback factor is given by,
𝑉𝑓
𝛽=
𝑉𝑜
Input resistance:
The voltage series feedback topology is replaced by Thevenin’s model. Here, Av
represents the open circuit voltage gain taking Rs into account.

The input resistance with feedback is given by,

𝑉𝑠
𝑅𝑖𝑓 =
𝐼𝑖
Applying KVL to the input side we get,

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 𝑉𝑠 = 𝐼𝑖 𝑅𝑖 + 𝑉𝑓
𝑉𝑠 = 𝐼𝑖 𝑅𝑖 + 𝛽𝑉𝑜 …………..(1)

Apply potential divider to the output side,

𝐴𝑣 𝑉𝑖 𝑅𝐿
𝑉𝑜 = … … … . . (2)
𝑅𝑜 + 𝑅𝐿
𝑉𝑜
But, 𝐴𝑉 = ……… (3)
𝑉𝑖
From equation (3),
𝑨𝒗 𝑹𝑳
𝑨𝑽 =
𝑹𝒐 + 𝑹 𝑳
𝐴𝑣 –open circuit voltage gain without feedback.
𝐴𝑉 –voltage gain with feedback taking the load 𝑅𝐿 into account.
Substituting value of 𝑉𝑜 from eq (3) in (2) we get,
𝑉𝑠 = 𝐼𝑖 𝑅𝑖 + 𝛽𝐴𝑉 𝑉𝑖
𝑉𝑠 = 𝐼𝑖 𝑅𝑖 + 𝛽𝐴𝑉 𝐼𝑖 𝑅𝑖
𝑉𝑠 = 𝐼𝑖 𝑅𝑖 (1 + 𝛽𝐴𝑉 )
𝑉𝑠
= 𝑅𝑖 (1 + 𝛽𝐴𝑉 )
𝐼𝑖
𝑹𝒊𝒇 = 𝑹𝒊 (𝟏 + 𝜷𝑨𝑽 )
Output resistance:
The negative feedback which samples the output voltage, regardless of how this output signal
is returned to the input, tends to decrease the output resistance.
The output resistance can be measured by shorting the input source Vs =0 and look into the
motor terminals with RL disconnected as shown in figure below

Applying KVL to the output side we get,

Av Vi + IR o − V = 0
IR o = V−Av Vi
𝑉 − 𝐴𝑣 𝑉𝑖
𝐼=
𝑅𝑜
The input voltage is given as, Vi = -Vf = -βV
𝑉 + 𝐴𝑣 𝛽𝑉
𝐼=
𝑅𝑜

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 𝐼 1 + 𝐴𝑣 𝛽
=
𝑉 𝑅𝑜
𝑉 𝑅𝑜
𝑅𝑜𝑓 = =
𝐼 1 + 𝐴𝑣 𝛽
𝑹𝒐
𝑹𝒐𝒇 =
𝟏 + 𝑨𝒗 𝜷
Av is the open loop voltage gain without taking RL.
′
𝑅𝑜𝑓 = 𝑅𝑜𝑓 ||𝑅𝐿
′
𝑅𝑜𝑓 . 𝑅𝐿
𝑅𝑜𝑓 =
𝑅𝑜𝑓 + 𝑅𝐿
𝑅𝑜
.𝑅
′ 1 + 𝐴𝑣 𝛽 𝐿
𝑅𝑜𝑓 =
𝑅𝑜
+ 𝑅𝐿
1 + 𝐴𝑣 𝛽
𝑅𝑜 . 𝑅𝐿
=
(𝑅𝑜 + 𝑅𝐿 ) + 𝑅𝐿 𝛽𝐴𝑉
𝑅𝑜 . 𝑅𝐿
=
𝑅 𝛽𝐴
(𝑅𝑜 + 𝑅𝐿 ) [1 + 𝑅 𝐿 + 𝑅𝑉 ]
𝑜 𝐿
𝑅𝑜 . 𝑅𝐿 /𝑅𝑜 + 𝑅𝐿
=
𝑅 𝛽𝐴
[1 + 𝑅 𝐿 + 𝑅𝑉 ]
𝑜 𝐿
𝑹 𝑳 ′
𝑹′𝒐𝒇 =
[𝟏 + 𝜷𝑨𝑽 ]
Where,
𝑅𝑜 . 𝑅𝐿
𝑅𝐿′ =
(𝑅𝑜 + 𝑅𝐿 )
𝐴𝑣 . 𝑅𝐿
𝐴𝑉 =
(𝑅𝑜 + 𝑅𝐿 )
VOLTAGE SHUNT FEEDBACK AMPLIFIER (April/May 2012 Nov 2012)
Voltage shunt feedback

Input resistance

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The current shunt feedback topology is shown with amplifier input circuit replaced by Norton’s
equivalent circuit.
The input resistance with feedback is given by,
𝑉𝑖
𝑅𝑖𝑓 =
𝐼𝑠
Applying KCL to the input node we get,
𝐼𝑠 = 𝐼𝑖 + 𝐼𝑓
𝐼𝑠 = 𝐼𝑖 + 𝛽𝑉𝑜
The output voltage Vo, is given as,

𝑅𝑚 𝐼𝑖 𝑅𝐿
𝑉𝑜 = = 𝐴𝐼 𝐼𝑖
𝑅𝑜 + 𝑅𝐿
𝑉𝑜 𝑅𝑚 𝑅𝐿
Where, 𝑅𝑀 = =
𝐼𝑖 𝑅𝑜 +𝑅𝐿
𝑉𝑜 = 𝑅𝑀 𝐼𝑖
𝑅𝑚 -open circuit transresistance without feedback
𝑅𝑀 - Transresistance with feedback taking the load 𝑅𝐿 into account

𝐼𝑠 = 𝐼𝑖 + 𝛽𝑅𝑀 𝐼𝑖
𝐼𝑠 = 𝐼𝑖 (1 + 𝛽𝑅𝑀 )
Input resistance with feedback is given by,
𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝑖
𝑅𝑖𝑓 = =
𝐼𝑠 𝐼𝑖 (1 + 𝛽𝑅𝑀 )

𝑽𝒊 𝑹𝒊
𝑹𝒊𝒇 = =
𝑰𝒔 (𝟏 + 𝜷𝑹𝑴 )

Output resistance
Here the output resistance can be measured by shorting the input source 𝑉𝑠 = 0 and looking
into output terminals with RL disconnected.

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Applying KVL to the output side we get,

𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅𝑜 + 𝑅𝑚 𝐼𝑖
𝑉 − 𝑅𝑚 𝐼𝑖
𝐼= … … … … . (1)
𝑅𝑜
The input current is given as, Ii = -If = -βV………(2)
Sub (2) in (1) we get,
𝑉 + 𝑅𝑚 βV
𝐼=
𝑅𝑜
𝑉(1 + 𝑅𝑚 β)
𝐼=
𝑅𝑜
𝑉 𝑅𝑜
𝑅𝑜𝑓 = =
𝐼 (1 + 𝑅𝑚 β)
𝑅𝑜
𝑅𝑜𝑓 =
(1 + 𝑅𝑚 β)
Here Rm is the open loop transresistance without RL into account
′
𝑅𝑜𝑓 = 𝑅𝑜𝑓 ||𝑅𝐿
′
𝑅𝑜𝑓 . 𝑅𝐿
𝑅𝑜𝑓 =
𝑅𝑜𝑓 + 𝑅𝐿
𝑅𝑜
.𝑅
′ (1 + 𝑅𝑚 β) 𝐿
𝑅𝑜𝑓 =
𝑅𝑜
+ 𝑅𝐿
(1 + 𝑅𝑚 β)
𝑅𝑜 . 𝑅𝐿
=
𝑅𝑜 + 𝑅𝐿 (1 + 𝑅𝑚 β)

Dividing Nr and Dr by 𝑅𝑜 + 𝑅𝐿 we get,

𝑅𝑜 . 𝑅𝐿
𝑅𝑜 + 𝑅𝐿
=
𝑅𝑜 + 𝑅𝐿 (1 + 𝑅𝑚 β)
𝑅𝑜 + 𝑅𝐿
𝑅𝑜 . 𝑅𝐿
𝑅𝑜 + 𝑅𝐿
=
𝑅 𝑅 β
1 + 𝑅 𝐿 +𝑚𝑅
𝑜 𝐿
𝑹𝒐 ′
𝑹′𝒐𝒇 =
[𝟏 + 𝜷𝑹𝑴 ]
Where,
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 𝑅𝑜 . 𝑅𝐿
𝑅𝑜′ =
(𝑅𝑜 + 𝑅𝐿 )
𝑅𝐿 . 𝑅𝑚
𝑅𝑀 =
(𝑅𝑜 + 𝑅𝐿 )
Here𝑅𝑀 is the open loop transresistance taking RL into account.
CURRENT SERIES FEEDBACK AMPLIFIER (April/May 2012, Nov 2012)

 In current series feedback, a voltage is developed which is proportional to the output

current.
 This is called current feedback even though it is a voltage that subtracts from the input
voltage.
 Because of the series connection at the input and output, the input and output resistances
gets increased.
 This type of amplifier is called transconductance amplifier.
 The transconductance feedback factor or ratio is given by,
𝑉𝑓
𝛽=
𝐼𝑜
Input resistance
The current series feedback topology is shown in the figure below. The circuit is represented
by Thevenin’s equivalent circuit.

The input resistance with feedback is given by,

𝑉𝑠
𝑅𝑖𝑓 =
𝐼𝑖
Applying KVL to the input side we get,
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 𝑉𝑠 = 𝐼𝑖 𝑅𝑖 + 𝑉𝑓
𝑉𝑠 = 𝐼𝑖 𝑅𝑖 + 𝛽𝐼𝑜 …………..(1)
The output current Io, is given as,
𝐺𝑚 𝑉𝑖 𝑅𝑜
𝐼𝑜 = … … … . . (2)
𝑅𝑜 + 𝑅𝐿
𝐼
But, 𝐺𝑀 = 𝑉𝑜 ……… (3)
𝑖
Subs eq (2) in (3)
𝐺𝑚 𝑉𝑖 𝑅𝑜
𝑅 + 𝑅𝐿
𝐺𝑀 = 𝑜
𝑉𝑖
𝐺𝑚 𝑅𝑜
𝐺𝑀 =
𝑅𝑜 + 𝑅𝐿
𝐺𝑚 –open circuit transconductance without feedback.
𝐺𝑀 –Transconductance with feedback taking the load 𝑅𝐿 into account.
𝑉𝑠 = 𝐼𝑖 𝑅𝑖 + 𝛽𝐺𝑀 𝑉𝑖
𝑉𝑠 = 𝐼𝑖 𝑅𝑖 + 𝛽𝐺𝑀 𝐼𝑖 𝑅𝑖
𝑉𝑠 = 𝐼𝑖 𝑅𝑖 (1 + 𝛽𝐺𝑀 )
𝑉𝑠
= 𝑅𝑖 (1 + 𝛽𝐺𝑀 )
𝐼𝑖
𝑹𝒊𝒇 = 𝑹𝒊 (𝟏 + 𝜷𝑮𝑴 )
Output resistance:
The output resistance can be measured by shorting the input source Vs =0 and look into the
motor terminals with RL disconnected as shown in figure below

Applying KCL to the output node we get,

𝑉
𝐼= −𝐺𝑚 𝑉𝑖
𝑅𝑜
The input voltage is given as, Vi = -Vf = -β𝐼𝑜
Vi = βI (Since 𝐼𝑜 = -I)
𝑉
𝐼= −𝐺𝑚 𝛽𝐼
𝑅𝑜
𝑉
𝐼(1 + 𝐺𝑚 𝛽) =
𝑅𝑜
𝑉
𝑅𝑜𝑓 = = 𝑅𝑜 (1 + 𝐺𝑚 𝛽)
𝐼
𝑅𝑜𝑓 = 𝑅𝑜 (1 + 𝐺𝑚 𝛽)

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 ′
𝑅𝑜𝑓 = 𝑅𝑜𝑓 ||𝑅𝐿
′
𝑅𝑜𝑓 . 𝑅𝐿
𝑅𝑜𝑓 =
𝑅𝑜𝑓 + 𝑅𝐿
′
𝑅𝑜 (1 + 𝐺𝑚 𝛽). 𝑅𝐿
𝑅𝑜𝑓 =
𝑅𝑜 (1 + 𝐺𝑚 𝛽) + 𝑅𝐿
𝑅𝑜 . 𝑅𝐿 (1 + 𝐺𝑚 𝛽)
=
𝑅𝑜 + 𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅𝑜 𝐺𝑚 𝛽
Dividing Nr and Dr by 𝑅𝑜 + 𝑅𝐿 we get,
𝑅𝑜 . 𝑅𝐿 (1 + 𝐺𝑚 𝛽)
𝑅𝑜 + 𝑅𝐿
=
𝑅 𝐺 𝛽
1 + 𝑅 𝑜 +𝑚𝑅
𝑜 𝐿
𝑹 𝒐 ′[𝟏 + 𝜷𝑮 𝑴]
𝑹′𝒐𝒇 =
[𝟏 + 𝜷𝑮𝑴 ]
Where,
𝑅𝑜 . 𝑅𝐿
𝑅𝑜′ =
(𝑅𝑜 + 𝑅𝐿 )
𝑅𝑜 . 𝐺𝑚
𝐺𝑀 =
(𝑅𝑜 + 𝑅𝐿 )
Here GM is the open loop current gain taking RL into account.
CURRENT SHUNT FEEDBACK AMPLIFIER (April/May 2012, Nov 2012)
The shunt connection at the input reduces the input resistance and the series connection
at the output increases the output resistance.

Input resistance

The current shunt feedback topology is shown with amplifier input and output circuit replaced
by Norton’s equivalent circuit.
The input resistance with feedback is given by,

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Dept. Of EEE, SMVEC, Pondicherry
 𝑉𝑖
𝑅𝑖𝑓 =
𝐼𝑠
Applying KCL to the input node we get,
𝐼𝑠 = 𝐼𝑖 + 𝐼𝑓
𝐼𝑠 = 𝐼𝑖 + 𝛽𝐼𝑜 …………..(1)
The output current Io, is given as,
𝐴𝑖 𝐼𝑖 𝑅𝑜
𝐼𝑜 = = 𝐴𝐼 𝐼𝑖 … … … . . (2)
𝑅𝑜 + 𝑅𝐿
𝐴𝑖 𝑅𝑜
Where, 𝐴𝐼 = ……… (3)
𝑅𝑜 +𝑅𝐿
𝐴𝑖 -open circuit current gain without feedback
𝐴𝐼 - Current gain without feedback taking the load 𝑅𝐿 into account
Subs eq (2) in (1)
𝐼𝑠 = 𝐼𝑖 + 𝛽𝐴𝐼 𝐼𝑖
𝐼𝑠 = 𝐼𝑖 (1 + 𝛽𝐴𝐼 )
Input resistance with feedback is given by,
𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝑖
𝑅𝑖𝑓 = =
𝐼𝑠 𝐼𝑖 (1 + 𝛽𝐴𝐼 )

𝑽𝒊 𝑹𝒊
𝑹𝒊𝒇 = =
𝑰𝒔 (𝟏 + 𝜷𝑨𝑰 )
Output resistance
Here the output resistance can be measured by open circuiting input source 𝐼𝑠 = 0 and looking
into output terminals with RL disconnected.

Applying KCL to the output node we get,

𝑉
𝐼= −𝐴𝑖 𝐼𝑖 … … … … . (1)
𝑅𝑜
The input current is given as, Ii = -If = -β𝐼𝑜 ………(2)
Ii = βI (Since −𝐼𝑜 = I)
𝑉
𝐼= −𝐴𝑖 𝛽𝐼
𝑅𝑜
𝑉
𝐼(1 + 𝐴𝑖 𝛽𝐼) =
𝑅𝑜
𝑉
𝑅𝑜𝑓 = = 𝑅𝑜 (1 + 𝐴𝑖 𝛽)
𝐼
𝑅𝑜𝑓 = 𝑅𝑜 (1 + 𝐴𝑖 𝛽)

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Dept. Of EEE, SMVEC, Pondicherry
Here Ai is the open loop current gain without RL into account
′
𝑅𝑜𝑓 = 𝑅𝑜𝑓 ||𝑅𝐿
′
𝑅𝑜𝑓 . 𝑅𝐿
𝑅𝑜𝑓 =
𝑅𝑜𝑓 + 𝑅𝐿
′
𝑅𝑜 (1 + 𝐺𝑚 𝛽). 𝑅𝐿
𝑅𝑜𝑓 =
𝑅𝑜 (1 + 𝐺𝑚 𝛽) + 𝑅𝐿
𝑅𝑜 . 𝑅𝐿 (1 + 𝐴𝑖 𝛽)
=
𝑅𝑜 + 𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅𝑜 𝐴𝑖 𝛽
Dividing Nr and Dr by 𝑅𝑜 + 𝑅𝐿 we get,
𝑅𝑜 . 𝑅𝐿 (1 + 𝐴𝑖 𝛽)
𝑅𝑜 + 𝑅𝐿
=
𝑅 𝐴𝛽
1 + 𝑅 𝑜+𝑖𝑅
𝑜 𝐿
𝑹 𝒐 ′[𝟏 + 𝜷𝑨𝑰]
𝑹′𝒐𝒇 =
[𝟏 + 𝜷𝑨𝑰 ]
Where,
𝑅𝑜 . 𝑅𝐿
𝑅𝑜′ =
(𝑅𝑜 + 𝑅𝐿 )
𝑅𝑜 . 𝐴𝑖
𝐴𝐼 =
(𝑅𝑜 + 𝑅𝐿 )
Here AI is the open loop current gain taking RL into account.

Transfer
Z Z
Feedback Appropriate Input Variable Output function ic oc
connection Two-port (source form) variable Stabilized Input Output
parameter Impedance Impedance
representation
Voltage,
Series- h-parameters Voltage, Vs Vo (Vo/Vs) Voltage Increases Decreases
Shunt (Thevenin) transfer function
Series- z-parameters Voltage, Vs Current, Io (Io/Vs) Transfer Increases Increases
Series (Thevenin) Admittance
Voltage,
Shunt- y-parameters Current, Is Vo (Vo/Is) Transfer Decreases Decreases
Shunt (Norton) Impedance
Shunt- g-parameters Current, Is Current, Io (Io/Is) Current Decreases Increases

Series (Norton) transfer function

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Dept. Of EEE, SMVEC, Pondicherry
Properties of the Feedback configuration
Parameter Voltage series Current series Voltage shunt Current shunt

Input resistance (𝑹𝒊𝒇 ) = 𝑹𝒊 (𝟏 + 𝜷𝑨𝑽 ) = 𝑹𝒊 (𝟏 + 𝜷𝑮𝑴 ) 𝑹𝒊 𝑹𝒊

= =
(𝟏 + 𝜷𝑹𝑴 ) (𝟏 + 𝜷𝑨𝑰 )

Output resistance (𝑹𝒐𝒇 ) 𝑹𝒐 𝑹𝒐

= = 𝑹𝒐 (𝟏 + 𝑮𝒎 𝜷) = = 𝑹𝒐 (𝟏 + 𝑨𝒊 𝜷)
𝟏 + 𝑨𝒗 𝜷 (𝟏 + 𝑹𝒎 𝜷)

FREQUENCY RESPONSE AND STABILITY OF MULTISTAGE FEEDBACK

AMPLIFIERS April/May 2016)
 In the negative feedback amplifier, the feedback signal was opposite to the input signal in
the mid frequency range of operation.
 The gain A and phase shift of an amplifier change with frequency.
 The gain gets decreased at low and high frequencies from the mid frequency value.
 When phase shift changes at high frequencies, then some of the feedback signal adds to
the input signal.
 Due to this positive feedback, the amplifier breaks out into oscillation at some high or low
frequencies.
 If an amplifier is designed to have negative feedback in a particular frequency range and
oscillates at some high or low frequency, it is no longer useful as an amplifier.
 Hence the feedback amplifier should be designed properly in such a way that the circuit is
stable at all frequencies and not merely over the frequency range of interest.
 Also, a feedback amplifier with more than two poles may become unstable and break into
oscillation if two much feedback is applied.
 For the system to be stable all the poles of the transfer function or the zeros of (1+Aβ)
must lie in the left half of the complex frequency plane.
Nyquist criterion
 This method id used to investigate the stability.
 This diagram is used to plot gain and phase shift as a function of frequency on a
complex plane.
 Nyquist criterion for stability states that an amplifier is unstable if the nyquist curve
encloses the -1+j0,and the amplifier is stable if the curve does not enclose this point.
 The nyquist criterion also represents in the complex plane for positive and negative
feedback.
 |1+A β |=1 represents a circle of unit radius, with centre at -1+j0 point.
 For any frequency, if Aβ extends outside circle, the feedback is negative
(i.e) |1+A β|>1.

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Dept. Of EEE, SMVEC, Pondicherry
  If Aβ lies within the circle then, |1+A β |<1 and the feedback is positive.
 IF the locus Aβ does not enclose the point -1+j0 (i.e) |1+A β |>1, then the amplifier is
stable and the feedback is negative for all frequencies.

Gain and phase margin:

 With the help of nyquist criterion, it its evident that a feedback amplifier is stable if the
loop gain Aβ is less than unity (0 dB)when its phase angle is 180o.
 Also from bode plots ,we can determine some margins of stability to indicate how close
to instability the system is.
 Gain margin is defines as the value of |A β | in dB at the frequency at which the phase
angle of Aβ is 180o.
 If the gain margin is negative, then the amplifier is stable.
 IF the gain margin is positive, then the amplifier is unstable.

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Dept. Of EEE, SMVEC, Pondicherry
  Phase margin is defines as the angle of 180o minus the magnitude of the angle of Aβ at
which |A β |is unity (0 dB).

Two Stage CE Amplifier using Series Voltage Negative Feedback:

 Negative Feedback Amplifier Circuit – A two-stage, capacitor-coupled BJT amplifier is
shown in Fig. 13-10. This is the same Two Stage CE Amplifier circuit discussed already
with the addition of feedback components RF2, RF1, and CF1. The output voltage is divided
across RF2 and RF1 to produce a feedback voltage in series with the signal at the base of Q1.

 CF1 is a dc blocking capacitor to prevent the dc voltage at Q2 collector from affecting the
Q1 bias conditions. CF1 behaves as an open-circuit to do and a short-circuit to ac.
Consequently, CF1 is not included in the mid-frequency no equivalent circuit of the
feedback network in Fig. Capacitor C2 behaves as a short-circuit at middle and higher
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Dept. Of EEE, SMVEC, Pondicherry
 frequencies, so C2 and R4 (shorted by C2) are also absent from the mid-frequency no
equivalent circuit.
 The signal voltage (vs) is applied between Q1 base and ground, as illustrated in Fig. and
the output voltage (vo) is developed between Q2 collector and ground. The feedback voltage
(vf) is developed across resistor RF2, between the Q1 emitter terminal and ground. The input
voltage (vi) appears across the Q1 base-emitter terminals as the difference between vs and
vf.

SCHMITT TRIGGER
 The Schmitt trigger is used for wave shaping circuits. It can be used for generation of a
square wave from a sine wave input. Basically, the circuit has two opposite operating states
like in all other multivibrator circuits. However, the trigger signal is not, typically, a pulse
waveform but a slowly varying A.C. Voltage. The Schmitt trigger is level sensitive and
switches the output state at two distinct trigger levels. One of the triggering levels is called
a lower trigger level (abbreviated as L.T.L) and the other as upper trigger level (abbreviated
as U.T.L).

 Figure 1 shows the circuit of a Schmitt trigger, the circuit of Schmitt trigger contains of
two identical transistors Q1 and Q2 coupled through an emitter RE. The resistor R1 and R2
form a voltage divider across the VCC supply and ground. These resistors provide a small
forward bias on the base of transistor Q2.

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Dept. Of EEE, SMVEC, Pondicherry
 Let us suppose that initially there is no signal at the input. Then as soon as the power supply
VCC is switched on, the transistor Q2 starts conducting. The flow of its current through
resistor RE produces a voltage drop across it. This voltage drop acts as a reverse bias across
the emitter junction of transistor Q1 due to which it cuts-off. As a result of this, the voltage
at its collector rises to VCC. This rising voltage is coupled to the base of transistor Q2
through the resistor R1. It increases the forward bias at the base of transistor Q2 and
therefore drives it into saturation and holds it there. At this instant, the collector voltage,
level are VC1 = VCC and VC2 = VCE(sat) as shown in Figure 2.
 Now suppose an A.C. signal is applied at the input of the Schmitt trigger (i.e. at the base of
the transistor Q1). As the input voltage increases above zero, nothing will happen till it
crosses the upper trigger level (U.L.T). As the input voltage increases, above the upper
trigger level, the transistor Q1 conducts. The point, at which it starts conducting, is known
as upper trigger point (U.T.P). As the transistor Q1 conducts, its collector voltage falls
below VCC. This fall is coupled through resistor R1 to the base of transistor Q2 which
reduces its forward bias. This in turn reduces the current of transistor Q2 and hence the
voltage drop across the resistor RE. As a result of this, the reverse bias of transistor Q1 is
reduced and it conducts more. As the transistor Q1 conducts more heavily, its collector
further reduces due to which the transistor Q1 conducts near cut-off. This process continues
till the transistor Q1 is driven into saturation and Q2 into cut-off. At this instant, the
collector voltage levels are VC1 = VCE(sat) and VC2 = VCC as shown in the figure.
 The transistor Q1 will continue to conduct till the input voltage falls below the lower trigger
level (L.T.L). It will be interesting to know that when the input voltage becomes equal to
the lower trigger level, the emitter base junction of transistor Q1 becomes reverse biased.
As a result of this, its collector voltage starts rising toward VCC. This rising voltage
increases the forward bias across transistor Q2 due to which it conducts. The point, at which
transistor Q2 starts conducting, is called lower trigger point (L.T.P). Soon the transistor Q2
is driven into saturation and Q1 to cur-off. This completes one cycle. The collector voltage
levels at this instant are VC1 = VCC and VC2 = VCE(sat). No change in state will occur
during the negative half cycle of the input voltage.
OSCILLATOR
 Any circuit which uses a positive feedback and without any external input signal,
generates an output signal which oscillates with constant amplitude and desired
frequency is called an Oscillator.
CONDITION FOR SUSTAINABLE OSCILLATION: (BARKHAUSEN CRITERION)
 The use of positive feedback that results in a feedback amplifier having closed loop
gain greater than 1 and satisfies the phase conditions will result in operation as an
oscillator circuit.
 If the output signal varies sinusoidally, the circuit is referred to as a sinusoidal
oscillator.
 If the output signal rises to one voltage level and later drops quickly to another voltage
level, the circuit is referred to as square wave oscillator.

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Dept. Of EEE, SMVEC, Pondicherry
  Consider a basic inverting amplifier with open loop gain A.As the amplifier is inverting,
it produces a phase shift of 180o between input and output.
 But the feedback must be positive i.e the voltage derived from output using feedback
network must be in phase with Vi.
 Thus the feedback network must introduce a phase shift of 180o while feeding back the
voltage from output to input. This ensures positive feedback.

Consider a voltage Vi applied at the input of the amplifier. Hence we get,

Vo= AVi………………. (1)
The feedback factor β decides the feedback to be given to the input,
Vf = βVo……………… (2)
Subs (1) in (2)
Vf = β AVi
From the above equation we can say that Vf is sufficient to act as Vi when,
|A β|=1
And the phase of Vf is same as Vi (i.e) the feedback introduces 180o phase shift in addition
to 180o phase shift introduced by inverting amplifier.
This ensures positive feedback and the total phase shift around the loop is 360o.

The essential conditions for maintaining oscillation are:

1. |Aβ| = 1, i.e. the magnitude of loop gain must be unity.
2. The total phase shift around the closed loop is zero or 360 degrees.

 The condition that |Aβ| = 1 gives a single and precise value of Aβ which should be set
throughout the operation of the oscillator circuit.
 But in practice |Aβ| will become greater or less than unity as the transistor
characteristics and other circuit components change with time.

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Dept. Of EEE, SMVEC, Pondicherry
  Hence in all practical circuits |Aβ| should be set greater than unity so that amplitude of
oscillation will continue to increase without limit.
|Aβ| >1

 When the total phase shift around the loop is 0o or 360o and |Aβ| >1,then the output
oscillates but the oscillations are of growing type.

|Aβ| =1

 When the total phase shift around the loop is 0o or 360o and |Aβ| =1, then the oscillations
are with constant frequency and amplitude called sustained oscillations.

|Aβ| <1
 When total phase shift around the loop is 0o or 360o and |Aβ| <1 then the conditions
are of decaying type.

Classification of Oscillator:
Oscillators are classified into following different ways:
 According to the waveform generated.
o Sinusoidal oscillator
o Relaxation oscillator

 According to the fundamental mechanisms involved.

o Negative resistance oscillator
o Feedback oscillator
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Dept. Of EEE, SMVEC, Pondicherry
  According to the frequency generated.
o Audio frequency oscillator : up to 20 KHz
o Radio frequency oscillator : 20KHz to 30MHz
o Very high frequency oscillator : 30MHz to 300MHz
o Ultra high frequency oscillator : 300MHz to 3GHz
o Microwave frequency oscillator : above 3GHz

 According to the type of circuit used.

o LC tuned oscillator
o RC phase shift oscillator
LC OSCILLATORS
 The oscillators which use the elements L and C to produce the oscillations are
called LC oscillators.
 The circuit using elements L and C is called tank circuit or oscillatory circuit.
This circuit is also referred to as resonating circuit or tuned circuit.
 These oscillators are used in high frequency range from 200 KHz to few GHz
and are used for sources of RF energy.
Operation of LC circuit:

 Let capacitor is initially charged from a d.c source with the polarities.
 When the capacitor gets charged, the energy gets stored in the capacitor called
electrostatic energy.
 When such a charged capacitor is connected across inductor L in a tank circuit, the
capacitor starts discharging through L .
 Due to such current flow, the magnetic field gets sets up around the inductor L.Thus
inductor starts storing the energy.
 When the capacitor is fully discharged, maximum current flows through the circuit. At
this instant all the electrostatic energy gets stored as magnetic energy in the inductor.

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Dept. Of EEE, SMVEC, Pondicherry
  Now the magnetic field around L starts to collapse As per Lenz’s law this starts
charging the capacitor with opposite polarity making lower plate positive and upper
plate negative.
 After some time capacitor gets fully charged with opposite polarities.
 The entire magnetic energy gets converted back to electrostatic energy in capacitor.
Now again capacitor starts discharging through inductor L but the direction of current
through the circuit is opposite to that of the previous one.
 Thus capacitor charges with alternate polarities and discharges producing alternating
current in the tank circuit.
 But every time when energy is transferred from C to L and L to C ,the losses occur
due to which amplitude of oscillating current keeps on decreasing when energy
transfer takes place and these are called damped oscillations.
 Thus LC tank circuit along with transistor amplifier can be used to obtain oscillators
called LC oscillators.
 The frequency of oscillation generated by the tank circuit depends on the value of L
and C and is given by,
1
𝑓= Hz
2𝜋𝐿𝐶
Circuit description:
 Figure shows the basic form of LC oscillator circuit with gain of the amplifier
as AV
 The amplifier output feeds the network consisting of impedances Z1, Z2, Z3
 Assume an active device with infinite input impedance such as FET or op-amp.
 Then the basic circuit can be replaced by its linear equivalent circuit as shown
in figure below.
 Amplifier provides a phase shift of 180o, while the feedback network provides
an additional phase shift of 180o, to satisfy the required condition.

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Dept. Of EEE, SMVEC, Pondicherry
i)Analysis of amplifier stage

 As input impedance of the amplifier is infinite, there is no current flowing towards the
input terminals.
 Let Ro be the output impedance of the amplifier stage.
 As I=0, Z1 and Z3 appears in series and the combination in parallel with Z2.
 The equivalent is ZL i.e load impedance.
 So the circuit can be reduced as shown in figure above.

−Av Vi
I= …………….. (1)
Ro +ZL

Vo = IZL …………. ….(2)

−Av Vi ZL
Vo = …………….. (3)
Ro +ZL

Vo −Av ZL
=A= ……………..(4)
Vi Ro +ZL

Where A is the gain of the amplifier stage .

ii) Analysis of the feedback stage:

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Dept. Of EEE, SMVEC, Pondicherry
  For the feedback factor β calculation, consider only the feedback circuit as
shown in figure.

From the voltage division in parallel circuit,

Z1
Vf = Vo [ ]…………….. (5)
Z1 +Z3

Vf Z1
=β=[ ]………… (6)
Vo Z1 +Z3

But as the phase shift of the feedback network is 180o,

Z1
β = −[ ]……………… (7)
Z1 +Z3
Barkhausen condition is –Aβ=1
Subs eqs (4) and (7) in the above expression we get,
−Av Z1 ZL
−Aβ = … … … … … … (8)
(R o +ZL )(Z1 +Z3 )
This is the required loop gain. Now ZL can be written as (Z1 + Z3 )||Z2 ,
Z2 (Z1 +Z3 )
ZL = …………….(9)
Z1 +Z2 +Z3
Subs (9) in (8) we get,
Z2 (Z1 + Z3 )
−Av Z1 [ ]
Z1 +Z2 + Z3
−Aβ = … … … … … … (10)
Z2 (Z1 + Z3 )
[(R o + ] (Z +Z )
Z1 +Z2 + Z3 1 3
(Z1 +Z3 )
Dividing Nr and Dr by [ ] we get,
Z1 +Z2 +Z3
Av Z1 Z2
Aβ = … … … … … … (11)
R o (Z1 +Z2 + Z3 ) + Z2 (Z1 + Z3 )
As Z1 , Z2 and Z3 are the pure reactive elements,
Z1 = jX1 , Z2 = jX2 , Z3 = jX3

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Dept. Of EEE, SMVEC, Pondicherry
 …………(12)
o
To have 180 phase shift, the imaginary part of the denominator must be zero.
i.e X1 + X 2 + X 3 = 0…………………..(13)
Subs(13) in (12) we get,
−Av X1 X2
−Aβ = … … … … … … (14)
X2 (X1 + X3 )
From (13) we get, X1 + X 3 = −X 2
X1
−Aβ = Av ( ) … … … … (15)
X2
According to the barkhausen criterion, −Aβ must be positive and must be greater than or equal
to unity.

HARTLEY OSCILLATOR (April/May 2012, Nov 2013 and Nov/Dec 2014).

 It is one form of LC type oscillator.
 It is fully inductively tuned feedback oscillating network

Circuit description:
 The resistances R1 and R2 are biasing resistances.
 The RFC is the radio frequency choke.
 Its reactance value is very high for high frequencies; hence it can be treated as open
circuit.

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Dept. Of EEE, SMVEC, Pondicherry
  While for d.c conditions, the reactance is zero hence causes no problem for d.c
capacitors.
 The tank circuit consists of L1 and L2 and C which is used for producing oscillations
and it acts as a feedback network.
Operation:
 When the circuit is turned ON, the capacitor will be charged.
 When the capacitor is fully charged, then it starts to discharge through inductor coil L1
and L2 .Hence it sets up oscillations.
 A coil called Radio frequency choke (RFC) is connected between the collector and Vcc
supply.
 It acts as a load for the collector and also permits an easy flow of d.c current, but blocks
a.c current.
 The feedback between the output and input circuit is accomplished by autotransformer
action, which also introduces a phase shift of 1800.
 The phase reversal between the output and the input voltage occurs because they are
taken from the opposite ends of the coils L1 and L2 with respect to the ground.
 Since the transistor also introduces a phase shift of 1800, therefore, the total phase shift
is 3600 and hence the feedback is positive.
Derivation of frequency of oscillation:
 The output current which is the collector current is hfe Ib, where Ib is the base current.
 Assuming coupling condensers are short, the capacitor C is between the base and
collector.
 The inductance L1 is between base and emitter while the inductance L2 is between
collector and emitter.
 The equivalent circuit is shown in figure below

As hie is the input impedance of the transistor. The output of the feedback is the current Ib
which is the input current of the transistor. While input to the feedback network is the output
of the transistor which is Ic =hfeIb .Converting current source into voltage source we get,

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Dept. Of EEE, SMVEC, Pondicherry
 Vo = hfe Ib jωL2
1
Vo = hfe Ib Xc2 = hfe Ib ………….. (1)
jωC2
The total current I drawn from the supply is,
−Vo
I = (X ………….. (2)
C +XL2 )+(XL1 ||hie )
The negative sign is due to the polarities of Vo.
1
XC + XL2 = + j⍵L2
(jωC)
j⍵L1 hie
XL1 ||hie =
j⍵L1 + hie
Subs the above expressions in (2) we get,
−Vo
I= 1 j⍵L1 hie ………….. (3)
[(jωC)+j⍵L2 ]+[ ]
j⍵L1 +hie

Replacing j⍵ by S,
−Vo
I=
1 SL1 hie
[ + SL2 ] + [ ]
(SC) SL1 + hie
−hfe Ib jωL2
I= 2
1 − ω CL2 jωL1 hie
[ ]+[ ]
(jωC) jωL1 + hie
−hfe Ib jωL2 (jωL1 + hie )(jωC)
I=
(1 − ω2 CL2 )(jωL1 + hie ) + (jωL1 + hie )(jωC)
−hfe Ib jωL2 (jωL1 + hie )((jωC)
II = 3 2 2
𝑗ωL1 − jω CL1 L2 + hie − ω CL2 hie − ω CL1 hie
−hfe Ib jωL2 (jωL1 + hie )((jωC)
I= … … … … … . . (4)
𝑗ωL1 − jω3 CL1 L2 +hie − ω2 Chie (L1 + L2 )
According to the current division in the parallel circuit,
𝑋𝐿1 𝑗𝜔𝐿1
𝐼𝑏 = 𝐼 =𝐼 … … … … … … … … . (5)
𝑋𝐿1 + ℎ𝑖𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝐿1 + ℎ𝑖𝑒

Subs (4) in (5) we get,

−ℎ𝑓𝑒 𝐼𝑏 𝑗𝜔𝐿2 (𝑗𝜔𝐿1 + ℎ𝑖𝑒 )((𝑗𝜔𝐶) 𝑗𝜔𝐿1
𝐼𝑏 = 3 2
𝑋
𝑗𝜔𝐿1 − 𝑗𝜔 𝐶𝐿1 𝐿2 +ℎ𝑖𝑒 − 𝜔 𝐶ℎ𝑖𝑒 (𝐿1 + 𝐿2 ) 𝑗𝜔𝐿1 + ℎ𝑖𝑒
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Dept. Of EEE, SMVEC, Pondicherry
 ω3 hfe L2 C𝐿1
1= 3 … … … … (8)
jω L1 L2 C + jωL1 +hie − ω2 Chie (L1 + L2 )
Equating the Real part to zero,
hie − ω2 Chie (L1 + L2 ) = 0
2
hie [1 − ω 𝐶(L1 + L2 )] = 0
[1 − ω2 𝐶(L1 + L2 )] = 0
1
( = ω2 )
C(L1 + L2 )
1
𝜔=√
𝐶(𝐿1 +𝐿2 )
Leq =L1 + L2
1
𝜔=
√𝐶𝐿𝑒𝑞
𝟏
𝒇=
𝟐𝝅√𝑪𝑳𝒆𝒒
COLPITTS OSCILLATOR (Nov 2012, April/May 2014).
An LC oscillator which uses two capacitive reactances and one inductive
reactance in the feedback network i.e tank circuit is called Colpitts oscillator.

Circuit description:
 It is similar to the Hartley’s oscillator except that it uses tapped capacitance instead of
tapped inductance used in Hartley oscillator.
 The tank circuit is made up of two capacitors C1and C2 connected in series with each other
and inductance L.
 The resistors R1 and R2 and RE are used to provide d.c bias to the transistor.
 The feedback between the output and input circuit is accomplished by the voltage
developed across the capacitor C2.
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Dept. Of EEE, SMVEC, Pondicherry
  It may be noted that in Colpitts oscillator, the capacitors C1and C2 acts as simple
alternating voltage divider and it produces 180o phase shift.
 Another phase shift of 180o is provided by the transistor itself.
 Thus there is a total phase shift of 360o between the emitter base and the collector base
circuits.
Working:
 When the circuit is energized by switching on the supply, the capacitors C 1 and C2 are
charged.
 These capacitors discharge through the coil L which sets up oscillation.
 The oscillations across the capacitor C1 are feedback to the base emitter junction and
appear in an amplified form at the collector.
 Because of the positive feedback, the oscillations of constant amplitude are produced.
 Colpitts oscillators are widely used as signal generators for frequencies between 1MHz
to 500 MHz.
Analysis of Colpitts oscillator:

Output current Ic which is hfeIb acts as input to the feedback network. While the base current
acts as output current of the tank circuit flowing through input impedance of the amplifier.
Converting current source into voltage source we get,

1
Vo = hfe Ib Xc2 = hfe Ib ………….. (1)
jωC2
The total current I drawn from the supply is,
−Vo
I = (X ………….. (2)
C2 +XL )+(XC1 ||hie )
The negative sign is due to the polarities of Vo.
1
XC2 + XL = + j⍵L
(j⍵C2 )

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Dept. Of EEE, SMVEC, Pondicherry
 1
h
(j⍵C1 ) ie
XC1 ||hie =
1
+ hie
(j⍵C1 )
Subs the above expressions in (2) we get,
−Vo
I= 1 ………….. (3)
h
1 (j⍵C1 ) ie
[(j⍵C )+j⍵L]+[ 1 ]
2 +hie
(j⍵C1 )
Replacing j⍵ by S,
−Vo
I=
1
h
1 (SC1 ) ie
[ + SL] + [ 1 ]
(SC2 )
+ hie
(SC1 )
1
−hfe Ib
SC2
I=
1
h
1 (SC1 ) ie
[ + SL] + [ 1 ]
(SC2 )
+ hie
(SC1 )
1
−hfe Ib
SC2
I=
1 + S 2 LC2 hie
[ ]+[ ]
(SC2 ) 1+hie SC1
1 (SC )(1+h
−hfe Ib ie SC1 )
SC2 2
I=
(1 + S 2 LC2 )(1+hie SC1 ) + +hie SC2
−hfe Ib (1+hie SC1 )
I= 3
S LC1 C2 hie + s2 LC2 + SC1 hie + 1 + sC2 hie
−hfe Ib (1+hie SC1 )
I= 3 … … … … … (4)
S LC1 C2 hie + s 2 LC2 + S hie (C1 + C2 ) + 1
According to the current division in the parallel circuit,
1
𝐼
𝑋𝑐1 (j⍵C1 )
𝐼𝑏 = 𝐼 = … … … … … … … … . (5)
𝑋𝑐1 + ℎ𝑖𝑒 1
+ ℎ𝑖𝑒
(j⍵C1 )
𝐼
𝐼𝑏 = … … … … … … . . (6)
1 + ℎ𝑖𝑒 (SC1 )
Subs (4) in (6) we get,
−hfe Ib (1+hie SC1 ) 1
Ib = x
+ s LC2 + S hie (C1 + C2 ) + 1 1 + ℎ𝑖𝑒 SC1
S 3 LC1 C2 hie
2

−hfe
1= 3 2
… … … … … (7)
S LC1 C2 hie + s LC2 + S hie (C1 + C2 ) + 1

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Dept. Of EEE, SMVEC, Pondicherry
 Replacing S by j⍵, S2 by -⍵2 and S3 by -j⍵3,
−hfe
1=
−jω3 LC1 C2 hie + −ω2 LC2 + jω hie (C1 + C2 ) + 1

−hfe
1= … … … … (8)
(1 − ω2 LC2 )+ jω hie (C1 + C2 −ω2 LC1 C2 )
Equating the imaginary part to zero,
ω hie (C1 + C2 −ω2 LC1 C2 ) = 0
(C1 + C2 −ω2 LC1 C2 ) = 0
(C1 + C2 = ω2 LC1 C2 )
C1 + C2
( = ω2 )
LC1 C2
𝐶1 +𝐶2
𝜔=√
𝐿𝐶1 𝐶2
1
𝜔=
C1 C2
√𝐿 [
𝐶1 +𝐶2 ]
C1 C2
Ceq = ,
C1 +C2
1
𝜔=
√𝐿𝐶𝑒𝑞
𝟏
𝒇=
𝟐𝝅√𝑳𝑪𝒆𝒒
WEIN BRIDGE OSCILLATOR (Nov 2011, April/May 2012,Nov 2013)
 The RC phase shift oscillator have one drawback (i.e.) when there is a use to have a variable
frequency circuit, it is difficult to adjust equally the capacitor values of the phase shift
network simultaneously.
 An oscillator circuit, which is more useful for variable frequency operation, is the wein bridge
oscillator.
Circuit Description
 The circuit consists of a two-stage RC coupled amplifier which provides a phase shift of 3600
or 00.
 A balanced bridge is used as the feedback network.
 So the feedback network has no need to introduce any additional phase shift.
 The feedback network consists of lead-lag network (R1-C1 and R2 and C2) and a voltage
divider (R3-R4).
 It has been observed that, the oscillator frequency can be varied by varying two capacitors C1
and C2 simultaneously.
 The lead lag network provides a positive feedback to the input of the first stage and the voltage
divider provides a negative feedback to the emitter of Q1.

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Dept. Of EEE, SMVEC, Pondicherry
Working
 When the circuit is energized by switching on the supply, small random oscillations appearing
at the base of Q1 transistor are amplified, at its collector.
 The oscillations are further amplified at the collector of Q2 transistor.
 Since the oscillations at the collector of Q2 transistor have been inverted twice, therefore these
oscillations are in phase with the input signal.
 A part of the output signal from the collector of Q2 transistor is feedback to the Wein Bridge,
which is further amplified.
 The process continues till sustained oscillations are produced.

Analysis Of Wein Bridge Oscillator

Frequency of oscillator is decided by a Wein bridge circuit.
1 1 + 𝑗𝜔𝑅1 𝐶1
𝑍1 = 𝑅1 + =
𝑗𝜔𝐶1 𝑗𝜔𝐶1
1
R
1 (j⍵C2 ) 2
𝑍2 = R 2 || =
(j⍵C2 ) 1
+ R2
(j⍵C2 )
R2
𝑍2 = … … . . (1)
1 + (j⍵R2 C2 )
Replacing j⍵=S,
1 + 𝑆𝑅1 𝐶1
𝑍1 =
𝑆𝐶1
R2
𝑍2 =
1 + (SR2 C2 )
𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝐼=
𝑍1 + 𝑍2
And 𝑉𝑓 = 𝐼𝑍2

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Dept. Of EEE, SMVEC, Pondicherry
 𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑍2
𝑉𝑓 =
𝑍1 + 𝑍2
𝑉𝑓 𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑍2
𝛽= = … … . . (2)
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑍1 + 𝑍2
Subs the values of 𝑍1 and 𝑍2 ,
R2
𝑉𝑖𝑛
1 + (SR2 C2 )
𝛽=
1 + 𝑆𝑅1 𝐶1 R2
+
𝑆𝐶1 1 + (SR2 C2 )
S C1 R 1
=
1 + s(𝑅1 𝐶1 + R2 C2 + R2 C1 ) + s 2 𝑅1 R2 C 𝐶1
2
Replacing s=j⍵,s2 = −⍵2,and rationalizing the expression ,
⍵2 C1 R2 (𝑅1 𝐶1 + R2 C2 + R2 C1 ) + j⍵R2 C1 (1 − ⍵2 𝑅1 R2 C 𝐶1 )
2
𝛽= 2
(1 − ⍵2 𝑅1 R2 C 𝐶1 )2 + ⍵2 (𝑅1 𝐶1 + R2 C2 + R2 C1 )
2
Equate the imaginary part to zero,
⍵(1 − ⍵2 𝑅1 R 2 C2 𝐶1 ) = 0
1
⍵=
√𝑅 1 R 2 C 2 𝐶 1
1
f=
2π√𝑅1 R 2 C2 𝐶1
Advantages:
 It is a standard oscillator circuit used for generating low frequencies in the range of 22 hz to
about 1 mhz.
 It is used in all commercial audio signal generators.
 It is used to give pure sine wave output with frequency and amplitude stability.
 It can be used to produce variable frequency signal by changing the value of C and R.
Disadvantages
 The circuit requires two transistors and a large number of components.
 It cannot generate very high frequencies.
CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR (Nov 2011)
 The crystal oscillators are either naturally occurring or synthetically manufactures
exhibiting the piezo-electric effect.

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Dept. Of EEE, SMVEC, Pondicherry
 It means under the influence of the mechanical pressure, the voltage gets generated across
the opposite face of the crystal to vibrate, the AC voltage, it vibrates causing mechanical
distortion in the crystal shape.
 Every crystal has its own resonating frequency depending on it.
 So under the influence of the mechanical vibrations, the crystal generates an electrical
signal of very constant frequency.
 The crystal oscillator is a tuned circuit oscillator using a piezo-electric crystal as its resonant
tank circuit. The crystal oscillator are preferred when greater frequency stability is required.
 Hence the crystals are used in watches, communication transmitters and receivers etc.
 The main substance exhibiting the piezo-electric effect is quartz, Rochelle salt and
tourmaline.
 Rochelle salts have greatest piezo-electric effects.
 For a given AC voltage, they vibrate more than quartz or tourmaline.
 Hence these are prepared in using microphones associated with portable tape recorders,
headsets and loudspeakers.
 Rochelle salt is mechanically weakest of the three and can break easily.
 Tourmaline shows the least piezo-electric effect but is mechanically the strongest.
 Tourmaline is more expensive and hence it is used rarely in practice. Quartz is more
commonly used since it is easily obtained and is less expensive when compare to Rochelle
salt and tourmaline.

Construction Details
 The natural shape of quartz crystal is hexagonal prism. But for its practical use it is
cut into rectangular slab.
 This is mounted between the two metal plates.
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Dept. Of EEE, SMVEC, Pondicherry
  The symbol of crystal is shown in the figure. The metal plates are called holding
plates, as they hold the crystal slab between them
f = 1 / 2π√LC

Circuit Description
 It is a Colpitts oscillator in which the inductor is replaced by the crystal.
 A variety of crystal oscillator circuits is possible such as crystal –controlled tuned collector-
oscillator, Colpitts crystal oscillator Clapp crystal oscillator.
 In this type, a pierce crystal is used as a resonant circuit replacing an LC circuit.
 In this circuit, the crystal is connected as a series element in the feedback path from collector
to the base.

Transistor pierce crystal oscillator

Working
 The resistors R1, R2 and R3 provide a voltage divider stabilized d.c bias circuit.
 The capacitor CE provides a.c bypass of the emitter resistor and RFC (Radio frequency
choke)coil provides for d.c bias while decoupling any a.c signal on the power lines from
affecting the output signal.
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Dept. Of EEE, SMVEC, Pondicherry
  The coupling capacitor C has negligible impedance at the circuit operating frequency.
 But it blocks any d.c between collector and base.
 The circuit frequency of oscillation is set by the series –resonant frequency of the crystal
and its value is given by the relation,

It may be noted that the changes in supply voltage, transistor device parameters etc.have no effect
on the circuit operating frequency, which is held stabilized by the crystal.

Equivalent circuit of the crystal:

 Ratio of Cp to Cs may be several 100 or more so, that the series resonant frequency
is very closed to parallel resonant frequency
 The resonant frequency is from 0.5 to 3MHZ. can be obtained.
 It has two resonant frequencies.
1) Series resonant frequency of the crystal
1
Fs = 2𝜋√𝐿𝑐𝑠
 Quality factor (or) q- factor of the crystal at
𝑤𝑠𝐿
Fs = 𝑅
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Dept. Of EEE, SMVEC, Pondicherry
 2) Parallel resonant frequency of the crystal
1 cs  cp
Fp = 2𝜋
L csc p
𝑤𝑝𝐿
 Q- factor of the crystal at, fp = for,
𝑅
ws w wp the reactance is inductive
w out of range the reactance is capacitor
Reactance function : when R = 0
1 𝑤 2 − 𝑤𝑠2
Reactance fn is jx = 𝑗𝑤𝑐𝑝 . 𝑤𝑝2

Advantages:
 Very high q-factor as a resonant circuit
 Good frequency stability
 Greater stability is constant frequency
Disadvantages:
 Crystal is temperature dependent. So, it is necessary to enclose the crystal in a
temperature controlled over to achieve frequency stability.

RC PHASE SHIFT OSCILLATORS (April 2014, May 2015,April 2013, April 2016)

RC phase shift oscillator consists of an amplifier and a feedback network consisting of

resistors and capacitors and hence such an oscillator is called RC phase shift oscillator.

Construction and Working

Figure shows a common emitter single stage amplifier and a phase shifting network consisting
of three identical sections. In oscillator circuit, feedback network must be introducing a phase
shift of 180o .Hence in RC phase shift oscillator, the feedback network consists of three RC
sections.
Derivation for frequency of oscillation

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Dept. Of EEE, SMVEC, Pondicherry
 𝑅𝑐
𝑘=
𝑅

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Dept. Of EEE, SMVEC, Pondicherry
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Dept. Of EEE, SMVEC, Pondicherry
UJT RELAXATION OSCILLATOR (Nov 2012, April/May 2016)
The pulse signal required to drive the digital circuits can be obtained from a single stage oscillator
circuits using a particular device like unijunction transistor is called UJT relaxation oscillator.
Construction:
 The R1 and R2 are biasing resistances which are selected such that they are lower than
interbase resistances RB1 and RB2 .
 The resistance RT and capacitor CT decide the oscillating rate.
 The value of RT is selected such that operating point of UJT remains in negative resistance
region.

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Dept. Of EEE, SMVEC, Pondicherry
Working:
 Capacitor CT gets charged through RT towards the supply voltage VBB.
 As long as the capacitor voltage is less than the peak voltage VP,the emitter appears as
open circuit.
𝑉𝑃 = 𝜂𝑉𝐵𝐵 + 𝑉𝐷 ……(1)

Where,
η=stand off ratio of UJT
𝑉𝐷 -cut in voltage of diode.
 When the capacitor voltage 𝑉𝑐 exceeds the voltage 𝑉𝑃 ,the UJT fires.
 The capacitor discharges through 𝑅1 + 𝑅𝐵1 .As 𝑅𝐵1 is assumed to be small capacitor
discharges through𝑅1 .
 Due to the design of 𝑅1 ,this discharge is very fast and it produces a pulse across𝑅1 .
 When the capacitor falls below 𝑉𝑣 ,the UJT gets turned off.
 The capacitor starts charging again.
 The discharge time of the pulse is controlled by time constant 𝑅1 𝐶𝑇 while the charging
time by constant𝑅𝑇 𝐶𝑇 .
 There is a voltage drop across 𝑅2 and voltage rise across 𝑅1 ,when UJT fires.
The charging equation of capacitor is given by,
𝑉𝐶(𝑡) = 𝑉𝑉 + 𝑉𝐵𝐵 [1 − 𝑒 −𝑡/𝑅𝑇 𝐶𝑇 ]

𝑉𝐶(𝑡) = 𝑉𝑃 𝑎𝑡 𝑡 = 𝑇

𝑉𝑃 = 𝑉𝑉 + 𝑉𝐵𝐵 [1 − 𝑒 −𝑡/𝑅𝑇 𝐶𝑇 ]
Using eq(1) in above ,

𝜂𝑉𝐵𝐵 + 𝑉𝐷 = 𝑉𝑉 + 𝑉𝐵𝐵 [1 − 𝑒 −𝑡/𝑅𝑇 𝐶𝑇 ]

Neglecting 𝑉𝐷 and 𝑉𝑉 we get,
𝜂 = [1 − 𝑒 −𝑡/𝑅𝑇 𝐶𝑇 ]
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Dept. Of EEE, SMVEC, Pondicherry
 1
𝑇 = 𝑅𝑇 𝐶𝑇 𝑙𝑛
1−𝜂
1
𝑓𝑜 =
1
𝑅𝑇 𝐶𝑇 𝑙𝑛 1 − 𝜂
Where fo − oscillating frequency

(2 MARKS)
1. Mention the advantages of crystal oscillator over other oscillators(Nov 2011)
Crystal oscillators are oscillators where the primary frequency determining element is a
quartz crystal. Because of the inherent characteristics of the quartz crystal the crystal oscillator
may be held to extreme accuracy of frequency stability. Temperature compensation may be
applied to crystal oscillators to improve thermal stability of the crystal oscillator.
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Dept. Of EEE, SMVEC, Pondicherry
 Crystal oscillators are usually, fixed frequency oscillators where stability and accuracy are the
primary considerations. For example it is almost impossible to design a stable and accurate LC
oscillator for the upper HF and higher frequencies without resorting to some sort of crystal
control. Hence the reason for crystal oscillators
2. What is piezoelectric effect? (Nov 2011)
Piezoelectric Effect is the ability of certain materials to generate an electric charge in response to
applied mechanical stress.
3. Which Oscillator has both positive and negative feedback? (April/May 2012).
Wein bridge oscillator has both positive and negative feedback
4. State the Barkhausen criterion for oscillation.(Nov 2012,April 2013).
Condition for sustainable oscillation: (BARKHAUSEN CRITERION)
The essential conditions for maintaining oscillation are:
1. |Aβ| = 1, i.e. the magnitude of loop gain must be unity.
2. The total phase shift around the closed loop is zero or 360 degrees.

 The condition that |Aβ| = 1 gives a single and precise value of Aβ which should be set
throughout the operation of the oscillator circuit.
 But in practice |Aβ| will become greater or less than unity as the transistor
characteristics and other circuit components change with time.
 Hence in all practical circuits |Aβ| should be set greater than unity so that amplitude of
oscillation will continue to increase without limit.
5. What are “parasitic “oscillations? (Nov 2012).
Parasitic oscillation is an undesirable electronic oscillation (cyclic variation in output voltage or
current) in an electronic or digital device. It is often caused by feedback in an amplifying device.
The problem occurs notably in RF, audio, and other electronic amplifiers as well as in digital signal
processing.
6. What are the essential parts of an oscillator?(April/May 2014,Nov /Dec 2014)
 Tank circuit
 Transistor amplifier
 Feedback circuit.
7. Give the expression for the frequency of oscillations in an op-amp sine wave oscillator?
The expression for the frequency of oscillations in an op-amp sine wave oscillator is,
f = 1 / (2πRC)
8. What are the classifications of Oscillators?
Oscillators are classified into following different ways:
 According to the waveform generated.
o Sinusoidal oscillator
o Relaxation oscillator
 According to the fundamental mechanisms involved.
o Negative resistance oscillator
o Feedback oscillator
 According to the frequency generated.

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Dept. Of EEE, SMVEC, Pondicherry
 o Audio frequency oscillator : up to 20 KHz
o Radio frequency oscillator : 20KHz to 30MHz
o Very high frequency oscillator : 30MHz to 300MHz
o Ultra high frequency oscillator : 300MHz to 3GHz
o Microwave frequency oscillator : above 3GHz
 According to the type of circuit used.
o LC tuned oscillator
o RC phase shift oscillator
9. What are the types of feedback oscillators?
* RC-Phase shift Oscillator,
* LC-Oscillators
i. Tuned collector Oscillator
ii. Tuned emitter Oscillator
iii. Tuned collector base Oscillator
iv. Hartley Oscillator
v. Colpits Oscillator
vi. Clap Oscillator
10. Draw the equivalent circuit of crystal oscillator.

11. What is Miller crystal oscillator? Explain its operation.

It is nothing but a Hartley oscillator its feedback Network is replaced by a crystal.
Crystal normally generate higher frequency reactance due to the miller capacitance are in effect
between the transistor terminal.
12. State the frequency for RC phase shift oscillator.
The frequency of oscillation of RC-phase shift oscillator is
F=1/2πRC√(4𝐾 + 6)
Where k=2.639.
13. List the important characteristics of a voltage regulator.
The output voltage is fixed at a specified value, The unregulated voltage must be at least 2V
more than the regulated voltage.
14. What is a tuned amplifier?
The amplifier with a circuit that is capable of amplifying a signal over a narrow band of
frequencies is called tuned amplifiers.
15. What is the expression for resonant frequency?
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Dept. Of EEE, SMVEC, Pondicherry
fr=1/2πLC
16. Negative feedback is preferred over other methods of modifying amplifier
characteristics why?(April/May 2014)
1. Increased stability
2. Increased bandwidth
3. Decreased noise
4. Less frequency Distortion
17. Distinguish between series and shunt feedback(April/May 2014)
 In series feedback, the feedback signal is connected in series with the input
voltage signal.
 In shunt feedback, the feedback signal is connected in parallel with an input
current source.
18. Compare negative and positive feedback(May/June 2015)
Negative feedback
 If the feedback signal is applied in such a way that it is out of phase with the input signal
and thus decreases it is said to be positive feedback.
 Negative feedback decreases the gain of the amplifier.
Positive feedback
 If the feedback signal is applied in such a way that it is in phase with the input signal
and thus increases it is said to be positive feedback.
 Positive feedback increases the gain of the amplifier.
19. What are the disadvantages of positive feedback (November2013)
 Increases the instability of the amplifier.
 Reduces the bandwidth
 Increases distortion and noise
20. Draw the block diagram of voltage amplifier with voltage series feedback.(Nov
2013)

21. List the four different ways of connecting the feedback amplifier(April
2013,Nov/Dec 2014)
i. Voltage-series feedback
ii. Voltage-shunt feedback
iii. Current-series feedback
iv. Current-shunt feedback
22. What are feedback amplifiers?
An amplifier which uses feedback principle is called as feedback amplifiers.

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Dept. Of EEE, SMVEC, Pondicherry
What are the types of feed back?
1. Positive feedback 2. Negative feedback.
23. What is positive feedback?
If the feedback signal is applied in such a way that it is in phase with the input signal and thus
increases it is said to be positive feedback.
24. What is negative feedback?
If the feedback signal is applied in such a way that it is out of phase with the input signal and
thus decreases it is said to be positive feedback.
25. Define sensitivity?
Sensitivity is defined as the ratio of percentage change in voltage gain with feedback to the
percentage change in voltage gain without feedback

49
Dept. Of EEE, SMVEC, Pondicherry