DESCRIPTIVE GEOMETRY

short course of lectures

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 INTRODUCTION
The theoretical basis of the engineering and computer graphics is
a descriptive geometry, which once allowed creating one of the most
genial inventions of the human mind - the drawing. The drawing is
a kind of graphic language. With the help of just points, lines, geome-
trical signs, letters and numbers a variety of surfaces, machines, appa-
ratus, engineering structures are pictured. This language is international
and can be understood by any technically trained person whatever lan-
guage he or she speaks.
The role of descriptive geometry is important in the process of study-
ing natural sciences, when studied or analyzed properties are accompanied
by accessible to the human perception visual geometric models, which al-
low developing logical thinking.
This manual will help students of different forms of training to learn
the basics of descriptive geometry and the projection of the drawing, to
create the foundation of knowledge of engineering from these disciplines.
 Lecture 1. THE BASIC PRINCIPLES
OF THE ORTHOGONAL PROJECTION

The Subject and the Method of Descriptive Geometry

Descriptive geometry is one of the branches of geometry. Its objective
is the same as of geometry in general, namely: studying the forms of ob-
jects around us and the relationship between them, the establishment of ap-
propriate laws and the use of them in solving specific tasks.
Descriptive geometry is highlighted by using a graphical way in which
the geometric properties of figures are studied directly by drawing to make
decisions in general geometrical tasks. In other branches of geometry draw-
ing is an auxiliary means (it is drawing that makes it possible to illustrate
the properties of figures).
Certain geometrical laws are to be used to bring a drawing to a geo-
metrically equivalent image of the object (figure). In descriptive geometry
the drawing is built with the use of projection, so the drawings used in de-
scriptive geometry, are called projective drawings.
Thus, the descriptive geometry comprises:
– the objective of the methods of construction of projective drawings;
– the solution of geometric tasks, related to three-dimensional shapes;
– the application of methods of descriptive geometry to the studying of
theoretical and practical issues of science and technology.

Brief history of the descriptive geometry

Descriptive geometry arose from the needs of the practical activities of
mankind. The construction models of various facilities, fortress fortifica-
tions, habitation, temples, and so on were required to be drawn firstly.
From primitive paintings, transmitted approximate geometric forms of
structures the transition to the compilation of projective drawings was
gradually accomplished, reflecting the geometric properties objects de-
picted on them.
French geometry and engineer Gaspard Monge played an outstand-
ing role in the development of descriptive geometry. In his work «De-
scriptive geometry», published in 1798, Str. Monge gave the first scien-
tific report on principles of representing three-dimensional objects in
a two-dimensional plane.

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 Descriptive geometry course was firstly taught in Russia by French
engineer K. Pottier (former student of G. Monge) in St. Petersburg in 1810. He
published the Descriptive Geometry Course in French in 1816.
From 1818 the descriptive geometry course teaching was continued by
Professor Yakov Alexandrovich Sevastianov. He translated K. Pottier’s
Descriptive Geometry Work in Russian. In 1821 Professor Sevastyanov
wrote his own course of lectures on descriptive geometry.
Followers of Professor Sevastyanov – Makarova N. I., Kurdyu- mov V.
I., Fedorova E. S., Chetvertuhina N. F., Gordon V. O. and oth- ers – made
great contributions into descriptive geometry teaching devel- opment in
Russia.

Legend
1. Points of space are marked with Latin capital letters: A, B, C, D... or
numbers: 1, 2, 3... .
2. Straight and curved lines of the space are marked with lowercase
Latin letters: m, n, k, l... .
3. Plane and the surface are marked with lowercase letter of the Greek
alphabet: α, β, γ….
4. Planes of projections:
– horizontal plane projections– Н;
– vertical (front) plane of projection – V;
– profile plane projections – P.
5. The projection of the points, lines and planes are marked with the
same letters like their originals with the additional index and the corres-
ponding index of plane projections.
Thus, the projection of point A, line m and plane α is respectively
marked:
– on plane H – A′ , m′, α ′;
– on plane V – A″, m″, α ″;
– on plane P – А′′′, m′′′, α ′′
To specify the method of the task of plane next to a letter of plane designations
of those elements by which they are set are written in paren- theses, for
example:
α (А, В, С), β (а // b), γ (m ∩ n).
6. For some lines the permanent marks are developed Depending on
line position in space:
– horizontal – h;
– frontal – f;
– profile – p.
7. Angles are marked the following lowercase letters: α, β, γ, δ…
 8. Basic operations are marked:
the coincidence of two geometric elements – ≡; membership
of a geometry element to another – or ; the
intersection of two elements – ∩;
the result of the geometric operations – =.

The basic properties of projection

The central projection (vista) is to build an image (projection) point A′
of the point by conducting through the point A and point S (the center of
projections) line SA, called projective straight up to the inter- section with
plane Н, called plane of projections.
А′ – the point of intersection of plane
V with the direct SА.
The construction of the
projections of points A, B and C varies
located on plane of projection V an
the center of the projection S.

Projection can be run for any point of the space, except for the points
lying in plane passing through the center of the projections and parallel to
plane projections V(non-proprietary point).
Parallel projection assumes a
given plane projections Н and the
direction of the projection S, not
parallel to plane of projection. In
the building of any point A in the
projection а it is necessary to carry
through the point and projective
line parallel to the direction of
projection S, up to the intersection
with plane Н.

The depiction of the objects with the help of the central projection has
great visibility, but it significantly distorts the shape and dimensions of
the original, so as it doesn’t remain parallel direct and relations segments.
Therefore, in practice the method of parallel projection (in particular, the
orthogonal projection) is often used.
 The basic properties of parallel projection
The projection of a point is a point.
The projection of a straight line is a straight line.
All direct, that project points A, B, C to the line l lie in the same plane
(called to projective plane) passing through the straight line l and a parallel
to the direction of the projection S. This plane intersects plane of projection V
on the straight line, which, according to the determination of the projection of
figures as sum of total projections of all its points, is a projection of a line l.
We will call these properties the properties of straightness.
The projection of a point that lies on a straight line, is a point, which lies
on the projection of a given straight line.
This property, called the prop-
erty of accessories, immediately
follows from the determination of
the projection figures as a sum of
the projections of all points. V
The considered three proper-
ties have a place in the central
projection.
The projections of parallel
lines are parallel straight lines.

If direct l and m are parallel, and their projected planes will be

parallel as containing a pair of intersecting respectively parallel lines (l // m,
AA′ // MM′). It follows that l′ // m′ as direct intersection of the parallel planes by the
third plane.
 Principles of orthographic projection

The concept of projection provides a useful medium for explaining the

process of drawing. If a straight line is passed through any point of space and
perpendicular to a plane, the point of space is said to be projected orthogonally on
the plane at the point where the perpendicular intersects the plane.

The perpendicular m is called the projector. The plane is the projection

plane and is represented by the drawing paper. The projection of an object on a
plane is simply the projection of a sufficient number of lines to define the object.
The elementary principles of orthographic projection can best be understood
by considering the point as the unit of graphical representation. It is evident that a
single projection of a point on a plane does not completely represent the position
of the point with respect to the plane. Every point lying in the projector has the
same projection. In order that a projection system be useful, it is necessary that a
given point of space have a unique graphical representation, and, conversely, that
the graphical representation of a point correspond to a single point of space.

Point of space. Monge’s method

Gaspard Monge (1746-1818), the father of descriptive geometry, developed

a graphical protocol which creates three-dimensional virtual space on a two-
dimensional plane
Monge, whose developments were kept a military secret for a number of
years afterwards, originally developed orthographic projection and the revolution
method to solve complex military problems.
Using the techniques he pioneered, Monge could often solve these
problems more quickly than the traditional methods of mathematics, and with
equal accuracy.
Until recently, the basic tools used in descriptive geometry have remained
the same as those employed 200 years ago by Monge for the development of his
procedures.
Even a few techniques have been refined to utilize the better drafting
equipment, but the basic methods are still Monge’s.
What is the essence of this method?
Two mutually perpendicular planes are assumed as projection planes.
The representation of an object by means of its projections on two mutually
perpendicular planesis the system
V – the vertical projection plane V
H –the horizontal projection plane H
А″ –the projection of point A on the
vertical projection plane V
A′ – the projection of point A on the
horizontal projection plane H
x – the line in which these two planes
intersect is axis OX
The vertical projection А″ measures the
distance between the space point А and
the horizontal projection plane H.
The horizontal projection A′ measures
the distance between the space point А
and the vertical projection plane V.
Any point of space has a unique pair of projections, and, conversely, any
pair of projections corresponds to a single point of space.
The important feature of projection drawing is the
V method for representing on one plane (the drawing surface)
the two projections which lie on two mutually
perpendicular planes. Projection planes V and H are
represented on the drawing surface by assuming them
revolved about the reference line (RL) an axis X so that
RL they lie in a single plane.
The projections А″ and A′ now lie on a single line
which is perpendicular to Х.

Cartesian coordinate planes

Descriptive geometry and space analytic geometry include the same subject
matter. In the former, the method of solving problems, is graphical and in the
latter, analytical.
When the Cartesian coordinate planes are horizontal, vertical, and profile,
they are identical to the principal projection planes of descriptive geometry.
These planes intersect in a point called the origin of coordinates. The planes
also intersect one another in the three lines OX, OY, and OZ which are the axes of
a system of rectangular coordinates.

The distances A-A”’, A-A”, and A-A’ are respectively the x, y, and z-
coordinates of the space point A.
 Comprehensive drawing of the point
The greatest application in technical practice a drawing composed of two
or more interconnected orthogonal projections of the reflections of the
original received. Such drawing is called a complex drawing in the
orthogonal projections or a complex drawing.
 Representations of straight lines

The direct of the general position of l we can find the projection of the line
l (l′ and l″) using the projection of points A and B, that are lying on it.
So on the complex drawing, any direct l can be specified by projec- tions
of points А′, А″, В′ and В″, that belong to it. However, any parallel projection
has the properties of straightness and accessories, the direct l on a complex
drawing can be set by its projections l′ and l″, passing through the points А′,
В′ and А″, В″.

l′′′
l’′ l′′

l′ l′

The projections of the rising direct are oriented in the same way on the
complex drawing, and downward – the opposite.

Classification of straight lines

A straight line that is parallel to one plane of projection

A line segment parallel to a plane projects in its true length on the plane
The angle between the horizontal projection, А′ B′, and ox is the true angle β
between line AB and the vertical plane .
It should be noted that when one projection of line segment is parallel to
the axis OX, the adjacent projection is a true-length .
 (π1 = H, π2 =V, π3 = P)

Horizontal (// H) Frontal (// V) Profile (// P)

A straight line that is perpendicular to one plane of projection

AB ┴ H AB ┴ V AB ┴ P

For the division of the segment AB in the given ratio it is enough to

divide one of the projections of the segment in this ratio, and then to
project sharing points to the other projection of the segment.

The division of the segment AB in the ratio of 2 :

5, the random line А′В0 is carried out, on which
seven equal segments are set. The end point of the
line В0 is connected with the projection В′, and
from the point М0′ which is situated in two
divisions from the point А′, the direct М0М′ is set,
which is parallel to the segment В′В0 . Let’s put a
vertical line of the connection to the intersection
with the projection А″В″ and find the projection M″