Example 3.5 A multimode graded index fiber exhibits total pulse broadening of 0.1 1s over a dis- tance of 15 km. Estimate: @ the maximum possible bandwidth on the link assuming no intersymbol interference; (b) the pulse dispersion per unit length; (©) the bandwidth-tength product for the fiber. Solution: (a) The maximum possible optical bandwidth which is equivalent to: the maximum possible bit rate (for return to zero pulses) assuming no ISI may be obtained from Eq. (3.10), where: 1 1 2 02x10 Mi” Bay= (b) The dispersion per unit length may be acquired simply by dividing the total dispersion by the total length of the fiber: 0.1 x10 - al Tg 77 O07 ns kar Dispersion (0) The bandwidth-length product may be obtained in two ways, Firstly by sim- ply multiplying the maximum bandwidth for the fiber link by its length. Hence: Bayl= 5 MHz. x 15 km = 75 MHz km Altematively, it may be obtained from the dispersion per unit length using Eq, (3.10) where: 1 Bal peTmt0® MHz kmExample 3.6 A glass fiber exhibits material dispersion given by |2%(d°m/d2)| of 0.025. Deter- ‘mine the material dispersion parameter at a wavelength of 0.85 j1m, and estimate the rms pulse broadening per kilometer for a good LED source with an rms spectral width of 20 nm at this wavelength. Solution: The material dispersion parameter may be obtained from Eq. (3.19): 1) 2a'a -al? at 0.025 998 x 10° 850 = 98.1 ps am! km snm km! The rms pulse broadening is given by Eq. (3.18) as: Therefore in terms of the material dispersion parameter M defined by Eq. (3.19): 6, ~ LM Hence, the rms pulse broadening per kilometer due to material dispersion: G(1 km) = 20 x 1 x 98.1 x 107? = 1.96 ns km" Example 3.7 Estimate the rms pulse broadening per kilometer for the fiber in Example 3.6 when the optical source used is an injection laser with a relative spectral width 03/2 of 0.0012 at a wavelength of 0.85 pm. Solution: The rms spectral width may be obtained from the relative spectral width by: .0012 0.85 x 10-* 1.02 nm o,= 0.001 The rms pulse broadening in terms of the material dispersion parameter following Example 3.6 is given by: 0, ~ OM‘Therefore, the rms pulse broadening per kilometer due to material dispersion is: Om = 1.02 x 1x 98.1 x 10 = 0.10 ns km Hence, in this example the rms pulse broadening is reduced by a factor of around 20 (1.2. equivalent to the reduced rms spectral width of the injection laser source) ‘compared with that obtained with the LED source of Example 3.6. Example 3.8 A 6 km optical link consists of multimode step index fiber with a core refractive index of 1.5 and a relative refractive index difference of 196, Estimate: (a) the delay difference between the slowest and fastest modes at the fiber output; (b) the rms pulse broadening due to intermodal dispersion on the link: (0) the maximum bit rate that may be obtained without substantial errors on the link assuming only intermodal dispersion; (@) the bandwidth—Length product corresponding to (c). Solution: (a) The delay difference is given by Eq. (3.27) as: 57 = lad _ Gx 10x15 0.01 © 2.998% 10" = 300 ns(b) The rms pulse broadening due to intermodal dispersion may be obtained from Eq. (3.35) where: _ Lind 1 6x10°x1.5 x0.01 OR3e 232.998 10" = 86.7 ns (Q The maximum bit rate may be estimated in two ways. Firstly, to get an idea of the maximum bit rate when assuming no pulse overlap, Eq. (3.10) may be used where: Ld Blom) 7-757, GOO 10" =L7Mbits* Altematively an improved estimate may be obtained using the calculated rms pulse broadening in Eq. (3.11) where: 02 02 0, 86.710" =23 Mbit s* B,(max) (d) Using the most accurate estimate of the maximum bit rate from (c), and ‘assuming return to zero pulses, the bandwidih-length product is: Bux L= 2.3 MHz x6 km = 13.8 MHz km Example 3.9 ‘Compare the rms pulse broadening per kilometer due to intermodal disperston for the multimode step index fiber of Example 3.8 with the corresponding rms pulse broadening for an optimum near-parabolic profile graded index fiber with the same core axis refractive index and relative refractive index difference. Solution: In Example 3.8, c, over 6 km of fiber is 86.7 ns. Hence the rms pulse broadening per kilometer for the multimode step index fiber is: o.(1_km) _ 86.7 LT 6 14.4 ns kur! Using Eq, (3.42), the rms pulse broadening per kilometer for the corresponding graded index fiber is: Ln? 10° x 1.5 x (0.01)? ~ 20¥3 x 2.998 = 10" =144pskm"Example 3.10 A multimode step index fiber has a numerical aperture of 0.3 and a core refractive index of 1.45. The material dispersion parameter for the fiber is 250 ps nm! km! which makes material dispersion the totally dominating chromatic dispersion mech- anism. Estimate (a) the total rms pulse broadening per kilometer when the fiber is used with an LED source of rms spectral width 50 nm and (b) the corresponding bandwidthlength product for the fiber. Solution: (a) The rms pulse broadening per kilometer due to material dispersion may be obtained from Eq, (3.18), where: (1 km) = @,LM= 50 x 1 x 250 ps kur! = 12.5 ns kurt The rms pulse broadening per kilometer due to intermodal dispersion for the step index fiber is given by Eq. (3.35) as: Lina 1080.09 3c 43 x 1.45 = 2.998 x 10° = 29.9 ns km (1 km) =F The total rms pulse broadening per kilometer may be obtained using Eq. (3.43), where 6, ~ 6,, as the waveguide dispersion is negligible and o, = o, for the multi- ‘mode step index fiber. Hence: G; = (6%, + 03? = (12.5? + 29.9) 2.4 ns knv (6) The bandwidth-length product may be estimated from the relationship given in Eq, (8.11) where: 02 02 O 324x10° = 6.2 MHz km Buy XL=Example 3.11 A typical single-mode fiber has a zero-dispersion wavelength of 1.31 jum with a dis- persion slope of 0.09 ps nm? knr, Compare the total first-order dispersion for the fiber at the wavelengths of 1.28 jim and 1.55 jim. When the material dispersion and profile dispersion at the latter wavelength are 13.5 ps nm! kin”! and 0.4 ps nm! kn", respectively, determine the waveguide dispersion at this wavelength. Solution: The total first-order dispersion for the fiber at the two wavelengths may bbe obtained from Eq, (3.55). Hence: Dx(1280 nm) = 4 i! - &y] 1280 x 0.09 x 10% fy 1310)*] 4 (1280) | 2.8 ps nor! kar! D,(1550 nm) = 1550% 0.09 «1077 (aay 4 1550, = 17.1 ps nm km ‘The total dispersion at the 1.28 j1m wavelength exhibits a negative sign due to the influence of the waveguide dispersion. Furthermore, as anticipated the total disper- sion at the longer wavelength (1.55 jm) is considerably greater than that obtained ‘near the zero-dispersion wavelength, ‘The waveguide dispersion for the fiber at a wavelength of 1.55 ttm is given by Eq. (3.51) where: Dy = Dy~ (D+ Ds) 7.1 (13.5 + 0.4) 2 ps nme knExample 5.1 An optical fiber has a core refractive index of 1.5. Two lengths of the fiber with smooth and perpendicular (to the core axes) end faces are butted together. Assuring the fiber axes are perfectly aligned, calculate the optical loss in decibels at the joint (due to Fresnel reflection) when there is a small air gap between the fiber end faces. Solution: The magnitude of the Fresnel reflection at the fiber-air interface is given by Eq. 6.1) where: feel non) \15+10, (23) =0.04 The value obtained for rcorresponds to a reflection of 4% of the transmitted light at the single interface. Further, the optical loss in decibels at the single interface may be ‘obtained using Ea. (5.2) where: 10 logio(1 — 1) =0.18 dB LOSS 10 log, 0.96 A similar calculation may be performed for the other interface (air-fiber). However, from considerations of symmetry it Is clear that the optical loss at the second inter- face is also. 0.18 dB. Hence the total loss due to Fresnel reflection at the fiber joint is approximately 0.36 aB. Example 5.2 ‘A step index fiber has a core refractive index of 1.5 and a core diameter of 50 jim. The fiber is jointed with a lateral misalignment between the core axes of 5 jim. Estimate the insertion Joss at the joint due to the lateral misalignment assuming a ‘uniform distribution of power between all guided modes when: (@) there is a small air gap at the joint; (b) the joint is considered index matched. Solution: (a) The coupling efficiency for a multimode step index fiber with uni- form illumination of all propagating modes is given by Eq. (5.3) as: a= ea eoe(Z)-2)-(Z)]} wees 2 (&)-(B)[-)]} 293{2(1.471) — 0.210.99]') = 0.804 ‘The insertion loss due to lateral misalignment is given by Eq. (5.4) where: Lossy) = 10 log My = 10 log, 0.804 195 dB‘Hence, assuming a small air gap at the joint, the insertion loss is approximately 1 dB, when the lateral offset is 10% of the fiber diameter. (b) When the joint is considered index matched (i efficiency may again be obtained from Eq. (5.3) whi m=z feeo(e)-Ce)l'-(a)]} oa — 0.2[0.99}"} ‘no air gap) the coupling ‘Therefore the insertion loss is: Loss, = —10 logy 0.872 = 0.59 dB Example 5.3 A graded index fiber has a parabolic refractive index profile (cr = 2) and a core dia- meter of 50 jim. Estimate the insertion loss due to a 3 |tm lateral misalignment at a fiber joint when there is index matching and assuming: @) there is uniform illumination of all guided modes only: (6) there is uniform illumination of all guided and leaky modes. Solution: (a) Assuming uniform illumination of guided modes only, the misalign- ment loss may be obtained using Eq. (5.7), where: 1,= 085 { i 0.85; (s) a ‘The coupling efficiency is given by Eq. (5.6) as: 1102 My = 1 = Ly= 1 0.102 = 0.898 Hence the insertion loss due to the lateral misalignment is given by Eq. (5.4), where: Lossy, =—10 log,» 0.898 = 0.47 4B (b) When assuming the uniform illumination of both guided and leaky modes Gloge’s formula becomes: 3 (5) sa ‘Therefore the coupling efficiency is: 090 0.090 =0.910 Mae and the insertion loss due to lateral misalignment is: Lossis=—10 logio 0.910 = 0.41 dBExample 5.4 Two multimode step index fibers have numerical apertures of 0.2 and 0.4, respec- tively, and both have the same core refractive index of 1.48. Estimate the insertion loss at a joint in each fiber caused by a 5° angular misalignment of the fiber core axes. It may be assumed that the medium between the fibers is air. Solution: The angular coupling efficiency is given by Eq. (5.8) as: __16 (n/n)? 10 na Te ea call The numerical aperture is related to the relative refractive index difference following Eq. (2.10) where: NA ~ n(2a)! Hence: h 16(n/in)* [08] eT GL eval For the VA = 0.2 fiber: 16(1.48)* Noe TH 3 1.48] [ =0.797 5/180 m2 The insertion loss due to the angular misalignment may be obtained ftom Eq. (5.9), where: 10 logy, 0.797 98 dB Losing =—10 logo May For the NA= OA fiber: Sn/180 ang os | 0.862 The insertion loss due to the angular misalignment is therefore: Loss_q=—10 log, 0.862Example 5.5 ‘A single-mode fiber has the following parameters: normalized frequency (V) = 2.40 core refractive index (n) = 1.46 core diameter (2a) 8um ‘mumerical aperture (WA) = 0.1 Estimate the total Insertion Joss of a fiber Joint with a lateral misalignment of 1 yn and an angular misalignment of 1°. Solution: Initially it 1s necessary to determine the normalized spot size In the fiber. This may be obtained from Eq, (5.15) where: pag 085+ 1620242887) ae 1.65 + 1.62(2.4) 15 + 2.881 2 =3.12 um The loss due to the lateral offset is given by Eq. (5.14) as: 2 =217(% - r-2u(2) -219(s3) @ =0.22 dB The loss due to angular misalignment may be obtained from Eq, (5.16) where: 0 n,V\ aNA au( a x 3.12 «1.46 x 24) ra =u 4x01 =049dB Hence, the total Insertion loss ts: 22 +049 71 dB R= T4T,Example 5.6 Two single-mode fibers with mode-field diameters of 9.2 tim and 8.4 ttm are to be connected together. Assuming no extrinsic losses, determine the loss at the connec- tion due to the mode-field diameter mismatch. Solution. The intrinsic loss ts obtained using Eq. (5.17) where: ttn) a," Oe = f4(42, 56 Y*] iow! 4(F5 +2) | =10 log, 0.922 = 0.35 dB Example 5.7 A four-port multimode fiber FBT coupler has 60 .W optical power launched into port 1. The measured output powers at ports 2, 3 and 4 are 0.004, 26.0 and 27.5 uW respectively. Determine the excess loss, the insertion losses between the input and ‘output ports, the crosstalk and the split ratio for the device. Solution: The excess loss for the coupler may be obtained from Eq, (5.22) where: Excess loss = 10 Yon a 10 ose 3 = 0.5 dB The insertion loss is provided by Eq. (5.23) as: Insertion loss (ports 1 to 3) = 10 tog 10 logy 2 = 3.63 dB reer ie ee eta es ae a =3.39 dB Crosstalk is given by Eq, (5.24) where: erneeta ee 10 tog. = 10 logy ont ‘a-aae Finally, the split ratio can be obtained from Eq, (5.25) as: =f. 1 Split ratio = ees py * 100 |= oe x 100 = 48.6%Example 5.8 ‘A 32 32 port multimode fiber transmissive star coupler has 1 mW of optical power Iaunched into a single input port. The average measured optical power at each output port is 14 1W. Calculate the total loss incurred by the star coupler and the average insertion loss through the device. Solution: The total loss incurred by the star coupler comprises the splitting loss and the excess loss through the device. The splitting loss is given by Eq. (5.27) as. Splitting loss = 10 logy, v= 10 log, 32 5.05 dB The excess loss may be obtained from Eq. (5.28) where: x /2*) Hence the total loss for the star coupler: Excess loss = 10 logy, ( 0 logo (10°/32 x 14) = 3.49 dB Total loss = splitting loss + excess loss = 15.05 + 3.49 8.54 dB. The average insertion loss from the input port to an output port is provided by Eg. (5.23) as: Insertion loss = 10 log) 4% = 18.544 ‘Therefore, as may have been anticipated, the total loss incurred by the star cou- pler is equivalent to the average insertion loss through the device. This result occurs because the total loss is the loss incurred on a single (average) optical path through the coupler which effectively defines the average insertion loss for the device.Example 5.9 A number of three-port single-mode fiber couplers are utilized in the fabrication of ‘a tree (ladder) coupler with 16 output ports. The three-port couplers each have an ‘excess loss of 0.2 dB with a split ratio of 50%. In addition, there is a splice loss of 0.1 dB at the interconnection of each stage. Determine the insertion loss associated with one optical path through the device. Solution: The number of stages M within the ladder design is given by 2" = 16. Hence M= 4, Thus the excess loss through four stages of the coupler with three splices is: Excess loss = (4 x 0.2) + (3 0.1) =1.1 dB Assuming a 50% split ratio at each stage, the splitting loss for the coupler may be obtained using Eq. (5.27) as: Splitting loss = 10 logy 16 = 12.04 dB Hence the insertion loss for the coupler which is equivalent to the total loss for one ‘optical path though the device is: Insertion loss = splitting loss + excess loss (Four stages) 04 + LI = 13.14 dB Example 5.10 An FBG is developed within a fiber core which has a refractive index of 1.46. Find the grating period for it to reflect an optical signal with a wavelength of 1.55 um. Solution: The grating pertod of the FBG can be oblained by rearranging Eq. (6.30) as: The grating period of the FBG is therefore 0.53 tm in order to reflect an optical signal at a wavelength of 1.55 jim.