Basic hydraulics

lecture notes

Nigel Wright

UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education

24/10/2007
Contents

1 Acceleration in a fluid ......................................................................................... 2

2 Pressure below a free surface ............................................................................. 3
3 Conservation of mass .......................................................................................... 3
4 Examples of Mass Conservation ........................................................................ 4
5 Conservation of energy (Bernoulli’s equation)................................................. 7
6 Examples of the use of Bernoulli’s Equation .................................................... 8
7 Momentum (Newton’s Second Law)................................................................ 11
8 Examples of the Use of the Momentum Principle .......................................... 12
9 Further examples............................................................................................... 19

1
1 Acceleration in a fluid

There are a number of basic concepts that we need to review before going into the main part of the
module. Many of you will have met these before, but you need to review them and make sure you
understand them. If you have not met these before you need to do some additional reading to cover
this. Speak to your lecturers for more assistance.

Acceleration of a fluid – in a fluid there are two different contributions to a change in velocity as the
observer moves from one point to another. This reflects that fact that the velocity varies in both time
and position. We can calculate the total acceleration as follows.

Δz

Δy
A
Δx

Veloci
ty at A = V ( x, y , z , t )
Velocity at B = V ( x + Δx, y + Δy , z + Δz , t + Δt ) − V ( x, y , z , t )

So the difference between A and B which is:

VB − VA = V ( x + Δx, y + Δy, z + Δz , t + Δt ) − V ( x, y, z , t )

Becomes

2
 ∂V ∂V ∂V ∂V
=V + Δx + Δy + Δz + Δt −V
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t
∂V ∂V ∂V ∂V
= Δx + Δy + Δz + Δt
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t

Dividing by Δt gives the acceleration:

Δx ∂V Δy ∂V Δz ∂V Δt ∂V
= + + +
Δt ∂x Δt ∂y Δt ∂z Δt ∂t
Using the fact that Dx/Dt is the x-component of velocity u gives the following expression for the total
acceleration, which we call DV/Dt:

DV = u ∂V + v ∂V + w ∂V + ∂V
Dt ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t

2 Pressure below a free surface

The pressure in a fluid below a free surface is given by:

p = ρ gh

Where ρ is the fluid density, g is the acceleration due to gravity and h is the distance below the free
surface. It is important to note that the pressure is not dependent on the width of the fluid body – only
the depth.

3 Conservation of mass

Conservation of mass is based on the physical law that mass cannot be destroyed. Based on
this we take a control volume (an area of bounded space) and state that:

Mass of fluid in per second - Mass of fluid out per second = Mass stored per second

Note:

Mass of fluid flowing in or out in 1 second is the mass flow rate or mass flux, usually denoted
dm
by - kg/s.
dt

3
 A density, ρ Control volume

Velocity, V

In one second a length V of fluid enters control volume

dm
= ρ AV
dt

Mass can be stored within the control volume in one of two ways
• by a change in density
• by a change in the size of the control volume

The volume flow rate or discharge Q = m

ρ = AV m /s . If flow is steady and density is
3

constant then Qout = Qin

4 Examples of Mass Conservation

a) Nozzle

4
 0.5m/s V
10cm 3cm

The fluid is water with density 1000 kg/m3. Find Q, V and m

π × 0.12
Qin = 0.5 × = 0.00393m 3 /s (sometimes called cumecs)
4
π × 0.03 2
Qout = Qin = V × 3
= 0.00393m /s
4
∴V = 5.56 m/s
m = ρQin = ρQout = 1000 × 0.00393 = 3.93kg/s

b) branching pipe - water, density 1000 kg/m3

D1 = 30 cm D2 = 10 cm D3 = 20 cm

5
Q1 = 0.01 m3/s V2 = 0.4 m/s

Find Q2, Q3, V1 and V3

⎛ πD22 ⎞ ⎛ π 0.12 ⎞
⎜
Q2 = ⎜ ⎟
⎟ V2 = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟0.4 = 0.00314 m 3 /s
⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠
Conservation of mass implies:

Q1 = Q2 + Q3

Q3 = 0.01 − 0.00314 = 0.00686m3 / s

⎛ π D12 ⎞
Q1 = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ V1
⎝ 4 ⎠
⎛ 0.01 ⎞
V1 = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.142 m/s
⎝ π 0.3 /4 ⎠
2

⎛ π D 32 ⎞
Q 3 = ⎜⎜ ⎟V3
⎟
⎝ 4 ⎠
0.00686
V3 =
(π 0.22 /4) = 0.218 m/s
c) Reservoir

I H

Plan area A Dam

What is the relationship between the inflow I (m3/s), outflow Q (m3/s) and the depth over the
dam crest H?

Conservation of mass

6
 d (Volume)
I-Q =
dt

δ (Volume) = AδH
dH
Thus I − Q = A
dt

I
Q

In practice H is a simple function of Q and the variation of Q with t can be found if the
variation of I with t is known (e.g. for a flood wave).

5 Conservation of energy (Bernoulli’s equation)

The total energy of a given mass of fluid does not change over time as long as no work is put
in nor taken out of the fluid. If there is friction in a fluid then energy will be taken out.
Therefore for energy to be conserved we have to consider the fluid to have no viscosity i.e. it
is inviscid.

If we take these assumptions and analyse fluid flow using the laws of thermodynamics we get
the ‘Bernoulli’ equation for the flow along a streamline of a steady, incompressible, inviscid
fluid.
p V2
+ + gz = constant
ρ 2

The three terms in this equation represent the three different forms of energy in a fluid.

gz - the potential energy per kg

7
 V2/2 - the kinetic energy per kg
p / ρ - the pressure energy or more correctly the work done by the moving fluid per
kg

It is the last term that distinguishes the mechanics of fluids from the mechanics of solid
particles.

Bernoulli’s equation can also be expressed as

V2 p
z+ + = constant
2 g ρg
All these terms have dimensions of length or “head”.

z = elevation head

v2 - velocity head
2g

p
ρg - pressure head

The Bernoulli sum is the total energy/unit weight. It is sometimes referred to as the specific
energy equation.

Alternatively the Bernoulli equation can be derived more rigorously from Newton’s Second
Law. Try this yourself.

6 Examples of the use of Bernoulli’s Equation

a) Nozzle

8
 0.5m/s 5.56m/s

If 2 is at atmospheric pressure, find the pressure at 1

2 2
p1 V1 p 2 V2
+ + z1 = + + z2
ρg 2 g ρg 2 g
z1 = z 2 , p 2 = 0
2 2
p1 V1 V
+ = 2
ρg 2 g 2g
(5.56 2 − 0.52 ) × 1000
p1 = = 15.33 kPa
2
This is the gauge pressure - pressure above atmospheric.

b) Branching pipe

9
 0.4m/s
2
1

0.142m/s

3
0.218m/s

If the pipe junction is horizontal, p1 = 0.25kPa gauge and m = 1000kg/m3, find p 2 and p3

p1 V1 2 p V2 p V2
+ = 2 + 2 = 3 + 3
ρg 2 g ρg 2 g ρg 2 g

250 0.142 2 p2 0.4 2 p3 0.218 2

+ = + = +
1000 × 9.81 2 × 9.81 1000 × 9.81 2 × 9.81 1000 × 9.81 2 × 9.81

So,

p = 0.180 kPa
2
p = 0.236 kPa
3

c) Vertical jet

10
 V

2
D

30m

0.1m
1
0.25m3/s

Find V and D
0.25
At 1, velocity = = 31.8m / s
π 0.12 4
Applying conservation of energy from 1 to 2, assuming atmospheric pressure at both sections,
section 1 at datum level and section 2, 30 m above the datum
31.8 2 V2
= + 30
2 × 9.81 2 × 9.81
V = 20.56 m/s.
By continuity
⎛ πD 2 ⎞
0.25 = ⎜ ⎜ ⎟
⎟ × 20.56
⎝ 4 ⎠
D = 0.124m

7 Momentum (Newton’s Second Law)

For solid body dynamics Newton’s 2nd Law is written:

Force on body = Rate of change of momentum

For a control volume of fluid, Newton’s 2nd law may be written:

Force on control volume = Momentum per second out of control volume

- Momentum per second into control volume

11
Remember: momentum is a vector quantity and therefore this law can be applied in
perpendicular directions.

In one second length V of fluid enters control volume. Therefore the momentum entering the
control volume in this time is

ρAV × V = ρAV 2

More precisely

ρ AV V
or
ρQ V

A density, ρ Control volume

Velocity, V

A similar analysis applies for the momentum leaving the control volume.

8 Examples of the Use of the Momentum

Principle

a) Nozzle

What is the force exerted by this flow of water on the nozzle?

Consider forces on fluid and momentum inflows and outflows

12
 0.5m/s. p=15.33kPa V=5.56m/s
10cm 3cm p=0

FN

M1 M2
F1 F2

FN = force exerted on fluid by nozzle

⎛ π 0.12 ⎞ 2
Rate of momentum into the nozzle, M 1 = 1000⎜⎜ ⎟⎟0.5 = 1.96 N
⎝ 4 ⎠

⎛ π 0.03 2 ⎞
Rate of momentum out of nozzle, M 2 = 1000⎜⎜ ⎟⎟5.56 2 = 21.85 N
⎝ 4 ⎠

13
 ⎛ π 0.12 ⎞
Force due to pressure at 1, F1 = 15330⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 120.4 N
⎝ 4 ⎠

Force due to pressure at 2, F2 = 0 (atmospheric pressure at 2)

Newton’s Second Law

M 2 − M 1 = F1 − F2 − FN

21.85 −1.96 = 120.4 − 0 − FN

FN = 1.96 + 120.4 − 21.85 = 100.5 N

Force exerted on the nozzle is equal and opposite to this

b) Branching pipe

V2 = 0.40 m/s, p2 = 0.180 kPa, D2 = 10 cm

V1 = 0.142 m/s, p1 = 0.25 kPa, D1 = 30 cm
V3 = 0.218 m/s, p3 = 0.236 kPa, D3 = 20 cm

Find the X and Y components of the forces on the pipe junction

14
 M2 F2

M1 X

F1

M3 F3

Consider the equilibrium of the control volume of water

⎛ π 0.3 2 ⎞
M 1 = 1000⎜⎜ ⎟⎟0.142 2 = 1.43N
⎝ 4 ⎠
⎛ π 0.12 ⎞
M 2 = 1000⎜⎜ ⎟⎟0.40 2 = 1.26 N
⎝ 4 ⎠
⎛ π 0.22 ⎞
M 3 = 1000 ⎜ ⎟ 0.218 ×-0.218 = −1.49N
⎝ 4 ⎠
N.B. the velocity (=-0.218) is negative as it in the opposite direction to the y axis. The
⎛ π 0.22 ⎞
discharge ( ⎜ ⎟ 0.218 ) is a scalar and has no direction – therefore it is positive.
⎝ 4 ⎠
⎛ π 0.3 2 ⎞
F1 = 250⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 17.67 N
⎝ 4 ⎠
⎛ π 0.12 ⎞
F2 = 180⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 1.41N
⎝ 4 ⎠
⎛ π 0.2 2 ⎞
F3 = 236⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 7.41N
⎝ 4 ⎠

Newton’s 2nd Law horizontally

0 − M 1 = F1 + X

Newton’s 2nd Law vertically

15
M 2 + M 3 − 0 = F3 − F2 + Y
1.26 - 1.49 = 7.41 - 1.41 + Y

The force on the junction is opposite to the force on the fluid so it is 19.1N horizontally and
6.23N vertically.

Note: in the diagrams the double arrows represent the direction of flow, not the direction in
which momentum is considered.

d) Vertical jet

Flat plate target

0.124m

20.56m/s

Find the force on the fluid, F, assuming no friction losses

− F =0-ρ AV 2
⎛ π 0.1242 ⎞ 2
F = 1000 ⎜ ⎟ 20.56
⎝ 4 ⎠
= 5.10 kN

Cap target

16
 F

If the inlet parameters are as before F can be found by assuming complete reversal of fluid
with no loss of velocity and same flow area.
− F = − ρAV 2 − ( ρAV 2 )
F = 2 ρAV 2
= 10.2kN

e) Hydraulic jump

A hydraulic jump occurs at a transition between fast and slow flow. It is a useful phenomena
in the design of river or dam works.

17
 V2
y1
y2
V1

The channel has width, b.

The force is equal to the change in momentum

F1 − F2 = M 2 − M 1

18
ρgy1
is the average pressure on the vertical plane and ρAv 2 is given by ρ × yb × V 2 so:
2

ρgy1 ρgy 2
× y1 × b − × y 2 × b = ρy 2 bV22 − ρy1bV12
2 2

From continuity

V1 y1 = V2 y 2

substituting for V2 and rearranging gives

1 y1 y1 + y 2 V12
= = Fr12
2 y2 y1 gy1

9 Further examples

9.1 Orifice Plate in Pipe

Pressure tappings to manometer

The analysis is the same as for a venturimeter

19
 1/ 2
⎛
⎜ ⎛ρ ⎞ ⎞⎟
⎜ ΔZ m 2 g⎜ m − 1⎟ ⎟⎟
⎜
⎜ ⎝ ρ ⎠⎟
Q = CA ⎜
o⎜
⎟
2 ⎟
⎜ ⎛A ⎞ ⎟
⎜ 1− ⎜ o ⎟ ⎟
⎜
⎝ ⎝ A⎠ ⎟
⎠

Ao = Orifice Area
A = Pipe Area
C = Plate Coefficient ( ≈ 0.61)

9.2 Large Orifice

h1
y h
2

δy

We can assume that the free surface velocity is small.

Apply energy equation from free surface (datum) for streamline to shaded strip
v2
0 = − y
2g
v = 2 gy
Therefore the discharge for the strip is given by
δ Q = b δ y 2 gy
To get the total discharge, Q, we have to integrate as y varies significantly across the orifice,
so
h2
Q = ∫ dQ = ∫ b 2 gy dy
h1

2
=b(2 g ) 1/ 2 (h23/ 2 − h13/ 2 )
3
We would need to apply a discharge coefficient to account for streamline curvature etc..

20
9.3 Flow around a horizontal pipe bend

F
Q θ
1

Q
2

Q = 0.1m3/s D1 = 300mm
D2 = 200mm θ = 600
p1 = 140 kN/m2

Find F.

Applying continuity gives

π 0. 3 2 π 0.2 2
0.1 = V1 = V2
4 4
V1 = 1.415 m/s
V2 = 3.184 m/s

The energy equation gives

p1 V12 p V2
+ = 2 + 2
ρg 2 g ρg 2 g
p2 = p1 + (V12 − V22 ) ρ / 2
= 140 × 103 + (1415
. 2 − 3184
. 2 ) × 10 3 / 2
= 135.93kN / m 2
From Newton’s 2nd Law – perpendicular to the inlet:

Force on fluid = p1 A1 − F − p 2 A2 cosθ

21
Rate of change of momentum
= ρV2 A2 cosθ − ρV1 A1
2 2

= ρ Q (V2 cos θ − V1 )

Therefore

p1 A1 − F − p 2 A2 cosθ = ρQ(V2 cosθ − V1 )

0 .3 2 ⎛ 0 .2 2 ⎞
140 × 10 3 × π − F − ⎜135 .93 × 10 3 × π cos 60 o ⎟
4 ⎜ 4 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
= 0.1× 103 × (3.184 × cos 60 0 − 1.415)
F = 7 .7 4 k N

9.4 Orifice Flow from a tank

h V

πd 2
The flow area at the orifice = Cc
4

Cc = coefficient of contraction ( ≈ 0.6 )

from the energy equation, ideal flow velocity at orifice (vi) is given by
⎛V 2 ⎞ v
2
⎜⎜ + h ⎟⎟ = i
⎝ 2g ⎠ 2g

v i = V 2 + 2 gh
But v = C v v i

22
Cv = Coefficient of velocity ( ≈ 0.99 )
Therefore
v = Cv V 2 + 2 gh
The ideal discharge Qi is given by
πd 2
Qi = . vi
4
The real discharge Qi is given by
πd 2
Q = Cc . Cv . v i
4
But Q = Cd Qi where Cd is the discharge coefficient.
Therefore Cd = Cc Cv
How long will it take for tank to empty?
From continuity
Vπ D 2 vπ d 2
= Cc (1)
4 4
At free surface
dh
V =− (2)
dt
Also from above
v 2 = Cv2 (V 2 + 2 gh) (3)
combining (1) and (3)
⎛ D4 ⎞
V ⎜ 2 4 ⎟ = C v2 V
2

⎝ Cc d ⎠
( 2
+ 2 gh )
2⎛ D4 ⎞
⇒ V ⎜ − 1⎟ = 2 gh
⎝ Cv Cc d ⎠
2 2 4

Assume D >> d

Therefore
d2
V = 2 C v C c 2 gh
D
using (2)
dh d 2
− = Cv Cc 2 gh
dt D 2

Integrate between t=0 h=H

t=T h=0
0 dh d 2 T
∫H
− = 2 Cv Cc 2 g ∫ dt
h D 0

23
 2D2 H
T= 2
d Cv Cc 2g

24