Hydraulics Machines

Fundamentals of Hydraulics

Basic Equations in Fluid Mechanics

Mass flow rate m

m =ρ V A kg / s
Fluid Q
ρ m ε
Volume flow rate Q
A
Q= V A m3 / s V
P
where

A is the cross-sectional area of the pipe, m 2

V is the mean (average) velocity normal to area at that same location, m / s
ρ is the fluid density, kg / m 3

The analysis of water flow through hydraulic machines depends on three fundamental principles — the conservation of (1) mass, (2) energy, and
(3) momentum. Solving fluid flow problems involves the application of one or more of these three basic equations: continuity, energy, and
momentum.

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Continuity Equation (Conservation of Mass)
The simplest form of the continuity equation is for one-dimensional compressible steady flow in a conduit. Applying continuity between any two
sections gives 2
1
∑ minput = ∑ moutput
V1 Q V2
m1 = m2 ρ
1 m ε ρ
2
A1
ρ1 V1 A1 = ρ 2 V2 A2 = m A2

For a constant density fluid ( ρ = const = ρ1 = ρ 2 ) (incompressible) flow the equation can be written

V1 A1 = V2 A2 = Q

Q1 = Q2

The equations are valid for any rigid conduit as long as there is no addition or loss of liquid between the sections.

1 2
2 1 1 2
V1 Liquid Q V2 V1 Liquid Q V2 Liquid D Q
ρ ρ ρ V = V1 = V 2
1 m ε ρ 1 m ε ρ
2 2
A1 Pipe A = A1 = A2
A2
A1 A2
Nozzle Diffuser Pipe (constant diameter)

V1 A1 = V2 A2 V1 A1 = V2 A2 V1 A1 = V2 A2

A1 > A2 A1 < A2 A1 = A2

V1 < V2 V1 > V2 V1 = V2

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Energy Equation (Bernoulli Equation) (Conservation of Energy)
Fluid Energy (Power)
1- Kinematic energy (Dynamic Energy) K.E. F

V2 K . E. V2 K . E. K . E. V2 V
K . E. = m ⋅ = = = m Kinematic Head m
2 m 2 W mg 2g
or Z
Velocity Head W Datum
2- Potential energy (Elevation Energy) P.E.

P. E. P. E.
P. E. = W ⋅ Z = m g ⋅ Z = gZ = Z m Elevation Head
m W

F = P. A Q F2 = P2. A2
3- Flow Energy (Pressure Energy) F.E.
m ε
dx
F . E. P ⋅ A. dx P P A2
F . E. = F ⋅ dx = P ⋅ A ⋅ dx = = = m Pressure Head A
W g ρ A dx γ ρ γ V2
V
P P2
ρ
Fluid total Head H (Energy /Weight) ρ 2

The sum of the pressure head ( p / γ ) , velocity head

2
(V / 2 g ) , and elevation head (Z) is defined as the total head H

p V2
Total H = + + Z
Head g 2g

Pressure Velocity Elevation

Head Head Head
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A general form of the energy equation applicable to incompressible pipe or duct flow
2
P2
∑ Energyinput = ∑ Energyoutput V2
ρ
1 2
H1 + H P = H 2 + HT + hl P1 Q
V1 m ε
A2
p    ρ
2 2 1 HT
 1 + V1 + Z  + H =  p2 + V2 + Z  + H + hl
General
A1
g 1  P  g 2 T Bernoulli equation Z1 HP hL
 2g   2g  Z2

Datum

The units are energy per unit weight of liquid J/N or Watt/(N/s) which reduces to m.

p V2
H1 = 1 + 1 + Z1 is the total fluid head at section 1
g 2g
p V2
H2 = 2 + 2 + Z2 is the total fluid head at section 2
g 2g

P / γ = pressure head (static pressure head) p

+Z= Piezometric head
γ
Z = elevation head (above some datum)
V 2 / 2 g = velocity head (dynamic pressure head)
p V2
H P = head (total) added by a pump + = Stagnation Pressure head
g 2g
H T = head (total) removed by a turbine
hl = friction plus minor head losses

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 1
2
2
P1 P2 P1 1 P2 1 2
V1 Liquid Q V2 V1 V2 P1 P2
Liquid Q Liquid D Q
ρ ρ ρ V = V1 = V 2
m ε m ε
Pipe
A2 A1 A = A1 = A2
A1 A2
Nozzle Diffuser Pipe (constant diameter)

V1 A1 = V2 A2 V1 A1 = V2 A2 V1 A1 = V2 A2

A1 > A2 A1 < A2 A1 = A2

V1 < V2 V1 > V2 V1 = V2

p1 V2 p V2 p1 V2 p V2 p1 V2 p V2
+ 1 = 2 + 2 + 1 = 2 + 2 + 1 = 2 + 2
g 2g g 2g g 2g g 2g g 2g g 2g

V1 < V2 V1 > V2 V1 = V2

P1 > P2 P1 < P2 P1 = P2
1 2
P1 Liquid
P2
D Q
Flow from high pressure to low pressure Flow from low pressure to high pressure
ρ V = V1 = V 2
Pipe A = A1 = A2
hL
Total energy is the engine for fluid flow direction
(not the pressure)
p1 V2 p V2
+ 1 = 2 + 2 + hl
g 2g g 2g
Fluid flow direction is from the high energy (total) side to the low (total) energy side
In nature, hl ≥ 0 and so P2 ≤ P1

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Momentum Equation (Conservation of Momentum)

If the surroundings exert a net force F on a system (a system is defined as a fixed quantity of mass, denoted by m), Newton’s Second Law
states that the mass will begin to accelerate

Force = mass x acceleration

F
d d m V
d d dV d (mV )
F =m∗a =m =
dt dt

where momentum = mV
i.e.

Force = rate of change of momentum

In its most general form, Newton’s Second Law states that “the net force acting on a body is equal to the rate of change of momentum of the
body, and takes place in the direction of motion”.

Note that force and momentum are both vector quantities, and so the Newton’s law implies the three scalar quantities

d
Fx = (mV x )
dt
d
Fy = (mV y )
dt
d
Fz = (mV z )
dt

For a fluid, which is continuum of particles, the same result applies: the net force in any fixed direction on a certain defined amount of fluid equals
the total rate of change of momentum of that fluid in that direction. In fluid mechanics, Newton’s law is called linear-momentum relation.

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Momentum Equation Applied to Control Volume of a Fluid
system at time t+∆t
Newton’s second law of motion for a system is

d d d
∑ F = (m V )
on sys dt sys fixed C.V.
Vout
of fluid ( ≡ system at time t )
mout
Sum of external forces Time rate of change
=
acting on the system of linear momentum
of the system

δm
d d Vin
d (m V ) sys at t + ∆t − (m V ) sys at t
∑ F = min after time ∆t
on sys ∆t
of fluid

d d d d
on
∑ F =
fluid C .V .
∂
∂t
[
(m V ) CV + (m V ) out − (m V ) in ]
CV

This is the linear-momentum equation.

Steady, one-dimensional flow:

∂ 
For steady flow , (m V ) CV = 0 ; and for one-dimensional flow, (m in ) CV = (m out ) CV = m = ρ Vn A
∂t
Then the momentum equation takes the form

d d d
∑ F = (m V ) out CV − (m V ) in CV
on fluid C .V .

d d d
(
∑ F = m Vout − Vin
on fluid C .V .
)

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 which implies:

∑
on fluid C .V .
(
Fx = m V xout − V xin ) = ρ 2 V2 A2 V2 x − ρ1 V1 A1 V1x = ρ Q (V2 x − V1x )

∑
on fluid C .V .
(
F y = m V yout − V yin ) = ρ 2 V2 A2 V2 y − ρ1 V1 A1 V1 y = ρ Q (V2 y − V1 y )

∑
on fluid C .V .
(
Fz = m V zout − V zin ) = ρ 2 V2 A2 V2 z − ρ1 V1 A1 V1z = ρ Q (V2 z − V1z )

The total force in the given fixed direction corresponds to the net force acting in that direction at the boundaries of the system (i.e. external and
boundary forces). In fluid mechanics, Newton’s law is called linear-momentum relation.

The force acting on the fluid (on CV of the fluid = on the system of fluid at time t ) is the total force exerted on the fluid which includes:

- Force exerted on the fluid by any solid body touching the control volume [reaction force FR + friction force (tangential) Ff].

- Gravity force of the CV fluid (CV fluid weight W).

- Pressure force exerted on the CV fluid by fluid pressure outside the CV (FP)

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