DESIGN OF ZERO ENERGY BUILDINGS

MINOR PROJECT REPORT

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY

specialization in

CIVIL ENGINEERING

Submitted By:

DHIREN SAGAR RIYA RANJAN RUDRANSH BAGRI SHREYA SINHA

0271560348 05315603418 05515603418 05915603418

GUIDED BY:
Ms. Ekta Diwedi
Assistant Professor
Department of Civil Engineering

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

Dr. AKHILESH DAS GUPTA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY &
MANAGEMENT (FORMERLY NORTHERN INDIA ENGINEERING
COLLEGE)
(AFFILIATED TO GURU GOBIND SINGH INDRAPRASTHA
UNIVERSITY, DELHI) SHASTRI PARK, DELHI – 110053

DECEMBER 2021
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION...………………………………………..…………………………………..i
ABSTRACT………………………...………………………………………………………...ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT………………………………………………………………......iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS...……………………………………………………………….... iv
LIST OF FIGURES………………………………………………………………………....v
LIST OF TABLES………………………………………………………………………….vi
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS……………………………………………………………...
 DECLARATION
WE DECLARE THAT THIS ASSIGNMENT IS AN ORIGINAL WORK SUBMITTED
BY THE FOLLOWING GROUP MEMBERS WHO HAVE ALL ACTIVELY MADE A
CONTRIBUTION. ANY OTHER WORK OF A SIMILAR NATURE HAS BEEN
APPROPRIATELY REFERENCED IN THIS ASSIGNMENT.

DHIREN SAGAR 02715603418

RIYA RANJAN 05315603418
RUDRANSH BAGRI 05515603418
SHREYA SINHA 05915603418
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are really grateful because we managed to complete our DESIGN OF ZERO BUILDING
project report within the time given by our Assistan Professor Ms. Ekta Diwedi. This project
cannot be completed without the effort and co-operation from our group members Dhiren
Sagar, Riya Ranjan, Rudransh Bagri, Shreya Sinha. We are also grateful to the author’s of
research paper we have used viz.
1. International Journal of Applied Engineering Research ISSN 0973-4562 Volume 13, Number
1 (2018) pp. 136-140 © Research India Publications. http://www.ripublication.com by
Saravan Devraj
2. International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology (IRJET) Design of Zero
Energy Residential Building Mr. Nitin U Thakare.
3. DESIGN ISSUES FOR NET ZERO-ENERGY BUILDINGS Laura Aelenei , Daniel Aelenei

Last but not least we would like to express our gratitude to our friends and respondents for
the support and willingness to spend time with us to fill in the questionnaries.
 LIST OF FIGURES

Fig 2 : Number of dwellings in Wallonia in each neighborhood category

Fig 3 : Building systems’ sheet of IREEA, the summary of the results section

Fig 4 : The case study Sky slide

Fig 5 : Evolution of BPS Tools in the last 10 years

Fig 6 : Classification of BPS Tools pre- and post-design decisions

Fig 7 : Architects ranking the most important features of a simulation tool

Fig 8 : Barriers of decision making during early design stages

Fig 9 : Tool workflow scheme

Fig 10 : The flowchart of ZEBO

Fig 11 : Reference model and output plots

Fig 12 : Binary success data for performing simulation

Fig 13 : Perspective view of generic single floor of office building

Fig 14 : Research methodology

Fig 15 : Gross section of the typical exterior wall

Fig 16 : Average interest rates from entrepreneur to entrepreneur

Fig 17 : The cost of window components (profile and glazing) per window size

Fig 18 : Specific window cost as a function of window size

Fig 19 : The interdependency of initial investment and energy cost per year
 LIST OF ABBREVATIONS

BIM- Building Information Modeling

CFA- Conditioned Floor Area
EE- Embodied Energy
EEi- Initial Embodied Energy
EEr -Recurring Embodied Energy
HDD- Heating Degree Days
IFC -Industry Foundation Classes
LCA -Life Cycle Assessment
OE -Operational Energy
PED -Primary Energy Demand
REER- Renewable Embodied Energy Ratio
RER -Renewable Energy Ratio
PPS - Photovoltaic Panel Scenario
QGIS - Quantum GIS
UFA -Unconditioned Floor Area
NZEB-net zero energy building
ZEBO- energy simulation tool
SUS-system usability scale
ZEB-zero energy building
BPS-building performance simulation
COPs-coefficient of performance
WWR-window to wall ratio
PV-photo voltaic
NPV-net present value
HVAC-heating, ventilation and air conditioning
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1 : Classes and densities of neighborhoods

Table 2 : Number of dwellings in Wallonia found in each category of neighborhood
Table 3 : Energy consumption of each housing category
Table 4 : Variation in energy consumption in the Walloon building stock, based on
type of neighborhood, after applying the degree-days scenario
Table 5 : Reference building features
Table 6 : Building envelope and building service performances
Table 7 : The six main building design aspects of NZEBs design.
Table 8 : Classification of BPS tools allowing design evaluation and design guidance
Table 9 : Reference model and output plots
Table 10 : Glazing investment cost per m2
Table 11 : Insulation thicknesses, U-values and investment costs of external wall
Table 12 : Shading costs depending on the size of the window
Table 13 : Investment cost of insulation thickness and glazing type combinations per
square meter of heated area
Table 14 : Electricity use and generation profile in the NZEB office building
Table 15 : Comparison of selected solutions for PV panel calculation
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

1.1. INTRODUCTION
DESIGN OF ZERO HOUSE BUILDING

India is a developing country and has become one of the major energy consumers in the
world. This is due to industrial growth and globalization which increases the energy demand
of the consumers. It is reported in the literature that the urban areas contribute 70% and the
housing construction and estate development contribute 40% to the GHG emissions. Few
researchers reported that the buildings contribute approximately 50% of the world’s air
pollution, 42% of GHG emissions, 50% of water pollution and 48% of solid waste to the
environment.

The concept of a Net Zero Energy Building (NZEB), one which produces as much energy as
it uses over the course of a year, recently has been evolving from research to reality.
Currently, there are only a small number of highly efficient buildings that meet the principles
to be called "Net Zero". As a result of advances in creation knowledge’s, renewable energy
systems, and academic research, creating Net Zero Energy buildings is fetching more and
more possible.

Resources as an alternative of Non-Renewable Resources. It implies that the energy demand

for heat and electrical power is condensed, and this reduced demand is met on an annual basis
from renewable energy supply. The renewable energy supply can either be combined into the
building design or it can be definitely provided for the building. Currently, there are only a
small number of highly effective buildings that meet the principles to be called "Net Zero".
As a result of advances in construction skills, renewable energy systems, and academic
research, creating Net Zero Energy buildings is becoming more and more possible.

In the international context, there are four main types of NZEBs: Net Zero Site Energy, Net
Zero Source Energy, Net Zero Energy Cost and Net Zero Energy Emissions. Net Zero Site
Energy means that the annual balance is based on the grid interaction at the boundary of the
building site, i.e. the overall energy delivered to the building from the utility grid has to be
offset by the overall energy feed in to the grid. In the Net Zero Source Energy definition,
which is the one that matches the currently used by EPBD recast in a nearly zero-energy
context (EPBD 2010), the energy (delivered from and feed into the grid) has to take into
account primary energy conversion factors. Net Zero Energy Cost buildings definition is
based on a economic balance (the energy bills of a building are equivalent the amount of
money the utility pays the owner for renewable energy the building feeds to the grid) whereas
in the Net Zero Energy Emissions case, buildings produce and export at least as much
emissions-free renewable energy as they import and use from emission-producing sources on
an annual basis (Torcellini 2006)
1.2 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY
The prior motive of this research paper is to design a Net Zero Energy Residential Building. It is
much typical to understand the entire concept of a net zero energy building. As we know that the
building play important role on the energy usability and the environment which adversely affect the
development of the present years. Zero energy building design has become prior for architect and
researchers related to architectural engineering and building. A Zero energy building refers to a
building with a net energy consumption of zero over a year. In present the lack of conformist energy
sources boosts in evolving the NZEBs. According to the study a major effect of building on the total
worldwide energy feasting level i.e. around 40% of the total energy is expended by only buildings and
becoming a major main energy consumptive part of the global structure.
It is reported that 30 to 40% of all of the primary energy used worldwide is used in buildings. This
high energy use may directly or indirectly affect the environment. Also, it causes climatic changes,
degrades the environment and increases the air pollution. Hence it is necessary to reduce the energy
consumption in the building and necessary steps to be taken to make the buildings more
environmentally sustainable. In recent years, zero energy building concepts is developed to overcome
this problem. The zero-energy building uses natural energy sources to meet the energy requirements
of the building. In this work, we have carried out a study to analyze the performance of a zero-energy
building and found that it is possible to have such building in India.

Fig.1 Design of Green Building

 CHAPTER-2
LITERATURE REVIEW
1. Modeste K, Antoinette M, November 2017, A case study on nearly zero-energy
residential neighborhoods in the European Union:

This research aims to review the literature on ‘net zero-energy building’ and analyses
the possibility of applying this research on nine statistically representative
neighborhoods of the building stock in Belgium, depending on the built density. All
the areas, grouped into four categories (urban, peri-urban, suburban, and rural
neighborhoods), were used for current energy consumption analysis and to evaluate
prospective scenarios based on four major challenges, namely climate change,
building renovations, photovoltaic panels, and sustainable mobility. In addition, a new
approach combining several scenarios to further improve energy needs at the
neighborhood scale is also highlighted.

2. Roberto Giordano, Valentina Serra, May 2017, Embodied energy versus operational
energy in a nearly zero energy building case study:

Aim of this study was to assess the Embodied Energy in a NZEB case study along
with the Operational Energy, pointing out the importance of taking into account both
these aspects since the earliest design stage. Within the research activity here
presented, for accounting the EE, a worksheet was developed and implemented with
over 65 materials taken from a database carried out by the authors, in order to
encourage designers to properly manage these issues. Currently in the NZEB energy
demand calculation method the Embodied Energy is not included, despite the state-of-
the-art recognizes a relevant energy impact caused by raw materials extraction as well
as components manufacturing, product final assembly and transportation.

3. Shady Attia, Elisabeth Gratia, 12 October 2011, Simulation-based decision support

tool for early stages of zero-energy building design:

There is a need for decision support tools that integrate energy simulation into early
design of zero energy buildings in the architectural practice. Despite the proliferation
of simulation programs in the last decade, there are no ready-to-use applications that
cater specifically for the hot climates and their comfort conditions. Furthermore, the
majority of existing tools focus on evaluating the design alternatives after the decision
making, and largely overlook the issue of informing the design before the decision
making. This paper presents energy-oriented software tool that both accommodates
the Egyptian context and provides informative support that aims to facilitate decision
making of zero energy buildings.

4. E. Pikas, M. Thalfeldt, 27 August 2013, Cost optimal and nearly zero energy building
solutions for office buildings:

This paper considers possible office building fenestration design solutions which take
into account both energy efficiency and cost optimality. The analysis also looks at
alternative measures to achieve the NZEB level. It was observed that for the cold
Estonian climate, triple glazed argon filled windows with a small window to wall ratio
and walls with 200 mm thick insulation are energy efficient and cost optimal within
20 years. Achieving NZEB required the use of photovoltaic panels for generating
electricity. Existing NZEB solutions are not cost optimal, but this should change in
the near future. In conclusion, the paper proposes design guidelines for high
performance office building facades.
 CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY

3.1 A case study on nearly zero-energy residential neighborhoods in the European

Union

This research is divided into three main parts: selecting representative neighborhoods
of a regional building stock to a statistical classification, current average energy
assessment for these nine types of neighborhoods using national energy reports to
calculate their energy consumption, and study of scenarios from a 2040 prospective
on the nine selected regional neighborhoods. The main purpose is that a grid-
connected dwelling produces an equal amount of energy on site or produces excess of
annual energy demand while using the grid as a basis. Several governments see this
strategy as an innovation for developing future neighborhoods with the net zero-
energy strategy.

Case Study:

1. Studied region:

Belgium, a federal state, comprises three regions: Walloon Region (Wallonia),

Flemish Region (Flanders), and Brussels Region. Nearly 10.5% of the national
population is concentrated in the Brussels-Capital Region, which occupies a small
part of the territory (161 km2) that is equivalent to 0.5% of the area of Belgium.
Wallonia and Flanders are territories comprising small and medium-sized towns
surrounded by suburban and rural areas.

2. Methods used to assess urban density classes in Wallonia:

Wallonia occupies the southern part of Belgium and is composed of 5 provinces, 20

boroughs, 262 municipalities, and 9876 statistical sectors. The net density classes of
housing are assessed at a statistical sector level where the built net density is
established. The built net density is housing net density per urbanized hectare. The
statistical sector is a neighborhood in urban areas or a village in rural areas with more
than 150 residents. In this research, we did not consider roads, collective areas, public
green spaces and forests, but only building plots were considered. In addition, we
considered only residential buildings.

The data used are a Belgian cadastral matrix. First, we cut the matrix to only consider
the Wallonia Region using spatial join tool with the Wallonia statistical sectors shape
file. The residential buildings used in our study are 1,470,378 and are composed of six
types of buildings: 462,025 terraced houses, 434,148 semi-detached houses, 542,652
detached houses, 29,926 apartment buildings, 1495 detached castles, and 132 semi-
detached castles. For calculating the number of dwellings in each apartment building,
we considered the average area of an apartment in Wallonia to be 66.84 m2. The
residential buildings used in our study are 1,470,378 and are composed of six types of
buildings: 462,025 terraced houses, 434,148 semi-detached houses, 542,652 detached
houses, 29,926 apartment buildings, 1495 detached castles, and 132 semi-detached
castles. For calculating the number of dwellings in each apartment building, we
considered the average area of an apartment in Wallonia to be 66.84 m2. This results
 in classes of net density assessed by type of buildings in each of the 9876 statistical
sectors. The detailed methodology is presented below . Using R software, the first step
consists of separating the different types of buildings. After using R software, the data
are stored in a csv single file and are joined with the SS shape files for cartography.
The assessed housing net density classes are spatialized using Quantum GIS (QGIS)
software.

3. Energy consumption in the Walloon Region:

The factors affecting energy consumption in this region are: climatic conditions, a key
factor in household consumption, as a large part of household consumption is devoted
to heating in Wallonia; disposable income per household: according to a household
budget survey, the average real income per household in Wallonia was 7% lower than
the Belgian average in 2012; price of energy: any rise in energy costs could affect
energy demand in the neighborhoods; energy performance of the existing housing
stock; and housing facilities. Distribution of energy consumption according to
building categories is presented in Table given below.

4. Applied scenarios in the neighborhoods:

In this study, four scenarios have been retained for mitigating energy consumption in
1,537,385 dwellings studied in Wallonia: (i) scenario 1, linked to variations in climate
change in the number of degree days; (ii) scenario 2, linked to heavy and light
renovation of buildings; (iii) scenario 3, linked to photovoltaic panels; and (iv)
scenario 4, linked to mobility, with an increase in electric vehicles or a decrease in
distance travelled.

Fig. 2. Number of dwellings in Wallonia in each neighbourhood category.

 Class Housing Net Density Neighbourhood type Housing type
(number of dwellings
per ha)
1 0–4.9 Rural (Rural isolated) Individual
2 5-8.9 Rural (rural in ribbon) Individual
3 9-13.9 Rural (village Individual
periphery)
4 14–20.9 Peri-urban allotment Mixed
or small villages
5 21–31.9 Peri-urban allotment Mixed
or large villages
6 32–48.9 Suburban allotment or Mixed
centre of large villages
7 49–78.9 Suburban allotment on Mixed
the city periphery or
urban semicontinuous
8 79–137.9 Urban (urban blocks in Collective low
the city)
9 138–255.9 Urban continuous Collective
(dense urban blocks Medium
downtown
Table 1 Classes and densities of neighborhoods

Table 2 : Number of dwellings in Wallonia found in each category of neighborhood

Table 3 Energy consumption of
Class Net Terrace Semi- Detache Apartmen each housing category
Density d detache d houses ts
(ND) houses d houses
Housing Avera Heating Total
1type 0–4.9ge 26 consumptio139 803
annual 14
2 5–8.9living73 n per362 1637
energy 40
3 area208 square
9 a 13.9 681 3365
consumptio 110
` 2
[m ] meter in n per
2
4 14–20.9 418 kWh/m
1598 6576 230
dwelling
5 21–31.9 1174 3692 13,984 + 396
(heating
6 32–48.9 2282 7110 24,254 731
electricity)
7 49–78.9 12,845 35,025 111,919 3541
in
8 79– 294,576 311,005 kWh/year
367,239 64,260
Apartme
137.960.3 182.28 15,444.61
9nt 138– 150,423 74,668 14,370 27,611
Terraced
255.9 77.4 230.61 22,982.28
House
Total 85.3 239.72
462,025 434,280 25,581.37
544,147 96,933
Semi-
s
detache
d house
Detached 97.7 202.151 24,883.22
house
Table 4 Variation in energy consumption in the Walloon building stock, based on type of
neighbourhood, after applying the degree-days scenario.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Consumption in 1914.7 24.35 52.28 107.63 217.66 475.51 849.13 4030.78 24,857.00 6151.18
2012 (GWh) 1 9 2 9 1 7 9 7

Consumption in 1832.7 23.72 50.94 104.86 211.07 461.29 824.32 3910.24 24,111.82 5967.17
2020 (GWh) 5 5 7 7 6 4 6 2 5

Results and discussion:

1. Application of degree-days scenario:

The first scenario set up shows the variation in consumption as a function of the
number of degree days recorded in a year. These represent the sum over the year for
the differences between the average indoor temperatures during the heating period
and the average daily outdoor temperatures. The indoor comfort temperature is 18 ◦C
and solar gains are recorded at 3 ◦C and deducted from the internal temperature.
Therefore, degree days are determined by the difference between 15 ◦C and the daily
outdoor temperature throughout the year. Degree days are important for calculating
the evolution of heat needs since they represent the climate, and this last one has a
significant impact on buildings energy consumption.

The prospective data were carried out using a linear regression based on the
evaluation of degree days observed since the 1960s in Belgium. We used 2012 as the
reference year, which is embodied in a normal climatic year with 1914.7◦ days, and
we observed the evolution of energy consumption for three periods (2020, 2030, and
2040) depending on the evolution of degree days. The results obtained after applying
this scenario are illustrated in Table given below. Energy consumption is the highest
in neighborhood class 8, because this neighborhood category has the highest number
of dwellings in the region. After analyzing the results, it is found that application of
the degree-days scenario will allow an average reduction in energy consumption of
9.1% in 2040 (compared to 2012) in the residential building stock in Wallonia, which
would be similar in the majority of countries having the same type of climate as
Belgium (temperate).

2. Application of renovation scenarios:

The second scenario consists of the realization of light and heavy renovations within
buildings. By analyzing the current trends in the Walloon housing stock and other
countries, we obtained the following frequency (i) annual light renovation rate of
0.8%, and (ii) annual heavy renovation rate of 0.5%. It is important to note that light
renovations include roof renovation, new window frames, a thermostat, and a more
efficient heating system. Heavy renovations refer to the total energy renovation of the
 entire building (i.e., walls, roof, windows, and systems). A light renovation leads the
building to a consumption half-way between that of the ‘low energy’ criterion and
that currently observed. After analyzing results, application of the current renovation
rate in Wallonia will allow an average reduction in energy consumption of 18.19% in
2040 (heavy- and light-renovation scenario).

3. Application of photovoltaic panel scenario:

By applying this scenario to our neighborhoods, we obtain a consumption reduction in

fossil fuels of more than 4612 GWh/year. With this correction factor, we obtain new
production for solar energy slightly lower than earlier. Finally, the total energy
generation potential of photovoltaic panels on the rooftops of all residential buildings
in Wallonia amounts to 3404 GWh/year, which corresponds to 9.26% of total energy
consumption of the regional residential building stock for the reference year (2012).
The application of the photovoltaic scenario will allow an average reduction in non-
renewable energy consumption of 9.26% for the Walloon residential building stock.
This finding depends on several factors such as climate, orientation of PV, shading
effect, sunshine, etc.

4. Application of mobility scenario:

The average consumption for different transportation types in Wallonia [53] is 0.56
kWh/km for diesel vehicles, 0.61 kWh/km for gasoil vehicles, 0.585 kWh/km for an
average motor vehicle, 0.45 kWh/km for a bus, 0.15 kWh/km for a train, and 0
kWh/km for non-motorized modes of transport. Next, to calculate the annual transport
consumption for a resident we established the average consumption per kilometers
(travelled in Wallonia), which is 0.32 kWh/km. The application of the transportation
scenario will allow an average reduction in mobility energy consumption in 2040 of
65.21% with 100% of electric cars, 33.26% with 50% of electric cars, and 16.78% to
reduced-distances scenario, based on the total building stock in Wallonia.

5. Mixed scenarios:

Scenario 9 (global warming heavy renovation 100% + 100% electric cars – solar
panels) is the best of all the nine scenarios; indeed, on average, it allows to reduce up
to 91.5% of total energy consumption in 2040 in the Wallonia neighborhoods,
compared to the reference year. Scenario 9 is the only scenario that achieves nearly
zero-energy at the neighborhood scale, considering energy consumption by buildings
and daily mobility.

6. Summary of scenarios by neighborhood class:

Once all the scenarios were applied, we performed a synthesis of the latter by
neighborhood class, so as to compare them and to identify the most effective
scenarios by 2040. The results are shown in Table given below. The average
reduction in energy consumption for residential buildings in Wallonia (Belgium) in
2040 (compared to 2012) will reach 9.10% due to evolution in degree days, 18.19% to
the current annual renovation rate, 31.23% if doubling this current renovation rate,
44.41% and 88.82% with a light or heavy renovation of the entire building stock,
respectively. The application of the photovoltaic scenario (20 m2 of PV panels on
 each residential building) will allow an average reduction of 9.26% in non-renewable
energy consumption for the Walloon residential building stock for the reference year
(2012). Transport energy consumption in 2040 could be reduced by 65.21% with
100% electric cars, 33.26% with 50% electric cars, and 16.78% following a 20%
reduction for all distances travelled. The detailed reduction frequencies in energy
consumption by neighborhood class are shown in Table given below.

The study shows that it is possible to estimate the current levels of energy
consumption in the Walloon region of Belgium and propose several strategies to
reduce consumption. Analyzing data for the nine neighborhood categories that are
typically representative of the region, we have quantified energy consumption in
buildings and commuting and created scenarios to reduce them. By studying four
main scenarios and nine mixed scenarios, we highlighted the most effective levers of
action at the neighborhood scale. The same conclusions are applicable to other
European countries with the same climate and type of building stock. Also note that
the installation of photovoltaic panels is most adapted in rural and peri-urban areas,
while in urbanized areas this method is less productive because of the shadow effect.
On the contrary, increasing the number of electric vehicles (cars, trains, trams) in a
city is a good way to reduce energy consumption.

3.2. Embodied energy versus operational energy in a nearly zero energy building

The energy measures in the various stages of a products life are often related to a
“cradle-to-grave” approach. The importance to assess a building over its life cycle
refers to the need to implement closed-loop cycles in the construction sectors. Due to
the data limitations to performing the EE of products over their life cycle, in the case
study herein presented, the EE was calculated taking into account in a first phase the
“cradle-to-gate” and the “cradle-to-site” processes. The “cradle-to-gate” EE was
assumed as the Primary Energy Demand (PED) until the product leaves the factory
gate and the “cradle-to-site” EE is the PED until the product reaches the construction
site. In the analysis carried out, in a second phase, the periodic EE was taken into
account in order to analyze its impact and highlight its influence. Furthermore, the
paper was intended to calculate the materials’ Renewable Embodied Energy Ratio
(REER).

Although EE and OE are both based on the amount of PED, EE is commonly

considered once immediately after the construction stage (year zero), whereas OE
accumulates over the lifetime of a building. OE is usually measured as the energy per
unit Conditioned Floor Area (CFA; kWh/m2 yr) while EE is calculated taking into
consideration the total mass of materials required for the building construction
(kWh/kg or MJ/kg). In order to harmonize EE and OE values, it is necessary to both
annualize EE and express it on the basis of a floor surface unit. This implies making
assumptions on the lifespan of the building and properly managing the EE values
calculated for the materials used for both the CFA and the Unconditioned Floor Area.
 Fig.3 (a) Building systems sheet of IREEA ; (b) summary of results section

Based on these premises, the study was carried out in compliance with the
MINERGIE definitions and labels. The Minergie-A and Minergie-ECO standards
were adopted as references in the assessment procedure which are two rating systems
used for new and refurbished low-energy-consumption buildings. They are defined
consistently with NZEB certification. Both take into account OE and EE. The OE
considers the energy demand for heating, ventilation and hot-water production. (Plug-
loads and lighting energy demand not included). In particular, the heating demand is
assessed according to a quasi-steady state balance, based on the methodology defined
in EN ISO 13790. With regards to EE two different mandatory requirements are
provided, respectively: (
i) Minergie-A = 50 kWh/m2 yr.
ii) Minergie-ECO = 30 kWh/m2 yr.

The EE value encompasses two EEs, both of which refer to CFA. The former includes
the building envelope and the partitions. The latter involves building services (EE of
the heating systems). The EE is annualized according to the lifetime of the building
expected by the main standard (50 years). Optionally, Minergie-ECO sets out a
broader analysis by including building systems that refer to un-conditioned spaces.

Case Study:

A building project with different technical innovation levels, building assemblies and
materials was assumed as a case study and it was analyzed in order to assess the ratio
between OE and EE and monitoring the IREEA functioning. The case study, named
Sky slide tower, is an office building (fig given below) and it is located in the City of
Turin (Lat. 45.30°N, long. 7.40°E, Italian climate zone E). The Heating Degree Days
(HDD) are 2617. The mean annual solar radiation is about 4700 MJ/m2.
 Fig.4. The case study Skyslide

The building is located near Porta Nuova railway station, an urban area undergoing a
thorough renovation process. The skyscraper includes two below grade floors for the
shopping mall and 25 above grade floors of administrative offices and panoramic restaurant.
Strict environmental guidelines, asking for Reduction, Reuse and Recycling of materials
drove the design process. These 3R issues have therefore supported the concept from the very
beginning, contextually with energy efficiency strategies. The Sky slide tower was thus
designed to be an energy efficient building, through the adoption of strategies aimed at
reducing the heat transmission through the building envelopes and at exploiting and
controlling solar gains. The double façade that characterizes the building envelope plays a
thermodynamic role. The façade, hosting integrated PV panels, allows providing a high
coverage of shading in the summer months; to reducing the cooling demand; to producing the
on-site renewable energy. The main building features are displayed in table given below.

Materials with different Renewable Embodied Energy Ratio such as natural solutions with
high REER, like wood fiber/cellulose flakes insulation and recycled wood panels cladding
and mineral/synthetic solutions with low REER, like rock wool insulation, aluminum window
frames and steel cladding were selected. Regarding the glazing systems two options were
considered: wooden frame windows and aluminum frame windows. Both options mounted a
double selective low-e glazing filled with argon. Due to the minimal difference of U-value
(mainly related to glazing) it was assumed the same U-value for both the solutions (Uw= 1,05
W/m2 K).

For the last variable the U-value was defined according to the minimum values to be achieved
respectively in 2015 and 2019/21 (2019 for public buildings): 2015 (XSS_A_U2015 and
CBS_A_U2015 / XSS_B_U2015 and CBS_B_U2015); 2019/21 (XSS_A_U2021 and CBS_A_U2021
/ XSS_B_U2021 and CBS_B_U2021). Details are provided in Table given below:

The Sky slide project was therefore designed to be a building that complies with the
mandatory and current energy efficiency requirements of the whole system.
Moreover, in order to obtain a Nearly Zero Energy Building, the energy behavior was
assessed assuming a coverage of energy from renewable sources on-site
(photovoltaic) equal to 80%. The study considers as PED:
i) the extraction off combustible fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas
extracted from a stock of finite resources
ii) their transformation into secondary energy sources
iii) their transport
iv) the useful energy supplied.

Based on these assumptions kWh primary energy per year was used a reference unit
for the building energy analysis [kWh/m2 yr]. The energy analysis was conducted
taking into account the following cut-off rules:

i) The EE calculation refers to the initial EE, and the recurring EE. In particular,
the estimation procedure refers to upstream processes. Both direct and
secondary data concerning the materials and components used.
ii) The OE calculations were performed according to Italian standard UNI
TS/11300, taking into account heating, ventilation, cooling, and hot-water
production.

Results and discussion:

With regard to OE values for the eight different scenarios, an average PED was
assumed as shown in given figure. The conventional building, without the on-site
renewable energy production, has an average PED of 72 kWh/m2 yr, whilst the
Nearly ZEB building, with a RER of 82%, have a PED of 18 kWh/m2 yr. The cooling
system (PED C) represents the most important voice of the energy balance (38,16
kWh/m2 yr) with an incidence of 53% on the global value, followed up by the heating
system (PED H) accounting for the 24% (17,82 kWh/m2 yr) and the equipment for
ventilation (PED V), lighting (PED L) and domestic hot water (PED W) with a 23%
(16,02 kWh/m2 yr).

Considering the EER value there is an average increased of the total EE value of 41%,
as shown in figure given below. Based on the EE data the best scenario is the
XSS_A_U2015, with Xlam structure and natural materials. The worst-case scenario is
the CBS_B_U2021 with traditional masonry and synthetic materials. An incidence of
46% related to the materials, corresponding to 20 kWh/m2 yr, was thus obtained.

The Renewable Embodied Energy Ratio (REER) was calculated in order to study the
impacts of energy sources used in the initial and recurring EE. The Xlam (XSS_A and
XSS_B) based technology shows the higher total EE (Fig. 6) but it has the higher
REER too (50% and 38%). The REER varies in range between 19% - for the scenario
with traditional masonry and synthetic materials - and 50% - for the scenario with
Xlam structure and natural materials. By deducting the EE from renewable resources
(EERR) and focusing the analysis on the EE from non-renewable resources (EENRR)
the histogram shows that the higher impact in terms of fossil fuels depletion is due to
CBS_B scenarios. The higher EE value (EERR+EENR) is 57,13 kWh/m2 yr
(XSS_B_U2021) and the best scenario is the CBS_A_U2015 with a EENRR of 48,72
kWh/m2 yr. On the whole the REER ratio is a valuable indicator for a comparison
among materials and technologies. It enables an immediately assessment in terms of
energy impact. It might be helpful in the early design stage by laying down threshold
values within the international standards and in NZEB assessment.

Finally, by comparing the two energy components (OE and EE) of the analyzed
 buildings, conventional and Nearly ZEB, it can be noticed the different EE’s
incidence on the total amount. In the conventional building, the solution without the
production of on-site renewable energy, has an impact on the total PED (EE+OE)
ranging between 25% (24,61 of 95,65 kWh/m2 yr) and 39% (45,35 of 117,46
kWh/m2 yr), Fig. 7 (a). In the Nearly ZEB solution, instead, the EE’s impact is totally
different, varying between 57% (24,61 of 42,85 kWh/m2 yr) and 71% (45,35 of 63,61
kWh/m2 yr) of total building’s PED, Fig. 7 (b). For the analyzed case study, moving
from a conventional building to a Nearly ZEB, the average incidence of EE rises from
32% to 67%.

The paper shows some results obtained from an assessment of the mutual relevance
between EE and OE. Overall, in order to reach a nearly zero energy condition, OE has
a huge energy impact that requires to be balanced by the implementation on
renewable sources for thermal needs and electricity feeds.

Building features Skyslide project

Building type Office building
Gross Conditioned Floor Area (CFA) 22.160 m2
Useful floor area 19.046 m2
Number of stories above ground (conditioned) 25
Average floor-to-floor height 3,5 m
Surface area-to-volume ratio 0,29 m-1
Table 5 Reference building features

Table 6 Building envelope and building service performances

3.3 A case study on Simulation-based decision support tool for early stages of
zero-energy building design 

In order to test the validity and usability of the tool we took two measures. First use a
case study as an example how a hypothetical design concept would be developed and
to discuss how the results generated by the tool are sufficiently accurate for the NZEB
design. Second use a usability testing study.

Table 7 : The six main building design aspects of NZEBs design.

To test the validity of the proposed tool of ZEBO, we present a hypothetical design
example for an apartment in a narrow front housing block in Cairo. The user selects a
building type, and the weather file for Cairo, Then the user has to select the targeted
standard for minimum performance. The choice of standard determines many of the
defaults and assumptions that go into the simulation model. The tool is currently
limited to the Residential Energy Standard ECP306-2005-I. For this case the Egyptian
standard was chosen. The tool then automatically loads a complete Energy Plus input
file for a single zone with complete geometry description that complies with the
Egyptian building energy and thermal indoor environment standard.

Fig 5 : Classification of BPS Tools pre- and post-design decisions

The user can change the building geometry, including the height, floor plan
dimensions and number of floors in the building, in addition to the other input
parameters mentioned earlier. for this case study we chose not to make any changes
and run the default file to create a base case.
 Fig 6 : Evolution of BPS Tools in the last 10 years

Performing sensitivity analysis:

This step introduces designers to the impact of varying the parameter values prior to
the decision making. The sensitivity analysis results form the basis for informed
decision making. Opposite to the classical design approach, where simulation is used
as a post decision evaluative tool, the designer is informed on the impact of his or her
decision prior to the decision making. 

Fig 7 : Architects ranking the most important features of a simulation tool

In this case study we chose to examine the wall construction type. Upon selecting the
PA checkbox next to the Wall Construction Type a new window pops up asking the
user to confirm his choice, which will require the running of 8 files for at least 2 min.
Upon confirmation, the results are generated by Energy Plus and the output is
presented. Based on the sensitivity analysis results, the designer is encouraged to
select the most energy saving wall construction type. Once the output is displayed, the
user can move on to the photovoltaic tool module. This step is done as a last step
where five inputs (location, PV type, panel tilt, panel orientation, panel efficiency) are
requested to optimise the electrical yield. Thus, ZEBO allows the designers to explore
further parameter variations while indicating the optimal value in relation to energy
consumption. The designer then makes an informed design decision and enters the
decision as an input and reruns the whole simulation. ZEBO also  allows the architect
to easily make multiple informed decisions at once and run the simulation button.
Energy Plus actuates the latest changes and the result is presented.

Results validity:

Based on the sensitivity results the wall construction with the lowest energy
consumption was selected. The case results show that the tool decision support brings
significant savings without any time for design iterations. This helps to extend the
application of sensitivity analysis to guide the decision making before the building is
designed using appropriate energy principles.

Fig 8 : Reference model and output plots

Usability testing:

Two main iterations of usability testing have been carried out during the development
of prototype 1 and 2 of ZEBO. This was done to achieve feedback from designers and
potential users. Each usability iteration included two test types-

The first was a simple paper-based usability questionnaire. System Usability Scale
(SUS), as defined by the standard, was used to enhance and validate the tool [37]. To
guarantee the internal validity of the test a set of 10 ordinary (pre-defined) SUS
questions were used. The analysis of the responses was based on the reporting
framework
 Fig 9 : Barriers of decision making during early design stages

The second was a usability metric testing, measuring the task success. The aim was to
measure how effectively users are able to complete a given set of tasks. Two different
types of task success were used: binary success and levels of success. From the
analysis some main strengths and limitations were revealed. Overall, the reactions
were particularly positive on the tool’s effectiveness. From the analysis it emerged
that there is a great potential for the interface.

Table 8 : Classification of BPS tools allowing design evaluation and design guidance

Results and discussion:

1. Summary of main findings:

The simulation-based design support tool was found to promote informed decision
making for zero energy building design during early design stages. It increased the
knowledge about the zero-energy building design lessened the uncertainty of decision
making. Congruence between decision making and design objective in the context of
higher knowledge accords with our definition of informed decision making of ZEB
design.
 This is the first simulation-based decision support tool for early stages of zero energy
building design in Egypt. The tools’ strength is its capacity to inform design prior to
decision making, while managing large sensitivity simulations and presenting
complex data in easily comprehensible, fast and comparative formats. The tool is easy
to use, with an interface structure that is based on matching the passive and active
design strategies for the net zero objectives. ZEBO’s strength is in its capacity to
reduce decision conflict and the need for tedious design iterations to achieve the
performance objective, while creating a variety of alternatives in a short time, which
match the early design cyclic explorations and iterations.

2. Comparison with existing tools:

A recent publication by the author proves that most existing informative tools are
exclusively local serving certain countries’ context. Most BPS tools are developed in
heating dominated countries. They cater for developed countries with high energy
consumption patterns and different expectations for comfort. The main barriers in
using those tools are related to the availability and compatibility of input data
including weather, comfort models, building benchmarks, renewable systems, and
operational characteristics. None of these tools, however, addressed the zero-energy
target in a context of a hot climate developing country as in our tool.

3. Future research:

ZEBO is a starting point to provide better guidance for design decisions to deliver
NZEBs in hot climates. The tool in its current state has significant limitations and
designers will still require more information in order to make informed decisions. For
better usability, the tool can include a fully visual input interface and allows users to
add new building templates for new building types or case studies. It can have T-
shape, H-Shape, U-shaped and courtyard shaped templates, or even better integrate an
OpenGL modeller. Also, the interface can be expanded to include more building
systems and components, especially different envelope types and cooling systems at
different cities in Egypt using suitable COPs (coefficient of performance). Also, the
scope of the tool can be extended further to
achieve the net zero objective for existing
buildings or on a larger scale.

Fig 10: Tool workflow scheme

Fig 11 : The flowchart of ZEBO

Fig 12 : Binary success data for performing simulation

Table 9 : Reference model and output plots
3.4 Cost optimal and nearly zero energy building solutions for office buildings:

Overall research design:

In the present study, a step-wise approach was used to derive the energy and cost
optimal solutions. This helped to reduce the vast number of possible combinations.
Each step led to a consecutive one in the selection of simulation cases. The basis for
the simulation was an open-plan generic single office floor model divided into 5
zones.
The office was operated five days in a week from 7:00 to 18:00. Day lighting control
systems were used to optimize electricity consumption together with motorized
shading in the second stage of this study. For more detailed information, see the
paper. Models were simulated using IDA-ICE 4.5 and a test reference year for
Estonia.

Table 10 : Glazing investment cost per m2

Window sizes and insulation thicknesses were considered variables. Window sizes
were calculated in the joint-research paper. For the calculation, the sill height and
window height were constants, and window width was a variable, to satisfy the
requirement of the daylight factor, which was set to 2%. In all, six different glazing
types were selected for the first round of simulations with the aim of selecting optimal
insulation thicknesses. In the following step, each facade was considered separately
using the results of the first step to identify energy and cost-efficient solutions.

In total, if do not consider the input and the output of research methodology, three
steps were used to determine cost optimal and NZEB levels, including:
1. Determination of optimal external wall insulation thickness. 
2. Assessment of cost optimal and most energy efficient solutions for each facade.
3. Calculation of optimal PV panel size to achieve NZEB level.
 Fig 13 : Perspective view of generic single floor of office building

Building energy performance related initial investment costs and energy cost
calculations:

Investment cost calculations for windows were based on offers from three Estonian
manufacturers. The manufacturers were provided with a list of window types required
for this study. Only windows with clear low emissivity glazing were used. A low
emissivity coating was used in the gaps between the panes.

Fig 14 : Research methodology

financially the most sensible window type would be either triple glazing with argon
filling or quadruple glazing with krypton filling. The reason is that double windows
and triple glazing with air filling cost approximately as much as triple glazing with
argon filling, but triple glazing is more energy efficient.

The type of wall selected for the research was the concrete sandwich panel, being one
of the most typical solutions found in Estonian office buildings. For quantity
extraction, models were prepared in a building information modelling application.
The structural layer and outer layer of the selected element type were kept constant,
and insulation thickness was made a variable.
The addition of external shading was also analysed, except in the case of the north
facing facade. Unit costs for motorized shading systems were provided by a local
reseller. Front-mounted external venetian blinds with 80 mm flat slats were used.
Windows with quintuple glazing and aWWR (window to wall ratio) of 60% required
three sets of blinds each. The other windows were each fitted with one properly sized
set of blinds. Unit prices for the motorized blinds include materials, installation and
project management costs.

Table 11 : Insulation thicknesses, U-values and investment costs of external wall

Unit costs for solar PV panels were provided by a local reseller. The aim of adding
solar panels was to make it possible to analyse the cheapest solution for achieving the
NZEB level (≤100 kWh/(m2 a) in Estonia) for the office building.
The unit cost of the PV panel system included materials, installation, connection to
the power grid, and taxes. As our goal was to study cost and energy efficient office
building fenestration design solutions and to achieve the NZEB level, energy efficient
HVAC solutions remained fixed.
 Fig 16 : Average interest rates from entrepreneur to entrepreneur

PV panel sizing:

Primary energy for four cases capable for NZEB performance level was simulated,
and the necessary PV-panel area was calculated so that the annual primary energy
would be ≤100 kWh/m2. PV panels selected for this study have 10% efficiency with
production of 107 kWh/m2. These values are kept constants for calculating PV panel
size, which is a variable. These cases were simulated with the top floor model of the
office building including the roof (instead of the generic single floor model), which
was used to describe the whole building. With the top floor model, the delivered and
primary energy were increased by a factor of about 1.2, which was to be a slightly
safe side estimate when assessing the whole building results from the generic single
floor model. Surplus electricity produced would be sold to the main grid. The selling
price of electricity was not the same as its cost. The NPV calculations required
calculating the proportion of electricity used in the building. The percentage was
calculated by comparing hourly consumption to simulated hourly PV production, i.e.,
hourly load matching calculations were carried out.

Table 12 : Shading costs depending on the size of the window

 Fig 17 : The cost of window components (profile and glazing) per window size

Fig 18 : Specific window cost as a function of window size

NPV calculations and selection of interest rate:

In order to identify cost optimal solutions at every stage, total investment cost and
NPV were calculated. The global incremental energy performance related cost was
calculated as a sum of the energy performance related construction cost and
discounted energy cost for 20 years, including all electrical and heating energy
consumption. The energy performance related construction cost, which does not
include the basic cost of construction, was used to compare alternative design
solutions that affect the energy performance of buildings. In every step, the global
 incremental cost for energy performance was calculated relative to the reference
solution:

 Cg = Cref g/ Afloor − CI + Ca · fpv (n)/Afloor  

Where:
Cg -global incremental energy performance related cost included in the calculations,
NPV, D /m2. CI- energy performance related construction cost included in the
calculations, D.
Ca -annual energy cost during the starting year, D.
fpv(n) -present value factor for the calculation period of n years.
Cref g -reference fenestration design solution’s global energy performance related
cost, NPV, D /m2. 
Floor- heated net floor area, m2. 

To calculate the present value factor fpv(n), the real interest rate RR must be
calculated. RR depends on the market interest rate R and inflation rate Ri:

RR = R − Ri /1 + (Ri/100)

fpv(n) = 1 − 1 + (RR − e)/100-n /(RR − e)/100

where:
RR the real interest rate, 
% e escalation of the energy prices (%).
n the number of years considered, i.e., the length of the calculation period.

Table 13 : Investment cost of insulation thickness and glazing type combinations per
square meter of heated area

Results and discussion:

1. Window–wall cost ratio analysis: 

The study of window costs revealed that from a cost perspective it was preferable to
use windows with a larger glazing area, as the cost of profile and energy loss is
significant compared to that of glazing. Quintuple glazing was not considered in this
analysis as it was not available as a standard product. The cost differences between
windows up to triple glazing were marginal but on average a window with four panes
was 41% more expensive than a window with three panes,
 In order to find a balance between insulation thicknesses and glazing types, the
investment cost of facade element combinations was compared to the energy cost and
primary energy of each combination,

2. Selecting optimal range for insulation thicknesses:

A clearer picture of the relationship between initial investment and energy cost per
year is provided which shows that the more we invest, the better the energy
performance we should potentially achieve. The determination of the proper
insulation thickness for window types in – 1 Double glazing windows in NPV is
calculated against reference design solutions: 150 mm insulation and double-glazing
windows.

The results indicate that triple glazing windows perform better in terms of cost and
energy efficiency, while up to triple glazing there are no substantial differences
between costs. Taking a closer look, we see that triple glazing with argon filling
performed better than triple glazing with air filling. Compared with the other
solutions, this solution offers the best investment and energy performance ratio. The
next sensible solution is a window with four panes and 250 mm thick insulation, as it
offers better energy performance than a window with triple glazing and 390 mm thick
insulation

The combinations selected for a more detailed analysis in the following steps are
circled red in NPV is calculated against reference design solution:
150 mm insulation and double-glazing windows.
Triple glazing with argon filling and 200 mm thick insulation–cost optimal.
Quadruple glazing with krypton filling and 250 mm thick insulation–relevant for four
panes glazing. 
Quintuple glazing with krypton filling and 390 mm thick insulation–the most energy
efficient. 

3. Developing cost and energy efficient solutions:

In this step, orientation specific simulation cases were conducted. For selected cases,
energy and cost calculations were repeated over the optimal range of WWR with and
without external shading systems with the aim of determining energy and cost optimal
solutions. A shading system for the north facing facade was not considered. The peaks
in investment cost and energy cost per year represent the added investment cost of
shading systems and added energy cost of additional lighting needs. In most cases, it
can be seen that adding shading is not economically reasonable, except in the case of
the west facing facade, where energy cost decreased when shading was added with
every added pane, NPV increases as well, due to the additional investment need, as in
the case of shading.
Fig 19 : The interdependency of initial investment and energy cost per year

Table 14 : Electricity use and generation profile in the nZEB office building

Table 15 : Comparison of selected solutions for PV panel calculation