Preface

This book being complied to assist teachers in internationally standardized school for
high school not ably for year X.
All activities are designed to support teacher’s competence in teaching chemistry subject
using English as mean of communication.

Many Indonesian teacher’s are teach in sources to develop their material base on
international content, So these books offer them a change to develop their English skill i e ,
listening, speaking, reading and writing.

These books has been produce in collaboration with other Internationally

Standardization Senior High school lecturer from local University who have years of
experience in teaching English as a foreign language. We owe particular thanks to the
following :
 our head master, Drs Dayono, for his support
 our facilitator, Dra Erminawati, Msi , for his tutor and support

This book includes (material)

 Atomic Structure , Periodic System and Chemical Bonds
 Naming compounds, Balance Equation, and Stoichiometry
 Examples Problems

Hope this book will give be nevoid

Dra . Sri Rahayu

CHAPTER I
 -

ATOMIC STRUCTURE, PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENT AND

CHEMICAL BONDING

Standard Competency : 1. Understand Atomic structure, periodicity characteristics, and chemical

bonds
Competency Standard : 1.1.Understand atomic structure based on Bohr Theory, elements
characteristic, relative mass, periodicity characteristics, and understand
the regularity

Indicator : - Understand the Periodic Table development and identify its

superiorities and limitations
- Explain how elements are grouped
- Determine atomic particles (proton, electron and neutron)
- Determine electron configuration and valence electron
- Determine relative mass using periodic table.
- Classify elements into isotop, isobar and isoton.
- Classify elements into metal, non-metal and metalloid.
- Analyze table, graph, to determine the regularity of atomic radius,
ionization energy, electron affinity, and electronegativity
- Explain the Atomic Theories development to identify the superiority
and limitations based on experiments

Introduction

Finding the regularity of nature is an important aspect of scientific human activities. As the
pioneer of modern chemistry, Boyle is the first person who defined that element is a substance
and that cannot be further chemically divided into two or more substances. Hence, people can
draw a conclusion that elements comprise definite characteristic and there is a similarity among
the elements. Then there is a finding that the similarity emerges regularly and periodically if the
elements are arranged based on their relative atomic mass. This regularity known as a
periodicity is put into a table called Periodical System.
This Periodical System can be used for systemizing a number of facts about the characteristic of
element and compound so that chemistry can be easily studied.

A. Atomic Structure

According to John Dalton, atom is the smallest particle of a substance that cannot be divided
further more. However based on the newer research the chemists find that atom is formed by
3 basic particles, i.e. proton, electron and neutron.

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Particle Mass Charge Symbol

10
Proton 1 sma +1
+1 pe
−1
0
Electron 0.00054 sma -1
1n
Neutron 1 sma 0

Proton and neutron are in the core of the atom, whereas electron is surrounding the atom.
How do basic particles form atom? Experts like Thomson and Rutherford have conducted
some experiments about model of atom.

I. The Relation between The Number of Atom, Proton, and Neutron in Atom
1. The Number of Atom
+
+ +

+ +
+ +
+ +
+
+ +
+
Atom Number H=1 Atom Number C=6
Proton = 1 Proton = 6
Electron = 1 Electron = 6
Neutron = 0 Neutron = 6
How is the correlation between proton, neutron, electron and the atomic number ?
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………

2. The number of mass

+ + + +
+ +
6p, 6n 7p, 7n

+
+ + + +
+ +
If the symbol of the element is described X where:
X = The symbol of atom
A = The number of mass
Z = The number of atom

Write the correlation between atomic mass, proton and neutron!

………………………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………

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Assignment:
1. Discuss what is the difference between the number of mass and the mass of atom!
2. Why the number of mass is always integer, whereas the mass of atom can be group
number?
Exercise
1. Complete the following table

Atomic Atomic The number of

Element Symbol
Number mass Proton Electron Neutron
A ….. 16 8 ….. …..
B 7 ….. ….. ….. 7
C ….. 35 ….. 17 …..
D ….. ….. ….. ….. …..
E 15 31 ….. ….. …..

2. The following is a figure of an atom.

Question:
a. How many protons, electrons dan neutrons are
there?
b. Determine the number of the atom and the mass!
c. Write the symbol of the atom!

proton = ....................
electron = ....................
neutron = ...................
The number of atom = ...................
The mass of atom = ...................
Electron the symbol of atom = ...................

Proton

Neutron

II. Electron Configuration

Look at the figure of atomic arrangement!.

1.
Jumlah elektron maksimum pada kulit-kulit:
K = ________________elektron
18e
L = ________________ elektron
2e
8e M = ________________ elektron

The core of atom in positive charge

1e

2e
4e
1e 8e 2e
A B C

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 -
2.
Atom Layers Electron Valence
Element
Number Configuration Electron
K L M
1 1
A ............ ............ ............ ............

B ............ ............ ............ ............ 2, 4 4

C ............ ............ ............ ............ 2, 8, 1 1

Exercise 1
1. Arrange the electron konfiguration of the following elements and determine the valence
elektron of the configuration!
Valence
Name of Atom Number Electron Configuration
Electron
Elements
Berilium 4 ............................................ .......
Karbon 6 ............................................ .......
Oksigen 8 ............................................ .......
Neon 10 ............................................ .......
Natrium 11 ............................................ .......
Magnesium 12 ............................................ .......
Fosfor 15 ............................................ .......
Bromin 35 ............................................ .......

2. Make elektron conviguration from following ions.

2−
a. O (Z = 8) = ........................ f. K+ (Z = 19) = ........................
−
b. F 2+
(Z = 9) = .......................... g. Ca (Z = 20) = .......................
−
c. Na+ (Z = 11) = .......................... h. Cl (Z = 17) = .......................
2−
d. Al3+ (Z 13) = .......................... i S (Z = 16) = ........................

B. History of Periodic Table of Element

In groups, the students conduct a literature study about the development of the
periodical table of element, and present the result of the study in accordance with the form of
the following material:
The elements in the nature that have been found reach a hundred and they have different
characteristic. Experts have tried to classify the elements based on their characteristic. One
of them was Mendeleyev, a Russian chemist who built the first periodical system in 1889.
Based on this periodical system, other chemists get the progress in developing the periodical
system as used nowadays.
The periodical system is described as the result of the elements classification in which if the
elements are put in order the sequence of the elements becomes very long. The sequence is
then cut in certain places and the cuts of the sequence is stringed up in form of table
3 4 9 12 13 14 16
1 2 L B 5 6 7 8 10 11 M A S 15 17 18
H He N C N O Ne Na P Cl Ar
i e F g l i S

  

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The following is the technique in writing the elements in the periodical system:

12 6
: Relative mass of atom
C12 C : Element Symbol
6 : The number of atom
Carbon: The name of the element
Carbon
n
In the exercise below you will learn how to classify the elements made by chemists in the
past.
1. Triade Debereiner:
Compare the mass of the element in the middle with the mass of the 1st and the 3rd elements
in every group respectively!

17 35.5 19 39.1 15 31
Cl K K

35 79.9 37 85.4 35 74
Br Rb As
53 126.9 53 132.9 53 121
I Cs Sb

The Data Processing:

………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………..
The conclusion of the data above is:
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………
Explain the regulation, found by Wolfgang Dobereiner, which is well known as Triade
Dobereiner!
………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………
2. Octave Law
J. Newlands (1863) sorted the elements based on their mass. Apparently he found a
similarity among the elements as follow:

Li Be B C N O F Na Mg Al Si P S Cl K

Explain the regularity found by J. Newlands, which is known as Octave Law!

………………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………

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3. Mendeleyev Periodical System (Short Periodical Arrangement)
Demitri Ivanovic Mendeleyev (1869)in Russia and Lothar Mayer in Germany separately
presented their finding that if the elements are arranged based on their increasing atomic
mass, then the characteristic of the elements will recur periodically.
Periodical System in the form of table was newly introduced by Mendeleyev and there were
only 60 elements known at that time.
a. Mendeleyev was still 21 years old at that time
b. He became the professor of chemistry in St. Peterberg in the age of 32
c. Not long after that his finding was published
The following is the periodical system made by Mendeleyev and published in 1872.

Table 1. Mendeleyev Periodical System

In this periodical system there are some empty places served for the elements that have not
been found. Mendeleyev predicted the elements that have not been found based on the
characteristic of the element of the same group, and apparently his prediction was right.

4. Modern Periodical System of Elements (Long Periodical System)

Henry Moseley (1914) developed Mendeleyev periodical system and found a modern
periodical system of elements that was based on a law that the characteristic of elements is
periodical function of atom number – not the mass of atom. In 1985 International Union of
Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) issued a modern periodical system. . This system
contained 16 groups of elements in vertical order with the elements of the similar
characteristic in every group. There are 2 categories of group; group A is the main group
consisting of representative elements, group B is the group containing transitional elements.
Every category has 8 groups.

Make a research about modern periodical system in groups. Discuss and write any important
information you find!
Based on the literature study and the description above:
o Compare the system of elements classification from Triade Dobereiner to modern
periodical system.
o Make a conclusion about what base or reason they used to classify the elements.
………………………………………………………………………………………………….
.
………………………………………………………………………………………………….
.
………………………………………………………………………………………………….
.
………………………………………………………………………………………………….
.
………………………………………………………………………………………………….
.
……………………………………………………………………………………………

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C. MODERN PERIODICAL SYSTEM

Modern Periodical System is developed based on Mendeleyev’s finding. At present there

are several forms of periodical system but the form that is frequently used is the Long
Periodical System. If we study the system intentionally we can find that the arrangement of
the elements can be related to the configuration of the electron in atom. According to this
fact, Periodic Law can be identified differently that the characteristic of the elements has
direct relation with the configuration or the structure of the electron in element atom.
Elements in periodical system can be grouped horizontally, called period, and vertically,
called group

Basic Competence
Comprehending the structure of atom based on the atomic theory of Bohr, the nature of
element, relative mass of atom, and the periodical nature of element in periodical tables and
also understanding its regularity, by understanding the electron configuration.

Indicators
- Determining the relation between electron configuration and the placement of element in
periodical table.
- Determining relative atomic mass based on the periodical table.
- Classifying elements into isotope, isobar and isoton.
- Classifyng element into metal, non metal and metalloid
- Analyzing table, graphic to determine the regularity of atom radius, ionization energy,
afinity of electron and electronegatifity.

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 -

I. Period and Element Group in Element Periodical System

In-group, use element periodical system to complete the following table and answer the
question!
The
Atomic Electron The number Valence
Symbol of Group Period
Number Configuration of layers electron
atom
H .......... ............................. .......... .......... .......... ..........
Li 3 2, 1 2 1 IA 2
Na .......... ............................. .......... .......... ..........
Be .......... ............................. .......... .......... ..........
Mg .......... ............................. .......... .......... ..........
Ca .......... ............................. .......... .......... ..........
N .......... ............................. .......... .......... ..........
P .......... ............................. .......... ..........

Based on the data in the table above explain the definition of group and period!
Group : ………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
Period : ………………………………………………………………………………

Specific names of element group in periodical system:

Group I A = ………………………… Group I B to VII B = ………………….
Group II A = ……………………….. Elements group with:
Group VI A = ………………………. Atomic number 57 to 71 = ……………..
Group VIII A = …………………….. Atomic number 89 to 103 = ……………

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Relative Mass of Atom, Isotope, and Isotones
One important thing in the Element Periodical Table is the Relative Mass of Atom. IUPAC
has recommended the use of the term relative mass of atom substituting the term atomic
weight. The chemistry books published in the beginning of 80’s began using the term
relative mass of atom symbolized by Ar.
Atom is very small and light in size. The mass of one hydrogen atom is 1.66 X 10-24 grams
and one carbon atom is 1.99 X 10-23 grams. To make it easy in chemical calculation we use
relative mass of atom. Relative mass of atom is the result of the comparison between the
atomic mass of element and the standard mass of atom (comparator)
According to the international agreement in 1960, since 1961 carbon has been used as the
12
standard. Based on this scale the isotope mass of carbon, 6C is specified 12 units.
There are two matters necessarily noted in this scale, i.e.:
1. The scale of the relative mass of atom is purely uncertain.
2. Relative mass of atom does not have units, because it is not the real atomic mass, but
relative mass of any standard
The relative mass of an element is the average mass of an element atom based on the
12
abundance of the isotope relatively compared with 1/12 isotope mass of C-12 ( 6C ).

massarata−rataatomX
Ar
X= 1/12 massaisotopC −12

Note:
1/12 mass of isotope C-12 is equal to 1/12 of 12 unit atomic mass, it is equal to 1 atomic
mass unit.
Note that most of the elements in the universe consists of isotopes with certain abundance.
Study the following data to get the definition of isotope

Unsur Isotop Based on the three isotope symbols of hydrogen,

carbon dan oxygen, make a conclusion about the
1 2 definition of isotop!
Hydroge 1H 1H
, ,
n 3
1H
Carbon
12 13
6C , 6C ,
Oxygen 14
6C
16 17
8O , 8O ,
18
8O

Example:
Determine the average mass of atom and relative mass of atom boron, if in the nature of
boron there are 2 isotopes with the following abundance:
10 11
5B has 20%, dan 5B has 80%

Solution:
1) Avarage Mass of atom boron:
= (the mass of isotop B-10 x the abundance) + (the mass of isotop B-11 x the
abundance)
= (10 sma x 20%) + (11 sma x 80%)
= 2 sma + 8,80 sma
= 10,80 sma
Therefore , the avarage mass of atom boron = 10,80 sma

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2) Relative Mass of Atom (Ar) Boron:

Average Mass of atom B

Ar B =
1/12 mass of isotop C-12

10 ,80 sma
=
1 sma
=
10 ,80
1
= 10,80
So, the relative mass of atom Boron is 10,80

Based on the description above , write your conclusion about the informasi of relative mass of
atom as described in the element periodical table!
........................................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................................
..........................................................

Isobar and Isotones

Conduct a study on the following data to get the definition of isobar and isotones
Exp.of Isobar: Based on the example, write the definition of isobar!
14 ______________________________________________________
6C and ______________________________________________________
14
7N

Exp.of Isoton: Based on the example, write the definition of isotones!

13 ______________________________________________________
6C and
14 ______________________________________________________
7N

Metal and non-metal in the periodical system.

The elements in the universe consist of metal, non-metal and the elements that have the
characteristic of both metaland non-metals called metaloid. To learn the classification of
metals, and non-metal, there are two data as follow that can be used, the data of the
passing energy of electrics and the melting point of some elements in the periodical
system.
1.
a. The passing energy of electrics of elements in the 3rd period:

Unsur Na Mg Al S P

Daya hantar Baik baik baik tidak baik tidak baik

b. The melting point

Unsur Li Be B C N O F Ne

Melt point 181 1278 2300 3550 -210 -218 -220 -249
(oC)

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Unsur Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar

Melt point 98 649 660 1410 44 119 -101 -169

(oC)

Based on the data, How do the characteristic of metal and non-metal

change?

2. Make a graphic of the melting point of the elements in the tables above!

As a whole in the periodical system of elements, the comparison between metaland non-
metal can be classified as follow:
IA VIIIA
IIA IIIAIVA VA VIA VIIA

NON
METAL
METAL

Look at the periodical system you have got! Based on the scheme above determine the
elements that limit the metals and non-metals in every period!
Periode 2 = ........... Periode 5 = ...........
Periode 3 = ........... Periode 6 = ...........
Period 4 = ...........

II. Some Periodical Characteristics of Elements

1. The Radius of Atom
The distance between the core of the atom and the outer electron is called radius of
atom. It is determined by measuring the distance between the core in covalence
compounds by using x ray diffraction. To know the periodicity of the radius of atom of
the elements, study the following table!

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Table 1. The radius of atom of the main group ( in A; Angstrom)

Gol IA II A III A IV A VA VI A VII A VIII A

Per
H He
1 0,30 1,20
Li Be B C N O F Ne
2 1,23 0,89 0,80 0,77 0,74 0,74 0,72 1,60
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
3 1,57 1,36 1,25 1,17 1,10 1,04 0,99 1,91
K Ca Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
4 2,03 1,74 1,25 1,22 1,21 1,14 1,14 2,00
Rb Sr In Sn Sb Te I Xe
5 2,16 !,19 1,50 1,40 1,41 1,37 1,33 2,20
Cs Ba Ti Pb Bi Po At Rn
6 2,35 1,98 1,55 1,46 1,52

Based on the table above, Explain the periodicity of the radius aof atom in one period:
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
in one group:
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

2 .Ionization Energy
Ionization Energy or potential ionization is a minimum energy needed to release one
electron weakest bound in neutral atom of gas. The second ionization energy is the
minimum energy needed to release one electron from charged ion (1+) in gas.
Ionization energy is defined in kJ per mol.
The factors influencing the ionization energy of element is the size of atom, the core
charge, screening effect of electron in inner trajectory of electron and the type of
orbital occupied by the electron that will be released. The factors usually influence to
each other. In small atom, electron is bound relatively strongly, whereas in bigger
atom the bound is relatively weaker. The amount of the trajectory of the electron also
influences the ionization energy. The existence of electrons in inner trajectory will
protect the attraction of the core of the atom toward the electron.
If one electron has released one of its electrons, the second release of electron needs
more energy than the first. In some elements a data of experiment has been gained
that there is a difference between the second ionization energy and the first
ionization energy, or the third and the second that are very strong
Look at the first ionization energy of the following elements:
Table 2. The first ionization energy of the main elements in eV; electro Volt

(1 eV equal to 23,06 k kal/mol)

Gol I A II A III A IV A VA VI A VII A VIII A

Per
H He
1 13,6 24,6
Li Be B C N O F Ne
2 5,4 9,3 8,3 11,3 14,6 13,6 17,4 21,6
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
3 5,1 7,6 6,0 8,2 11,0 10,4 13,0 15,7
K Ca Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
4 4,3 6,1 6,0 8,1 10,0 9,8 11,8 14,0
Rb Sr In Sn Sb Te I Xe
5 4,2 5,7 5,8 7,3 8,6 9,0 10,4 12,1

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Cs Ba Ti Pb Bi Po At Rn
6 3,9 5,2 6,1 6,1 8,0 10,8

Based on the data, explian the tendency of the ionization energy of the elements in
one:
Period:
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

Group:
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

Question
The first and the second ionization energy of lithium element (Li) are respectively
520kJ/mol and 7297 kJ/mol. Whereas the first and the second ionization energy of
beryllium element (Be) are respectively 900 kJ/mol and 1757 kJ/mol. Why does a
very big difference of ionization energy between the first and the second ionization
energy happen?

3.Electron Affinity
The process of capturing electron by a neutral atom in gas of negative ion will be
followed by the change of energy. In atom the process is followed by release of
energy. But in other atom the process is evenly followed by capturing of energy.
The change of energy following the addition of electron in a neutral atom of gas to
gain the negative ion is called electron affinity. Electron affinity is positive (+) if the
energy is captured and negative (-) if released.
The energy absorbed or released in the process of capturing the electron is connected
to the stability of negative ions gained. If the negative ions tend to be relatively
stable in its atom, the energy will be released so that the affinity of the electron is
negative. But if the negative ion gained is evenly less stable than the atom, the
energy will be absorbed so the affinity of electron is positive.
Look at the affinity of electron in the following table!

Tabel 3. Affinity of element electron of the main group (kJ/mol)

Gol IA II A III A IV A VA VI A VII A

Per
H
1 -73
Li Be B C N O F
2 -60 +100 -27 -122 +9 -141 -328
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
3 -53 +30 -44 -134 -72 -200 -348
K Ca Ga Ge As Se Br
4 -48 - -30 -120 -77 -195 -325
Rb Sr In Sn Sb Te I
5 -47 - -30 -121 -101 -190 -295
Cs Ba Ti Pb Bi Po At
6 -47 - -30 -110 -110 -183 -270

Based on the above table, Explain the tendency of the value of electron affinity of
elements in one:
Periode:
_____________________________________________________________________

Group:
_____________________________________________________________________

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4.Electronegatifity
Electronegativity is the number showing the tendency of neutral atom in stable
molecule to attract electron used together. Bigger electronegatifity, tends to be
stronger in attracting the electron. The size of ionization energy and the affinity of
electron can by used to measure the electronegatifity of elements.
In general, small atoms tend to be stronger in attracting electrons than bigger atoms.
Moreover, an atom of which the trajectory of the electron is full of electrons tends to
have stronger electronegatifity than the other atom that has poor electron in its
trajectory.
Look at the table of electronegatifity of elements of the main group below!
Table 4. Electronegatifity (Pauling Scale)
Gol IA II A III A IV A VA VI A VII A
Per
H
1 2,1
Li Be B C N O F
2 1,0 1,5 2,0 2,5 3,0 3,5 4,0
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
3 0,9 0,2 1,5 -1,8 2,1 2,5 3,0
K Ca Ga Ge As Se Br
4 0,8 1,0 1,6 1,8 2,0 2,4 2,8
Rb Sr In Sn Sb Te I
5 0,8 1,0 1,7 1,8 1,9 2,1 2,55
Cs Ba Ti Pb Bi Po At
6 0,7 0,9 1,8 1,8 1,9 2,0 2,2
Fr Ra
7 0,7 0,9

1. Based on the table above, explain the tendency of electronegatifity of elements

in one:
Period:
__________________________________________________________________
Group:
____________________________________________________________
______
____________________________________________________________
______
2. If element A is more electronegative thean element B, determine which dirrection
the pair of eletron will be attracted to in molecule AB!
____________________________________________________________

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Exercise:
Complete the following cross puzzle!

2
1
3 4 5              

6               7
    8      
9               10        
         
11                                  
         
  12  

13   14                  

15         16      

17              

      18              

       

19     20

21                        

Horizontal
5. Non-metal easily found in mountain
6. Group I A
9. Solid Element of group VII A
10
. Element able to pass electric
11
. Ability to attract electrons
13
. Easy to release 2 electrons
16
. The base of mendeleyev periodical system
17
. Having 6 electron
18
. In salt
19
. The most reactive element in group I A
21
. Located between group II A and III A

Vertical
1. Highest in its electronegatifity
2. Energy needed to release electron
3. Elements needed to form salt
4. Its electron configuration is 2, 6
7. Weight metal
8. vertical column in periodical system
12
. Stable in its electron configuration
13
. Glory metal

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 -
14
. Group VII A, period 3
15 Periodical system
. according to Newlands
20
. The highest melting point of element in period 3

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D. CHEMICAL BONDING

Basic of Competency :
Compare the formation process of ionic, Co-valent, co-ordinate, and
metalic bonds; and the the relation to physical properties of the formed
compoun Understand atomic structure based on Bohr Theory, elements
characteristic, relative mass, periodicity characteristics, and understand
the regularity
Indicators :
-. Explain element tendency to gain its stability.
-. Draw electrons valence configuration of noble gas atom (duplet and
octet), and electrons valence configuration of non-noble gas atom
( Lewis structure )
-. Explain formation process of ionic bond
-. Explain formation process of single, double, and triple covalent bond
-. Explain the formation process of co-ordinate bond on several compounds.
-. Study compounds polarity and relate it to electronegativity through
experiment.
-. Describe the formation process of metallic bond and the relation to
physical properties of the metal
-. Relate the matter physical properties to its bonds types.

Dalton’s atomic theory state that compound is formed from different element’s atoms.
However, Dalton’s atomic theory does not explain how atoms join together to form a molecule.
To bond among atoms in a molecule can be explained after we learned the electron structure
of atom.

I. Stable electron Arrangement

Noble Gas (group VIIIA) is stable elements. This is caused their element arrangement
contain 8 valence electrons, except helium which has 2 valence electrons.
The other element which not stable, tend to have the noble gas electron configuration, with
8 valence electron. This tendency is called octet rule
Electron noble gas arrangement is called octet rule. We can see electron configuration of noble
gas in table 1
Table 1. Electron configuration noble gas

Element Amount of electron in shell

Valence electron
symbol K L M N O
2He 2 - 2
10Ne 2 8 8
18Ar 2 8 8 8
36Kr 2 8 18 8 8
54Xe 2 8 18 18 8 8

To get stable electron arrangement, the other element can make by releasing or gaining and by
using their pairs of electron

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Lewis Symbols
When atoms interact to form a bond, only the outer portions of the atoms come in
contact, consequently, only their outer electron configuration are usually important. Generalized
Lewis symbol for the representative elements are given in table 2
We shall see that Lewis symbols are useful in discussing bonds between atoms. The
formulas we draw with them are called either Lewis structures or electron dot-formulas.

Group IAIIAIIIAIVAVAVIAVIIA
∙ ∙ ∙∙ ∙∙
Symbol X∙∙X∙∙X∙∙X∙∙X : : X : : X :
∙ ∙ ∙ ∙

To get stable electron arrangement, the atoms can be release / receive of electron an
atom to the other atom, and by using their pairs of electrons

II The Ionic Bond

Chemical bonds can be divided into two general categories: ionic (or electrovalent ) bonds and
covalent bonds.
An ionic bond occurs when one or more electrons are transferred from the valence
shell of one atom to the valence shell of another. The atom that loses electrons becomes a
positive ion (action) while the atom that acquires electron becomes negative charged ( an
anion ). The ionic bond results from the attraction between the oppositely charged ions.

Example 1.
The formation of an ionic substance is the reaction between atoms of lithium and fluorine.
Li ( 1s2 2s1) → Li+ (1s2) + e (electron configuration is same as the noble gas He

F ( 1s2 2s2 2p5 ) + e → F- (1s2 2s2 2p6 )

(electron configuration is same as the noble gas Ne)
+ -
Li + F → Li F → LiF
We can see the Lewis Structure as
∙∙ ∙∙
Li ∙ + ∙ F : → Li+ [ :F: ] -
∙∙ ∙∙
Example 2.
The formation of an ionic substance is the reaction between atoms of calcium and chlorine to
produce compound CaCl2.

20Ca (2.8.8.2 ) → Ca2+ (2.8.8 ) + 2e

17Cl (2.8.7 ) + e → Cl- (2.8.8 ) x2

____________________________ +
Ca2+ + 2 Cl- → CaCl2
The Lewis structure is :
∙∙
∙Cl :
∙∙ ∙∙
Ca : + Ca2+ + 2 [ :Cl: ] -
∙∙
∙∙
∙ Cl :or CaCl2
∙∙

A slightly more complex situation occurs with Al and O. Aluminum, in group IIIa, loses three
electrons to achieve a noble gas structure and produce the ion Al3+. Oxygen, on the other hand,
forms the ion O2-, to produce a neutral compound two Al3+ ions must be combined with three O2-
ions, hence aluminum oxide has the formula Al2O3

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Exercise 1
1. Write the Lewis structure for elements : Na, Ca, Al, C, P, S, Cl
How way its elements have tendency octet rule ( release, achieve or by using their pairs of
electron) ? explain !

2. Explain what an ionic bond is ?

3. Explain how ionization energy and electron affinity determine whether elements will combine to
form ionic compounds.

4. Name five metals and five nonmetals that are very likely to form ionic compounds. Write
formulas for compounds that might result from the combination of these metals and nonmetals.

5. Use Lewis dot symbols to show electron transfer between the following atoms to form cations
and anions :
5.2. 12Mg and 15P
5.3. 13Al and 17Cl
5.4. 20Ca and 8O
5.5. 19K and 16S
5.6. 13Al and 7N
Write these formulas of compounds !

An electrovalent bond is formed when valence electrons of one atom is transferred to

valence shell of another. The atom th electron donor while the recipient is known ass the
electron acceptor. Electron donors are usually metals comprising of group 1, 2, and 13 of the
periodic table while the electron acceptors are usually non metals comprising of group 15,16,
and 17 of the periodic table. Therefore, an ionic bond is normally formed between a metal and a
non-metal.

Properties of ionic compounds:

1. They are usually solids at room temperature, with high melting points. This is due to strong
electrostatic forces holding the crystal lattice together. A lot of energy is therefore needed to
separate the ions and melt the substance.
2. They are usually hard substances.
3. They are usually cannot conduct electricity when solid, because the ions are not free to move
4. They mainly dissolve in water. This is because water molecule is able to bond with both the
positive and the negative ions, which breaks up the lattice and keeps the ions apart.
5. They usually conduct electricity when in the molten state or in aqueous solution. The forces
of attraction between the ions are weakened and the ions are free to move to the appropriate
electrode. This allows an electric current to be passed through the molten compound.

III. Covalent Bond

Covalent Bonds are formed through sharing of electron between two or more atoms.
A covalent bond is formed When an atom with an unpaired valence electron approaches another
atom with an unpaired valence electron so that they share both the electrons between them.
One covalent bond comprises of sharing of one pair of valence electrons.
In short, a covalent bond is formed between two atoms when;
1. each atom has an orbital in valence shell with an unpaired electron
2. the two orbital overlap to produce an electron pair which is shared by the two atom
Single, double and triple covalent bonds
Example
- Covalent bond between H atoms in the molecule H2.
Each H atom completes its valence shell by acquiring a share of electron from another atom.
The formation of H2 can write Lewis structure as

∙H+∙HH∙∙H

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 -
- The atom carbon, therefore, is capable of forming four bond with H atoms to form the
molecule CH4 H
∙ ∙∙
∙C∙ + 4H∙ H : C:H
∙ ∙∙
H
- Nitrogen forms three covalent bonds with H atom to form the ammonia molecule, NH3
∙∙ ∙∙
∙N∙ +3H∙ H: N : H
∙ ∙∙
H
- The atom carbon completes its valence shell by sharing four electrons with oxygen , and
oxygen needed two electron, so Lewis structure is
∙∙ ∙∙
: O : : C :: O : or O==C==O , the formula CO2
∙∙ ∙∙
When two pairs of electron are shared between two atoms, we call the bond a double bond
- In the N2 molecule, each N atom completes its shell by sharing three electrons with
another nitrogen atom

: N : : : N : or N ≡ N , the formula N2

When three pairs of electron are shared between two atoms, it’s called the triple bond.

Exceptions to the Octet Rule

a. The Incomplete Octet
* The Lewis of BeH2 is :
H ∙ ∙ Be ∙ ∙ H
or
H—Be—H
* BX3 ( X is halogen atom)
The Lewis structure is

∙∙
:F:
│ F
∙∙ │
: F B Or F—B
∙∙ │ │
: F: F
∙∙

 The Lewis of NO and NO2 is

∙∙ ∙∙ ∙∙ ∙ ∙∙
N == O and O == N — O :
∙ ∙∙ ∙∙ ∙∙

b. The Expanded Octet

* The Lewis of molecules PCl5 and SF6

IV. Coordinate Covalent Bonds

A coordinate bond is also known as a dative covalent bond
A electron or dative covalent bond is an unique covalent bond in the sense that both electrons in
the electron pair of that covalent bond formed between two atoms, are donated by a single atom.
For a coordinate bond to formed, there are two requirements:
a. The electron donor must have alone pair of electrons ( a pair of electrons that is not yet
involved in a chemical bonding)

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b. The electron acceptor must have an empty orbital to receive the lone pair of electrons from
the donor.

Example

1. When a nitrogen atom combines with three hydrogen atoms to form the molecule NH3, have
one pair of electron, so its react with H+ ion to form NH4+

H H +
∙∙ ∙∙
H : N : + H+ H : N: H
∙∙ ∙∙
H H

2. The reaction of boron trichloride, BCl3 and ammonia, NH3

H Cl H Cl
│ │ │ │
H—N : + B—Cl H—N : B—Cl
│ │ │ │
H Cl H Cl

The Lewis structure of this addition compound can be written

H Cl
│ │
H—N  B—Cl
│ │
H Cl

V. Polar Molecules and non polar molecules

1. All polar molecules have dipole moments, that is, they will rotate when placed in a
magnetic field.
2. A molecule will be polar if ;
a. it posses a permanent dipole
b. its partial charges of the permanent dipole are not distributed symmetrically. Hence
the molecule has two distinct oppositely charged poles, a positive pole and negative
pole.
3. A few example of polar molecules are shown below:

∂+ ∂- ∂- negative pole
H Cl O

Positive pole negative pole

H H positive pole
Hydrogen chloride ∂+ ∂+
molecule

water molecule
-
∂ negative pole
N

H
H H ∂+ positive pole
∂+ ∂+
Ammonia molecule
All the molecules above have dipoles with asymmetrical distribution of charges. As such, each
of the molecules clearly has a positive pole and a negative pole as shown above.
4. Non symmetrical distribution of charges depends on the orientation of atoms in its
molecules, that is on its molecular shape

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 -
5. There are molecules which show dipoles but are not polar This is because the partial charges
in these molecules are distributed symmetrically. As such the molecule does not have a
distinctive pole and negative pole and shown no dipole moment.

The symmetric molecular shapes are shown below:

Formula Example shape
AX2 CO2 Linier
AX3 BCl3 Planar triangle
AX4 CH4 Tetrahedral
AX5 PCl5 Trigonal bypiramidal
AX6 SF6 octahedral

To know polarity of molecules, do experiment as below

1. Repay asset and chemical : burette , H2O, HCl, CCl4, alcohol, CH3COOH, and plastic ruler.
2. Repeatedly rub the plastic ruler and drawing near to burette is contain of water.
3. Watched is that, if water near to magnet so water is polar molecules.
4. with the same method do the other chemical ( HCl, CCl4 and so on)
5. Give conclusion about it !

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VI. Metallic Bonding

Another way in which atom obtain a more stable electron structure is found in metals. The
electron in the outer energy level of the atom of a metal move freely throughout the structure
(they are delocalized forming a mobile sea of electron. When the metal atoms lose these
electrons, they form a lattice of positive ions. There for, metal consist of positive ions embedded
in moving clouds of electrons. The negatively charged electrons attract all the positive metal
ions and bond them together with strong electrostatic forces of attraction as a single unit. This is
metallic bond .

+ + + + +

+ + + + +

+ + + + +

Figure 7.1. Metals consist of positive ions surrounded by a sea of electrons.

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Types of crystals and general properties
Type of Units at Force holding the
General properties Examples
crystal lattice points units together
Ionic Positive and Electrostatic Hard, brittle, high NaCl, LiF,
negative ions attraction melting point, poor MgO
conductor of heat and
electricity
Covalen Atoms Covalent Bond Hard, high melting C (diamond),
t point, poor conductor SiO2 (quartz)
of heat and electricity
Metallic Atoms Metallic bond Soft to hard, low to All metallic
high melting point, elements, for
good conductor of heat example Na,
and electricity Mg, Fe, Cu

Exercise 2:

1. What is the difference between a Lewis dot symbol and a Lewis structure?

2. Classify the following substances as ionic compounds or covalent compounds :

CH4, KF, CO, SiO2, NaH, H2O, NH3, H2SO4, SiCl4, XeF4, CaO, HCl, SF6, BCl3, Li2O, MgCl2,
CH3COOH

3. Describe the main differences between ionic compounds and molecular covalent compounds.

4. Determine kind of bond and write the formulas for compounds that might result from the
combination of these elements:
a. 11Na and 9F
b. 12Mg and 9F
c. 19K and 16S
d. 15P and 17Cl
e. 6C and 17Cl
f. 1H and 9F

5. Write Lewis structure for the following molecules:

a. H2 k. CS2
b. NH3 l. PCl5
c. XeF2 m. ICl
d. NO n. PH3
e. CH3Cl o. H2S
f. OF2 p. N2H4
g. C2H6 q. HClO3
h. SO3 r. H2SO4
i. PF3 s. COBr2
j. SiCl4 t. HNO3

6. Describe the main differences between ionic compounds and covalent compounds.

7. Classify the following compounds as polar covalent or not polar covalent:

a. H2 f. CO2
b. NH3 g. HBr
c. CCl4 h. IF5

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ATOMIC STRUCTURE PROBLEM
Choose the correct option by giving a cross sign (x) !
1. The word of ‘atom’ is first time proposed by….
a. Leukipus and Demokritus
b. John Dalton
c. J.J. Thomson
d. Ernest Rutherford
e. Niels Bohr

2. According to J.J. Thomson atomic model :

a. atom can be a sphere of positive electricity in which a negative electron was embedded like
plum in a pudding.
b. atom can be a very small and massive sphere
c. atom is composed by nucleus and surrounded by electrons
d. Part of atomic volume is an empty space in which nucleus is in the middle
e. Nucleus is surrounded by electrons on their orbital

3. The right statement abbot Niels Bohr’s atomic theory is….

a. Electron location in orbital During orbit the nucleuos, electron emit energy
b. Electron position on certain energy level is called shell
c. When electron move from one shell to the inner shell, will absorp energy
d. The element atomic mass is the same

4. The name of atomic particle and its inventor is ….

a. electron – J.J. Thomson
b. nucleous – Niels Bohr
c. proton – J. Chadwick
d. neutron – Eugene Goldstein
e. electron – Eugene Goldstein

5. Nucleous is composed by….

a. Proton d. proton and neutron
b. Electron e. netron
c. electron and neutron
34
S
6. Isotop 16 contain ….
a. 16 proton, 16 electron and 34 neutron
b. 16 proton, 18 electron and 34 neutron
c. 16 proton, 16 electron and 18 neutron
d. 18 proton, 16 electron and 34 neutron
e. 18 proton, 16 electron and 18 proton

7. An isotop contain 12 protons, 11 neutrons and 12 electrons. Symbol of the isotop is….
24 24
a. 12 Mg d. 11 Na
23 44
b. 12 Mg e. 21 Sc
23
c. 11 Na

31
8. Isotop of 15 X is….
31 32
a. 15 P d. 16 S
32 31
b. 15 P e. 16 S
73
c. 31 Ga

32
9. Isobar of 16 S is….
32 33
a. 15 P d. 16 S
31 33
b. 16 S e. 15 P

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 -
73
c. 32 Ge

10. The word of ‘atom’ is first time proposed by….

a. Leukipus and Demokritus
b. John Dalton
c. J.J. Thomson
d. Ernest Rutherford
e. Niels Bohr

11. According to J.J. Thomson atomic model :

a. atom can be a sphere of positive electricity in which a negative electron was embedded like
plum in a pudding.
b. atom can be a very small and massive sphere
c. atom is composed by nucleus and surrounded by electrons
d. Part of atomic volume is an empty space in which nucleus is in the middle
e. Nucleus is surrounded by electrons on their orbital

12. The right statement abbot Niels Bohr’s atomic theory is….
a. Electron location in orbital During orbit the nucleuos , electron emit energy
b. Electron position on certain energy level is called shell
c. When electron move from one shell to the inner shell, will absorp energy
d. The element atomic mass is the same

13. The name of atomic particle and its inventor is ….

a. electron – J.J. Thomson
b. nucleous – Niels Bohr
c. proton – J. Chadwick
d. neutron – Eugene Goldstein
e. electron – Eugene Goldstein

14. Nucleous is composed by….

a. Proton
b. proton and neutron
c. Electron
d. neutron
e. electron and neutron
34
S
15. Isotope 16 contain ….
a. 16 proton, 16 electron and 34 neutron
b. 16 proton, 18 electron and 34 neutron
c. 16 proton, 16 electron and 18 neutron
d. 18 proton, 16 electron and 34 neutron
e. 18 proton, 16 electron and 18 proton

THE PERIODIC SYSTEM PROBLEM

1. If three elements are arranged based on their similar properties and atomic mass, therefore the
atomic mass of the middle element is the average of the other two. This statement is called …..
a. Octave rule
b. Triade rule
c. Periodic system
d. Long Periodic system
e. Short Periodic system

2. According to John A.R. Newland, if elements are arranged based on theie increasing mass so
the element properties will be repeated on the 8th element, for the elements of : H – Li – Be – B
– C – N – O – F – Na – Mg – Al – Si – P ; so Be will has properties similar to….
a. P d. Mg
b. Si e. Na
c. Al

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-

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 -
3. Elements arclassify based on increasing their atomic number, is proposed by ….
a. J.W. Dobereiner d. Henry Moseley
b. A.R. Newlands e. Lothar Meyer
c. Mendeleev

4. The main group element has valence electron located at …..

a. subshell s d. subshell s and p
b. subshell p e. subshell p and d
c. subshell d

5. Another name of group VII A is….

a. Alkali d. halogen
b. alkali earth e. Noble gas
c. aluminium
6. Lantanide and actinide are of group….
a. III B d. VI B
b. IV B e. VIII B
c. V B

7. Element with atomic number of 16 in periodic table is located at ….

a. group II A, period 3
b. group IV A, period 3
c. group VI A, period 3
d. group VI A, period 4
e. group VI B, period 4
8. Element with atomic number of 23 in periodic table is located at….
a. group III B, period 3
b. group III B, period 4
c. group IV B, period 4
d. group IV B, period 5
e. group V B, period 4

9. The right statement is….

a. Elements of the same group have similar physical properties
b. Elements of the same group have similar chemical properties
c. Elements of the same group have same number of shell
d. Elements of the same period have same valence electron
e. Elements of the same period have similar chemical properties

10. Elements of 4A, 14B, 9C, 12D, and 6E , that located at the same group is ….
a. A and C d. C and E
b. A and D e. D and E
c. B and D
11. Block p of periodic table don’t have element of ….
a. metal d. noble gas
b. Metaloid e. transition
c. Non-metal

12. Element X dengan has massa of 65, 35 neutron its location at periodic table is…..
a. group IV B, period 4
b. group V B, period 3
c. group VI B, period 4
d. group VII B, period 4
e. group VII B, period 5

13. Energy required to lose electron is ….

a. aIonization energy
b. Electron affinity
c. Electronegativity
d. Electropositivity
e. Electrosensitivity

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 -

14. The periodic properties that decrease to the right in one period is ….
f. Atomic radius
g. Electronegativity
h. Ionization energy
i. Electron affinity
j. The second Ionization energy

15. Element that has the highest electron affinity is element with atomic number of ….
a. 7 d. 10
b. 8 e. 11
c. 9

16. Element that has the highest electronegativity on halogen group is ….

a. Fluorine d. bromine
b. Chlorine e. astatine
c. Iodine

17. Data energi ionisasi pertama dari lima unsur pertama periode ketiga : 597 kJ, 500 kJ, 711 kJ, 802
kJ dan 1003 kJ. Yang merupakan energi ionisasi golongan IIA adalah….
a. 597 kJ d. 802 kJ
b. 500 kJ e. 1003 kJ
c. 711 kJ

18. Sodium and sulphur located in the same period because….

a. Has the same shell
b. Has the same valence electron
c. Has the same chemical properties
d. Has the same physical properties
e. Both are metals

19. Alkali and alkali-earth are reactive metals that can form strong base, the strongest base is…..
a. Li d. Ba
b. Na e. Cs
c. Ca

20. Element with the highest electronegativity is….

a. Oxygen d. fluorine
b. Nitrogen e. helium
c. Hydrogen

CHEMICAL BONDS PROBLEM

Choose the correct option by giving a cross sign (x) !

1. A certain atom need to bind with another atom in order ….
a. To increase valence electron
b. To decrease the valence electron excess
c. To form new substance
d. To reach stabil condition
e. To imitate hydrogen configuration
2. Metal and non-metal form compound with bond….
a. Ionic d. semipolar
b. covalent e. coordinate covalent
c. Dativ

3. Bond that formed because the take and give electrons is….
a. Ionic d. polar
b. Covalent e. van der Waals
c. metal

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 -
4. Bond formed between element of group II A with VIII A has chemical formula of….
a. XY d. X2Y7
b. X2Y e. X7Y2
c. XY2

5. Bond formed between 19A and 16B is….

a. ionic, AB d. covalent, A2B3
b. ionic, A2B e. ionic, A2B3
c. covalent, AB2

6. Electron configuration of X = 2, 8, 8, 6 will form ionic compound with atom with electron
configuration …
a. 2, 4 d. 2, 8, 8, 4
b. 2, 4, 1 e. 2, 8, 8, 7
c. 2, 8, 2

7. The atomic number of:

A = 3; B = 4; C = 11; D = 12; E = 9 dan F = 17. The most ionic bond ….
a. A with E d. C with F
b. A with F e. B with F
c. C with E

8. Below that not ionic compound properties ….

a. brittle
b. low boiling point
c. its liquid can conduct electricity
d. its solution can conduct electricity
e. solid at room temperature

9. This substance has ionic bond:

a. sugar c. CaCO3 e. CO2
b. urea d. rice flour
10. Pair of compounds below have covalent bond….
a. K2O with HF d. H2O with CaCl2
b. CH4 with H2O e. KNO3 with NaCl
11 CaC2 with KCl The element which easier (lebih mudah ) to form negative ion in element has
atomic number………………
a. 6 d.16
b. 8 e. 20
c. 10

12. The following atom which strong metallic properties is element has atomic number…………
a. 1 d. 11
b. 3 e.19
c. 9

13. Group compounds which ionic bonding are ……………..

a. C2H6, CH4 and PCl5 d. KBr, Cl2O7, and NCl3
b. K2O, AlCl3, and CsCl e. NaCl, KBr, and ICl3
c. KOH, NaOH, and H2S

14. This compound have triple covalent bond is………….

a. CO2 d. SO2
b. SO3 e. P4
c. N2

15. The elements X, and Y have electron valency 6 and 7. If the second element to form compound,
so the chemical formula and kind bond is……………..
a. XY6, ionic d. XY2, covalent
b. X2Y, ionic e. X 6Y7, covalent
c. XY2, ionic

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 -

16. Atoms of elements 6P, 8Q, 11R, 18S and 20T. The covalent bond formed give from element
……………….
a. P and Q d. Q and T
b. R and S e. S and T
c. P and T

17. The kind chemical bond in NH4Cl molecules are……………

a. ionic bond d. covalent
b. coordinate bond e. ionic, covalent, and coordinate bond
c. ionic and covalent

18. Compound which have not octet rule is………..

a. C2H4 d. NH3
b. C2H6 e. BH3
c. CO2
19. Give the data :
1. High melting
2. brittle
3. It’s melting is conduct electricity
4. in solution is non-electrolyte
The true expression to ionic compounds are…………..
a. 1, and 3 d. 1,2, and 3
b. 2, and 4 e. 2,3, and 4
c. 3, and 4

20. Compound has polar properties is…………….

a. CO2 d. NH3
b. CCl4 e. CS2
c. C2H6

SOAL-SOAL STRUKTUR ATOM, SPU, DAN IKATAN KIMIA (pilihan ganda)

1. Penemu partikel electron adalah…………….

a. Chadwick d. Golstein
b. Thomson e. Dalton
c. Ritherford

2. Neutron yang terdapat di dalam inti atom ditemukan oleh……………

a. Bohr d. Chadwick
b. Rutherford e. Thomson
c. Golstein

3. Ernest Rutherford bersama dua orang asistennya melakukan eksperimen penghamburan sinar
alfa. Hasil eksperimen yang ditemukan adalah……………
a. kulit atom d. proton
b. neutron e. inti atom
c. electron
30 30 32 33
4. Diketahui unsure-unsur 15 P , 16 Q , 15 R , dan 16 S . Unsur- unsure yang merupakan isobar
adalah………
a. P dan Q d. Q dan S
b. Q dan R e. R dan S
c. P dan R

5. Suatu unsure mempunyai konfigurasi electron sebagai berikut : 2,8, 18, 7. Nomor massa unsure
tersebut 80. Tiap atom unsure tersebut memiliki……………
a. 35 elektron dan 35 neutron d. 35 elektron dan 80 neutron
b. 35 proton dan 35 neutron e. 35 proton dan 45 neutron
c. 80 elektron dan 80 neutron

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 -

6. Pasangan unsure berikut yang merupakan isoton adalah…………………….

40 39 214 214
a. 20 Ca , dengan , 19 K d. 82 Pb , dengan , 84 Po
24 40 210 214
b. 12 Mg , dengan , 20 Ca e. 82 Pb , dengan , 82 Pb
210 214
c. 83 Bi, dengan , 84 Po

7. Gagasan utama yang disumbangkan oleh Niels Bohr adalah………….

a. partikel sub atom d. gejala isotop
b. nomor atom e. inti atom
c. tingkat-tingkat energi dalam atom

8. Suatu atom mempunyai bilangan massa 23 di dalam intinya terdapat 12 neutron. Banyaknya
electron yang terdapat pada kulit terluar adalah…………..
a. 1 d. 4
b. 2 e. 5
c. 3

9. Kelemahan Teori atom Niels Bohr ialah Bohr tidak menjelaskan tentang …………
a. kedudukan electron dalam atom d. kestabilan atom
b. terjadinya perpindahan electron e. terbentuknya spectrum garis
c. keberadaan electron pada lintasan

10. Menurut model atom modern, pernyataan di bawah ini yang benar adalah………..
a. electron bergerak sambil memancarkan energi
b. kedudukan electron dalam atom tidak diketahui dengan pasti
c. orbit electron berupa elips
d. gerakan electron zig-zag
e. atom berbentuk bola pejal

11. Pengelompokan unsure-unsur yang tiap kelompok terdiri 3 unsur dengan sifat kimia mirip
dikemukakan oleh…………..
a. Thomson d. Dobereiner
b. Newlands e. Lavoisier
c. Mendeleev

12. Suatu unsure terdapat periode ketiga dan golongan IIA. Nomor atom unsure tersebut
adalah………….
a. 31 d. 5
b. 12 e. 3
c. 7

13. Unsur X dengan nomor atom 17, dalam system periodic terletak pada………….
a. golongan VIIB, periode 3 d. Golongan IA, periode 7
b. golongan VIIA, periode 3 e. golongan IIA, periode 3
c. golongan IIIA, periode 3

14. Pasangan Unsur yang terletak dalam satu periode adalah unsure-unsur dengan nomor
atom…………..
a. 36 dan 37 d. 2 dan 3
b. 18 dan 19 e. 1 dan 11
c. 12 dan 17
15. Jari-jari atom terbesar terdapat pada unsure dengan nomor atom……….
a. 20 d. 11
b. 19 e. 3
c. 12

16. Potensial ionisasi terbesar terdapat pada unsure dengan nomor atom…………
a. 18 d. 4
b. 10 e. 3
c. 6

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17. Atom yang paling mudah membentuk ion positif adlah unsure dengan nomor atom………..
a. 19 d. 3
b. 11 e. 1
c. 9

18. Unsur yang aling mudah membentuk ion negative adalah unsure dengan nomor atom……….
a. 20 d. 8
b. 16 e. 6
c. 10

19. Afinitas electron terbesar terdapat pada unsure dengan nomor atom………
a. 11 d. 8
b. 10 e. 7
c. 9

20. Kelompok unsure yang mempunyai electron valensi sama adalah………….

a. He, Ne, Ar, dan Kr d. B, C, N, dan O
b. B, Al, Ga, dan In e. C, Si, P, dan Cl
c. F, Cl, Br, dan Ca

21. Senyawa yang berikatan kovalen adalah………….

a. BaCl2 d. CsCl
b. K2O e. Mg3N2
c. PCl5

22. Unsur X dan Y mempunyai electron valensi masing-masing 6 dan 7. Rumus kimia dan jenis
ikatan yang sesuai jika kedua unsure itu bersenyawa adalah……….
a. X6Y7, kovalen d. XY2, kovalen
b. XY6, ion e. X2Y, ion
c. XY2, ion

23. Kelompok senyawa yang berikatan ion adalah…………

a. C2H6, CH4, dan PCl3 d. NaCl, KBr, dan IBr
b. KOH, NaH. Dan H2S e. KBr, Cl2O7, NCl3
c. K2O, AlF3, dan CsCl

24. Senyawa yang mempunyai ikatan rangkap tiga adalah……………

a. H2 d. PCl3
b. SO3 e. SO2
c. C2H2

25. Senyawa yang tidak mengikuti kaidah octet adalah……………

a. C2H4 d. NH3
b. BH3 e. C2H6
c. CO2

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LATIHAN ULANGAN BLOK

PILIHAN GANDA
1. Penenmuan yang diperoleh dari percobaan penghamburan partikel α pada lempeng tipis emas
yang dilakukan oleh Rutherford adalah……………….
a. proton d. electron
b. neutron e. positron
c. inti atom

2. Penemu electron adalah…………….

a. James Chadwick d. William Crookes
b. Goldstein e. Henry Becquerel
c. JJ. Thomson

3. Perpindahan electron berikut yang disertai pelepasan energi paling besar adalah perpindahan dari
……….….
a. kulit K ke kulit N d. kulit M ke kulit K
b. kulit L ke kulit K e. kulit M ke kulit P
c. kulit N ke kulit M

4. Pengelompokan unsure-unsur menjadi delapan (teori oktaf) ditemukan oleh…………

a. D.I Mendeleev d. Henry G.J Monseley
b. Lothar Meyer e. John Newlands
c. Dobereiner

5. Suatu unsure mempunyai nomor massa 35 dan jumlah neutron 18. Unsur tersebut dalam system
periodic terletak pada golongan dan periode berturut-turut adalah ……………….
a. VIIA dan 4 d. VIIA, dan 3
b. VIIIA, dan 4 e. VIIIA, dan 3
c. VA, dan 3

6. Ion Sr2+ mempunyai konfigurasi electron : 2 8 18 8. Unsur Sr dalam table periodic terletak
pada golongan dan periode berturut-turut adalah………………
a. IIA dan 4 d. VIIA dan 5
b. VIIA dan 4 e. IIA, dan 6
c. IIA, dan 5

7. Suatu unsure terletak pada golongan VIIA periode 5. Jika nomor massanya 80, maka jumlah
neutron unsure tersebut adalah……………..
a. 30 d. 43
b. 35 e. 45
c. 37

8. Suatu atom mempunyai bilangan massa 39 dan dalam intinya terdapat 20 neutron. Banyaknya
electron yang terdapat pada kulit terluar(electron valensi) adalah………..
a. 1 d. 4
b. 2 e. 5
c. 3

9. Di antara unsure-unsur dibawah ini yang kulit terluarnya mempunyai electron paling banyak
adalah………..
a. 8O d.13Al
b. 9F e. 16S
c. 12Mg

10. Suatu unsure terdapat periode ketiga dan mempunyai 6 elektron valensi. Nomor atom unsure
tersebut adalah……………..
a. 8 d. 18
b. 12 e, 24
c. 16

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11. Kelomok unsure dengan nomor atom dibawah ini yang memiliki electron valensi sama
adalah………………
a. 10, 18, 37 d. 13, 18, 31
b. 11, 19, 38 e. 14, 18, 32
c. 12, 20, 38

12. Unsur A dan B mempunyai nomor atom berturut-turut 11 dan 15, massa atom relative berturut-
turut 23 dan 31. Pernyataan yang paling tepat tentang hal tersebut adalah……….
a. Unsur A mempunyai 11 proton dan 12 neutron
b. Unsur B mempunyai 16 proton dan 15 neutron
c. Unsur A mempunyai 11 proton dan 23 neutron
d Unsur B mempunyai 15 proton dan 31 neutron
e. Unsur A mempunyai 12 proton dan 11 neutron

13. Unsur Al mempunyai nomor atom 13 dan nomor massa 27. Jumlah proton dan electron yang
terdapat dalam ion Al3+ berturut-turut adalah…………
a. 13 dan 13 d. 143 dan 10
b. 13 dan 10 e. 14 dan 37
c. 14 dan 13

14. Suatu unsure mempunyai konfigurasi electron sebagai berikut : 2 8 18 7.

Nomor massa unsure tersebut +80. Tiap unsure tersebut memiliki……………..
a. 35 elektron dan 35 neutron d. 35 elektron dan 80 neutron
b. 35 proton dan 35 neutron e. 80 elektron dan 80 proton
c. 35 proton dan 45 neutron

16. Suatu atom mempunyai 4 kulit electron, 6 elektron valensi, dan 45 neutron; maka unsure
tersebut mempunyai massa…………………
a. 24 d. 69
b. 34 e. 79
c. 45

17. Unsur-unsur yang terletak dalam satu golongan dalam table periodic mempunyai …………….
a. jumlah electron yang sama d. sifat-sifat yang sama
b. jumlah proton yang sama e. jumlah kulit yang sama
c. konfigurasi electron yang sama
30 39 35 33
18. Diketahui unsure-unsur 15 P , 16 Q , 17 R , dan 16 S . Unsur –unsur yang merupakan isotop
adalah……………..
a. P dan Q d. Q dan S
b. P dan R e. R dan S
c. Q dan R
32 30 33 30
19. Diketahui unsure-unsur 15 A , 16 B , 16 C ,dan 15 D . Unsur –unsur yang merupakan isoton
adalah……………..
a. A dan B d. B dan D
b. A dan C e. C dan D
c. B dan C
20 Diketahui ion X2- mempunyai konfigurasi electron 2 8 8; dan nomor massa 32. Jumlah proton
dan neutron unsure X berturut-turut adalah…………..
a. 16 dan 16 d. 18 dan 18
b. 16 dan 18 e. 16 dan 32
c. 18 dan 16

21. Jari-jari atom unsure 3Li, 11Na, 19K, 4Be, dan 5B secara acak (dalam angstrom oA) adalah 2,01 ;
1,23; 1,57 ; 0,80; dan 0,89. Jari-jari atom natrium adalah………..
a. 2,01 d. 0,89
b. 1,57 e. 0,80
c. 1,23

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22. Diketahui konfigurasi electron dari tiga unsure sebagai berikut :
A:24
B:27
C:28 2
Urutan energi ionisasi yang semakin besar adalah…………..
a. C-A-B d. C-B-A
b. A-B-C e. B-A-C
c. B-C-A

23. Unsur yang paling mudah membentuk ion negative adalah unsure dengan nomor
atom…………….
a. 6 d. 15
b. 8 e. 20
c. 10

24. Diantara unsure-unsur 11Na,12Mg, 19K, 20Ca, dan 13Al yang memiliki jari-jari atom terkesil
adalah……………
a. 11Na d. 19K
b. 12Mg e. 20Ca
c. 13Al

25. Dikatahui 2P, 3Q, 6R, 9S, dan 12T. Dari unsure-unsur tersebut yang mempunyai energi ionisasi
terbesar adalah………….
a. 2P d. 9S
b. 3Q e.12T
c.6R

26. Teory atom Rutherford merupakan hasil percobaan menembak lempeng emas tipis dengan
partikel………….
a. alpha d. gamma
b. beta e. neutron
c. positron

27. Pernyataan bahwa electron-elektron dalam inti berada pada tingkat-tingkat energi tertentu,
dikemukakan oleh……………..
a. Max Planck d. Niels Bohr
b. De Broglie e. Rutherford
c. J.J Thomson

28. Aturan octet mengharuskan atom-atom saling berikatan agar mempunyai……………..

a. 2 elektron total d. 8 elektron terluar
b. 2 elektron terluar e. 10 elektron terluar
c. 8 elektron total

29. Di antara unsure-unsur : 17A, 19B, 20C, 16D, dan 18E. Unsur yang paling stabil adalah…………….
a. unsure A d. Unsur D
b. Unsur B e. Unsur E
c. Unsur C

30. Diketahui unsure-unsur : 10P, 11Q, 17R, dan 18S. Ikatan ion akan terbentuk antara unsure-
unsur………….
a. P dan Q d. R dan S
b. P dan R e. P dan S
c. Q dan R

31. Jika unsure X (nomor atom 20) dan unsure Y (nomor atom 16) memebntuk senyawa, maka
rumus kimia dan jenis ikatannya adalah…………….
a. XY, kovalen d. X2Y, ion
b. XY, ion e. X2Y, kovalen
c. XY2, ion

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32. Pasangan unsure yang dapat membentuk ikatan kovalen adalah…………..
a. 20M dan 17P d. 8X dan 9Z
b. 17P dan 12Q e. 11Y, dan 9Z
c. 12Q dan 9Z

33. Jika unsure X dengan nomor atom 6 bersenyawa dengan unsure Y dengan nomor atom 8 akan
mempunyai jenis ikatan……………
a. ion d. kovalen rangkap tiga
b. kovalen tunggal e. kovalen koordinat
c. kovalen rangkap dua

34. Senyawa berikut ini adalah senyawa non-polar, kecuali………………

a. BCl3 d. H2
b. CO2 e. CH4
c. HCl

35. Diketahui unsure-unsur dengan nomor atom sebagai berikut : A=6, B=9, C= 12, D= 17, dan
E=19. Pasangan unsssur-unsur yang dapat membentuk ikatan kovalen non-polar
adalah…………..
a. A dan C d. A dan D
b. B dan C e. D dan E
c. C dan D

36. Dalam senyawa NH4Cl terdapat ikatan kmia yang terdiri dari…………..
a. 3 ikatan kovalen da 2 ikatan kovalen koordinat
b. 4 ikatan kovalen dan 1 ikatan ion
c. 4 ikatan kovalen dan 1 ikatan kovalen koordinat
d. 3 ikatan kovalen,1 ikatan kovalen koordinat dan 1 ikatan ion
e. 1 ikatan kovalen, 3 ikatan kovalen koordinat, dan 1 ikatan ion

37. Di antara pasangan senyawa berikut yang keduanya mempunyai ikatan kovalen koordinat
adalah…………….
a. NH3 dan H2O d. H2SO4 dan NH3
b. C2H4 dan HNO3 e. SO3 dan HNO3
c. C2H2 dan HCl
38. Atom-atom dalam tembaga dikokohkan oleh ikatan…………………
a. ion d. kovalen koordinat
b. kovalen e. kovalen polar
c. logam
39. Pernyataan yang tidak benar berkaitan dengan sifat logam adalah………….
a. sangat keras dan maas jenisnya sangat besar
b. mudah melepaskan electron valensinya
c. titik didih dan titik leburnya tinggi
d. mudah membentuk ikatan ion dengan unsure non logam
e. daya hantar listrik dan panas sangat baik

40. Di antara kelompok senyawa di bawah ini yang merupakan senyawa polar adalah……….
a. HCl, HBr, NH3, dan H2O d. NH3, H2O, CO, dan CO2
b. CO2, HCl, CCl4, dan H2O e. SO2, BF3, NH3 dan HCl
c. CH4, CO2, BF3 dan HCl

ESSAY
41. . Tentukan jumlah proton, neutron, dan electron dari atom/ion berikut:
14 16 27 3+ 32 2−
- 7N ; 8 O ; 13 Al ; 16 S

42. Tuliskan konfigurasi electron dari

3+
13 Al ; 8O2- ; 35Br; 38Sr2+

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43. Diketahui Unsur-unsur : 3Li; 4Be; 5B; 11Na ; 12Mg; dan 13Al
Unsur manakah yang mempunyai :
a. jari-jari atom terbesar ?
b. energi ionisasi terbesar ?
c. afinitas electron terbesar ?
d. paling elektro posisitf ?
40 19
44. Jika unsure 20 Ca , bersenyawadengan 9 F ; tentukan rumus kimia dan jenis ikatan yang
terbentuk ?

45. Gambarkan struktur Lewis dan rumus bangun dari HNO3 dan H2SO4 ( Nomor atom N=7; H=1;
O=8; dan S=16)

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CHAPTER 2

INORGANIC AND SIMPLE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

NOMENCLATURE,THE EQUATION OF REACTION AND THE
CHEMISTRY BASIC LAWS
Competency Standard : 2. Understand chemistry Basic Laws and its application on Stoichiometry.
Basic Competency : 2.1. Describe simple organic and Inorganic compounds nomenclature, and
its equation reaction.
2.2. Prove and inform the chemistry basic Laws through experiments and
apply the mol concept on stoichiometry
Indicator : 2.1.1. Write biner compounds name
2.1.2. Write polyatomic compounds name
2.1.3. Write simple organic compounds name
2.1.4.Balance simple reaction and name the compounds involve in the
reaction.
2.2.1. Prove Lavoisier’s Law through experiment
2.2.2. Prove Proust’s Law through experiment
2.2.3.Compounds analysis to prove the application of Dalton’s Law .
2.2.4.Using experimental data to prove Gay Lussac’s Law
2.2.5. Using experimental data to prove Avogadro’s Law
2.2.6.Convert moles to particles number, mass, and volume.
2.2.7.Determine empirical formula, molecular formula
2.2.8.Determine compounds composition
2.2.9. Determine reaction limiting reagent
2.2.10.Determine constituents concentration involved in reaction

A. INORGANIC AND SIMPLE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

NOMENCLATURE

Names and formulas of compounds form the vocabulary of the chemical language. In this
discussion, you’ll learn the names and formulas of ionic and simple covalent compounds
( include simple Inorganic). In a chemical formula, element symbol and numerical subscripts
show the type and number of each atom percent in the smallest unit of the substance.
1. Names and formulas of ionic Compounds
All ionic compound names give the positive ion ( cation) first and the negative ion (anion)
second. Here are some points to note about ion charges:
1. Members of periodic table group have the same ionic charge; for example, Li, Na, K are all
in group 1A and all have a +1 charge
2. For group A cations, ion charge = group number; for example Mg2+ (in group IIA), Al3+ (in
group IIIA).
3. For anions, ion charge = group number minus 8;p for example , S is in group VIA ( 6-8)= -2,
so the ion is S2-, N3- ( in group VA: 5-8 = - 3).

Compounds formed from Monatomic ions. Let’s first consider how to name
binary ionic compounds, those composed of ions of two elements.
4. The names of cation is the same as the name of metal. Many metal names end in ium
5. The name of the anion takes the root of the nonmetal name and adds the suffix –ide

Ionic compounds are arrays of oppositely charge ions rather than separate molecular units.
Therefore, we write a formula for the formula unit, which gives the relative numbers of cations
and anions in the compound. Thus, ionic compounds generally have only empirical formulas.
The compound has zero net charge, so the positive charges of the cations must balance the
negative charges of anions.
Xn+ + Ym- → XmYn

X = metal and Y = nonmetal

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Example : Ca2+ + Cl- → CaCl2

Sample problem 2.1

Write the formula and give name the ionic compound formed from the following pairs of
elements:
 magnesium and nitrogen
 strontium and fluorine
 Aluminum and sulfur

Solution
a.Mg2+ + N3- → Mg3N2 ( magnesium nitrite)
b. Sr2+ + F- → SrF2 ( strontium fluoride)
c. Al3+ + S2- → Al2S3 ( aluminum sulfite)

Compounds with Metals that can form more than one ion
Many metals, particularly the transition elements (group B), can form more than one ion,
each with its own particular charge. Table 2.1. list some metals that form than more monatomic
ion.

Common(trivial)na
Element Ion formula Systematic name
me
Chromium Cr2+ Chromium(II) Chromous
Cr3+ Chromium (III) chromic
Cobalt Co2+ Cobalt (II)
Co3+ Cobalt (III)
Copper Cu+ Copper (I) Cuprous
Cu2+ Copper (II) Cupric
Iron Fe2+ Iron (II) Ferrous
Fe3+ Iron (III) ferric
Lead Pb2+ Lead (II)
Pb4+ Lead (IV)
Mercury Hg22+ Mercury (I) Mercurous
Hg2+ Mercury (II) mercuric
Tin Sn2+ Tin (II) Stannous
Sn4+ Tin (IV) stannic

The suffix ous for the ion with the lower charge
The suffix ic for the ion with the higher charge

Table 2.2. list the formulas and names of some common polyatomic ions
Formula Name Formula Name
NH4+ Ammonium CO32- Carbonate
H3O+ Hydronium HCO3- Hydrogen carbonate or
CH3COO- Acetate bicarbonate
CN- Cyanide CrO42- Chromate
OH- Hydroxide Cr2O72- Dichromate
ClO- Hypochloride O22- Peroxide
ClO2- Chloride PO43- Phosphate
ClO3- Chlorate HPO42- Hydrogen phosphate
ClO4- Perchlorate H2PO4- Dihydrogen phosphate
NO2- Nitrite SO32- Sulfite
NO3- Nitrate SO42- Sulfate
MnO4- Permanganate HSO4- Hydrogen sulphate

Families of oxoanoins
6. the ion with more O atoms takes the nonmetal root and suffix ate
7. The ion with fewer O atoms takes the nonmetal root and suffix ite
Example SO42- is the sulfate and SO32- is the sulphite

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Example problem 2.2
Give the systematic names for the formulas of the following compounds:
a. CrI3 d. CoS
b. Cu2S e. Na2CO3
c. Fe2(SO4)3 f. KNO2

Solution
a. chromium(III) iodide d. cobalt (II) sulfite
b. copper(I) sulfite e. sodium carbonate
c. iron(III) sulfate f. potassium nitrite

Example problem 2.3.

Give the formulas for the names of the following compounds :
a. tin (II) fluoride d. iron (II) oxide
b. lead (IV) oxide e. mercuric chloride
c. sodium hypo chloride f. aluminum nitrate

solution:
a. SnF2 d. FeO
b. PbO2 e. HgCl2
c. NaClO f. Al(NO3)3

Hydrated Ionic compounds

Ionic compounds called hydrates have a specific number of water molecules associated with
each formula unit.
Table 2.3. Numerical Prefixes for Hydrates and Binary covalent compounds
Number Prefix
1 Mono
2 Di
3 Tri
4 Tetra
5 Penta
6 Hexa
7 Hepta
8 Octa
9 Nona
10 deca

Example :
Epsom salt has the formula MgSO4.7H2O and the name magnesium sulfate heptahydrate
Gypsum has the formula CaSO4.2H2O and the name calcium sulfate dehydrate

2. Names and formulas of binary covalent compounds

8. Covalent compounds have Greek numerical prefixes to indicate the number of atoms each
element in the compound. The second word usually has a numerical prefix
9. The second element is named with its root the suffix ide
Example problem 2.4
Give names of the following binary compounds:
a. CS2 f. Cl2O6
b. PCl5 g. N2O4
c. Cl2O7 h. N2O3
d. P2O3 i. CO2
e. SO3 j. N2O
Solution:
a. carbon disulphite f. dichloro hexaoxide
b. phosphorus pentachloride g. dinitrogen tetratoxide
c. dichloro heptaoxide h. dinitrogen trioxide
d. diphosphorus trioxide i. carbon dioxide
e. sulfur trioxide j. dinitrogen monoxide

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3. Acid and Base Names

Acids are an important group of hydrogen containing compounds that have been used in
chemical reactions for centuries. In the laboratory, acids are typically used in water solution.
According Arrhenius, acid is substance to release hydrogen ions (H+) and base is substance to
release hydroxide ions (OH-) in water solution.
The following example acids and bases (table 2.4) :
Acid Formula Name Base formula Name
HCl Chloric acid LiOH Lithium hydroxide
HBr Bromic acid NaOH Sodium hydroxide
HI Iodide acid KOH Potassium hydroxide
HF Fluoride acid Mg(OH)2 Magnesium hydroxide
HNO2 Nitric acid Sr(OH)2 Strontium hydroxide
HNO3 Nitrate acid Ba(OH)2 Barium hydroxide
H2S Sulphide acid Al(OH)3 Aluminum hydroxide
H2SO3 Sulphite acid Ca(OH)2 Calcium hydroxide
H2SO4 Sulphate acid Cr(OH)3 Chromium hydroxide
H3PO3 Phosphite acid Fe(OH)2 Iron (II) hydroxide
H3PO4 Phosphate acid Fe(OH)3 Iron (III) hydroxide
HClO Hypochlorite acid Zn(OH)2 Zinc hydroxide
HClO2 Chlorite acid Cu(OH)2 Copper (II) hydroxide
HClO3 Chlorate acid
HClO4 Perchlorate acid
H2C2O4 Oxalate acid
HCN Cyanide acid
CH3COOH Acetate acid

4. Naming simple organic compounds

Organic compounds typically have complex structural formulas that consist of chains, branches,
and or ring of carbon atoms bonded to hydrogen atom and often, to atom of oxygen, nitrogen,
and a few other elements. At this point, we’ll see how the simplest organic compounds are
named. Much more on the rules of organic nomenclature appears in twelve classes.
Hydrocarbon, the simplest type of organic compound, contain only carbon and hydrogen.
The following table are name of alkanes

Table 2.5. The first 10 straight chain alkanes

Number of carbon
Formula Name
atom
1 CH4 Methane
2 C2H6 Ethane
3 C3H8 Propane
4 C4H10 Butane
5 C5H12 Pentane
6 C6H14 Hexane
7 C7H16 Heptane
8 C8H18 Octane
9 C9H20 Nonane
10 C10H22 Decane

Nomenclature IUPAC to other organic compounds based on naming alkanes with amount same
carbon

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The following table names of simples organic compounds:
Number of
Name alkane Name alkene Name alkyne Name alcohol
carbon atom
1 Methane - - Methanol
2 Ethane Ethene Ethune Ethanol
3 Propane Propene Propune Propanol
4 Butane Butene Butune Butanol
5 Pentane Pentene Pentune Pentanol
6 Hexane Hexene Hexune Hexanol
7 Heptane heptene Heptune Heptanol
8 Octane octane octune octanol
Act

Exercise 2.1.1
1. Give name the following molecular compounds:
a. BF3 f. PCl5
b. P2O5 g. H2S
c. P2O3 h. CS2
d. N2O4 i. CCl4
e. SO3 j. SiCl4
2. Give name the following ionic compounds:
a. CuBr2 f. Ca3(PO3)2
b. FeCl3 g. ZnSO4
c. Na2O h. K2Cr2O7
d. NH4Cl i. ZnS
e. Ag2(C2O4) j. KSCN
3. Write chemical formulas for the following compounds:
a. Copper(II) nitrate k. sodium chlorate
b. Barium sulfate l. strontium bromide
c. Potassium oxide m. magnesium cyanide
d. Calcium phosphate n. sodium thiosulphate
e. copper(II)sulfate pentahydrate o. potassium permanganate
f. titanium (IV) oxide p. oxalate acid
g. ammonium dichromat q. Iron (III) hydroxide
h. strontium hydroxide r. sulfide acid
i. zinc hydroxide s. cyanide acid
j. calcium acetate t. sodium bisulfate
4. Complete the following data, if ionic compounds are formed cation and anions:

cation
anion Na+ NH4+ Cu2+ Al3+ Fe2+ Fe3+
Cl-

O2-
X
SO42-

NO3-

CO32-

PO43-

B. Chemical equations

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A chemical change is called a chemical reaction. A chemical equation, then, can be thought of
as the chemist’s shorthand description of reaction. In a chemical equation the reactants are
conventionally written on left and the products on the right of arrow, and write equation to
represent physical processes ( liquid (l), gas (g), solid(s) and aqueous(aq), and ratio amount
particle of reactants and amount particle of product (is called coefficient)
In laboratory we can do experiment potassium iodide react with lead (II) nitrate in an
aqueous environment, a solid lead(II) iodide, potassium nitrate is formed. This reaction can be
represented by equation :
2KI(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) → PbI2(s) + 2KNO3(aq)
Product is PbI2 and KNO3
Reactant is KI and Pb(NO3)2
Coefficient of reaction is : 2. 1. 1. 2

Example problem 2.5.

Write a balanced equation for this reaction:
Al(s) + HCl(aq) → AlCl3(aq) + H2(g)

Solution
Step 1
Definite the coefficient of AlCl3 = 1, the atom Al on the left and on the right equal =1( the same)
Step 2
To balanced the Cl atom , write the coefficient of HCl = 3, so the atom H (in H2) require
1
coefficient 1 2
1
Al(s) + 3HCl(aq) → AlCl3(aq) +1 2 H2(g)
Step 3
Adjust the coefficient, multiply by 2 to obtain the whole number
2Al(s) +6 HCl(aq) → 2AlCl3(aq) + 3H2(g)

Example problem 2.6

Problem within the cylinders of car’s engine, the hydrocarbon octane (C8H18), one of many
components of gasoline, mixes with oxygen from the air and burns to form carbon dioxide and
water vapor. Write a balanced equation for this reaction
Solution
a. translate the statement into a skeleton equation(with coefficient blanks).
…C8H18(l) + ..O2(g) → -- CO2(g) + --H2O(g)
b. Balance the C8H18 =1
The C atoms in C8H18 end up in CO2. Each CO2 contain one C atom, so 8 molecules of CO2
are needed to balance the 8 C atom in each C8H18
1C8H18(l) + ..O2(g) → 8 CO2(g) + --H2O(g)
The H atoms in C8H18 end up in H2O. the 18 H atoms in C8H18 require a coefficient 9 in front
of H2O:
1C8H18(l) + ..O2(g) → 8 CO2(g) + 9H2O(g)
There are 25 atoms of O on the right ( 16 in CO2 and 9 In H2O), so we place the coefficient
25
2 in front of O2:
25
1C8H18(l) + 2 O2(g) → 8 CO2(g) + 9H2O(g)
c. Adjust the coefficients, multiply by 2 to obtain whole numbers
2C8H18(l) + 25O2(g) → 16CO2(g) + 18H2O(g)

Example problem 2.7

Write a balanced equation for this reaction : Fe2O3(s) + CO(g) → Fe3O4(s) + CO2(g)
Solution
1. Start coefficient Fe3O4 = 1, and coefficient other substance with symbol a, b, c, and so on
aFe2O3(s) + b CO(g) → Fe3O4(s) +c CO2(g)

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2. Balance the atom of Fe
3
The atom of Fe on the right = 3, and the atom of Fe on left = 2a, so 2a = 3, or a = 2
3
The balance become 2 Fe2O3(s) + b CO(g) → Fe3O4(s) +c CO2(g)

3. The atom of C on the right = c, and the atom C on left = b, so b= c

4. Balance the atom of O
1
+b
The atom of O on left is 4 2 ,and the atom of O on right is 4 + 2c,
1 1
+b
So 4 2 = 4 + 2c, substation b with c, 4 2 + c = 4 + 2c c = ½ and b = ½
The balance f reaction become
3
2 Fe2O3(s) + ½ CO(g) → Fe3O4(s) + ½ CO2(g)
5. Adjust the coefficients, multiply through by 2 to obtain whole numbers
3Fe2O3(s) + CO(g) → 2Fe3O4(s) +CO2(g)

Exercise 2.1.2
1. Balance the following equations:
a. H2 + Br2 → HBr

b. N2 + H2 → NH3

c. NaOH + H2SO4 → Na2SO4 + H2O

d. KOH + H3PO4 → K3PO4 + H2O

e. CH3NH2 + O2 → CO2 + H2O + N2

f. B2O3(s) + NaOH (aq) → Na3BO3 (aq) + H2O

g. CaSiO3 + HF → SiF4 + CaF2 + H2O

h. NaHCO3 → Na2CO3 + H2O + CO2

i. Al + H2SO4 → Al2(SO4)3 + H2

j. Cu + HNO3 → Cu(NO3)2 + NO + H2O

2. Write the balance chemical equation from:

a. Iron(III) oxide solid react with carbon monoxide gas to produce iron solid and carbon
dioxide gas.

b. Sulfur powder react with nitrate acid solution to produce sulfuric acid, nitrogen dioxide and
water.

c. ammonia solution react with copper (II) oxide to produce copper solid, nitrogen gas and
water.

d. Barium nitrate solution react with sodium sulfate solution to produce precipitate barium
sulfate and sodium nitrate solution.

e. Zinc react with chloride acid to produce zinc chloride and hydrogen gas.

3. Write a balanced equation for each chemical statement :

a. A characteristic reaction of group IA element : Chunks of sodium react violently with water
to form hydrogen gas and sodium hydroxide solution.

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b. The destruction of marble statuary by acid rain : aqueous nitric acid reacts with calcium
carbonate to form carbon dioxide, water, and aqueous calcium nitrate.
c. Halogen compounds exchanging bonding partners : phosphorus trifluoride is prepared by the
reaction of phosphorus trichloride and hydrogen fluoride; hydrogen chloride is other product.
The reaction involves gases only.
d. Explosive decomposition of dynamic : liquid nitroglycerine ( C3H5N3O9) explodes to produce
a mixture of gases carbon dioxide, water vapor, nitrogen , and oxygen.

C. ATOMIC RELATIVE MASS (Ar) AND MOLECULER RELATIVE MASS

(Mr)

How can we determine the atomic mass ?. We can not weigh a single atom, but there are
experimental methods that can determine the atomic mass. The first step is to assign a mass of
one atom of a given element as standard.
In 1961 The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) recommended that
the standard used for the Ar scale was carbon-12. An atom of carbon-12 was taken to have mass
of 12 amu. The Ar of an element is defined as the average mass of its isotopes compare to 1/12
the mass of one atom of carbon-12

averagemassofisotopesoftheelement
Ar X = 1/12(massofoneatomC−12 )

Note: 1/12 of the mass of one atom C-12 = 1 amu

Example: Chlorine has two isotopes; 75% Cl-35 and 25% Cl-37
Determine the Ar of chlorine

(75 x 35)+(25 x 37 )
Solution: Ar of Cl = 100 = 35.5

The molecular relative mass (Mr)

Once we know the atomic mass, we can proceed to calculate the mass of molecule. The
molecular relative mass is the sum of the atomic relative mass (in amu) in the molecule.

Example: the molecular relative mass of H2O = (2 x Ar.H) + (1 x Ar.O)

= 2 (1.008 amu) + 1(16.00amu)
= 18.02 amu

EXERCISE 2.2.1
1. Calculate the Ar of neon, if neon has isotopes 90% Ne-20 and 10% Ne-22

2. The average mass of one atom X is 4.037 X 10-23 g, and mass of one atom C-12 is 1.99268
X 10-23g.
Determine the Ar of X

3. Calculate the molecular mass (Mr) as follow:

a. NaCl e. Ca3(PO4)2
b. Fe2(SO4)3 f. Ca(CH3COO)2
c. CO(NH2)2 g. CaSO4.5H2O
d. (NH4)2SO4 h. Na2CO3.10H2O

D. MASS PERCENT OF THE CHEMICAL FORMULA

Definition of % mass of element is:

numberofatomX . Ar . X
x 100 %
% element of X = Mr

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Example:
1. Determine the %mass of each element in sodium hydroxide, NaOH, given Ar.Na =23,
O=16, and H=1

Solution:
1 xAr . Na
% Na = MrNaOH x 100%
1 x23
x100 %
= 40 = 57.5%
1 x16
x100%
%O = 40 = 40%
1
x 100 %=2. 5 %
%H = 40
a. How many grams of calcium in 50 g of calcium carbonate, CaCO3

Solution:
1 x 40
x50 g=20 g
The mass of Ca = 100

EXERCISE 2.2.2
1.Determine % of nitrogen in the following compounds:
a. CO(NH2)2
b. (NH4)2SO4
c. KNO3
d. NH4NO3
2. How many percent of ammonium nitrate in NH4NO3 compound that contains
19.11% nitrogen
3. One molecule of caffeine contain of 4 nitrogen atoms and 28.86 % mass nitrogen.
Determine the Mr of caffeine

E. THE MOLE

The mole is the SI Unit for amount of substance. It is defined as the amount of a substance that
contains the same number of entities as there are atoms in exactly 12 g of carbon-12.
One mole of substances contain 6.022 x 10-23particles (atoms, molecules, ions)
Thus;
1 mole of C-12 contains 6.022 x 10-23 atoms
1 mole of H2O contains 6.022 x 10-23 molecules
1 mole of NaCL contains 6.022 x 10-23Na+ and 6.022 x 10-23 Cl-

1. THE MOLAR MASS

The molar mass of a compound is the mass in grams or kilograms of one mole of the compound

EXAMPLE:
The molecular mass of water is 18.02 amu, so its molar mass is 18.02 g

The relation of mole and mass can be stated as follow:

Gram = mole x Ar or G = n x Mr

EXAMPLE:
How many grams in
a. 1 mole aluminum
b. 0.2 mole NaCl
Solution:
1. Mass Al = 1 x 27 g = 27 g
2. Mass NaCl = 0.2 x (23 +35.5) g/mole = 11.7 g

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2. CALCULATING THE AMOUNT OF REACTANT AND PRODUCT

A balanced equation contains wealth of quantitative information relating individual chemical

entities, amount of chemical entities and mass of substances. It is essential for all calculation
involving amount of reactants and products. If you know the number of moles of one substance,
the balanced equation tell you the number of moles of all the others in the reaction.
Stoichiometrically, equivalent molar ratios from the balanced equation.
The quantitative relationships are expressed as stoichiometrically equivalent molar ratios
that we use as conversion factors to calculate these amounts.

EXAMPLE:

C3H8 + 5 O2 - 3 CO2 + 4H2O

That mean:
1 mole of C3H8 react with 5 moles of O2 produces 3 moles of CO2 and 4 moles of H2O

A general approach for solving any stoichiometry problem that involves a reaction:
1. Write a balance equation for the reaction
2. Converse the given mass (or number of entities) of the first substance to amount mole
3. Use the appropriate molar ratio from the balanced equation to calculate the amount
mole of the second substance
4. Converse the amount of the second substance to the desired mass

3. MOLARITY (M)

Definition of molarity is;

molesofsolute
Molarity = litersofsolution
Or M = n/v mole/liter

Key equation and relationship of the mole concept

Volume gas (STP)

: 22.4 L x 22.4 L

x 6.022 x 1023 x Ar or Mr
n particles Mole (n ) mass (gram)

: 6.022 x 1023 : Ar or Mr

n = v. M M = n/v mole/L

Molarity
EXERCISE 2.2.3
1. Calculate the amount particles (atom/molecule/ion)
a. 1 mole aluminum
b. 0.2 mole glucose, C6H12O6
c. 0.5 mole sodium chloride, NaCl

2. How many gram mass in

a. 0.1 mole KCl
b. 6,022 x 1020 NaCl

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c. 3.01 x 1022 molecules urea, CO(NH2)2
3. How many L volume gas in (STP)
a. 6.022 x 1022 molecules CO2
b. 1.4 g nitrogen gas
c. 3 g ethane, C2H6

4. Give 100 mL H2SO40.5 M solution

a. How many g H2SO4 in that solution
b. How many L of water in required to make 0.2 M H2SO4

5. Zinc dissolved in HCl solution according to reaction:

Zn + HCl  ZnCl2 + H2
a. How many L of 0.5 M HCL solution required to dissolved 6.5 g Zn
b. How many g ZnCl2 produced
c. How many L hydrogen gas produced at 25oC and 2 atm

6. 2.7 g of aluminum react with 9.8 g of sulphuric acid produce aluminum sulphate and hydrogen
gas, according to reaction:

Al + H2SO4 Al2(SO4)3 + H2
Determine:
a. The limiting reagent
b. Al2(SO4)3 mass produced
c. Volume H2 gas in STP
d. The remainder mass of reactants

STP gas and mass stoichiometry problem ( PRILIMINARY TO GAS LAW)

1. How many moles of nitrogen gas is needed to react with 44,8 liters of hydrogen gas to produce
ammonia gas?

2. How many liters of ammonia are produced when 89,6 liters of hydrogen are used in the above
reaction?

3. Ten grams of calcium carbonate was produced when carbon dioxide was added to lime water
(calcium hydroxide in solution). What volume of carbon dioxide at STP was needed ?

4. When 11,4 liters of hydrogen gas is made by adding zinc to sulfuric acid.
What mass of zinc is needed?

5. What volume of ammonia at STP is needed to add to water to produce 11 moles of ammonia
water ?

6. How many grams of carbonic acid is produced when 55 liters of carbon dioxide is pressed into
water?

7. magnesium hydroxide + ammonium sulfate produce magnesium sulfate ; water ;nad ammonia.
How much (grams) magnesium hydroxide do you need to use in the above reaction to produce
500 liters of ammonia ?

8. How much strontium bromide is needed to add to chlorine gas to produce 75 liters of bromine?

9. What mass of ammonium chlorate is needed to decompose to give off 200 liters of oxygen

10. Copper + sulfuric acid to produce copper (II) sulfate, water, and sulfur dioxide.
How many moles of copper are needed to produce 500 L of SO2 ?

11. What volume of oxygen is needed to burn a pound of magnesium ?

12. How many grams of sodium do you have to put into water to make 30 liters of hydrogen gas at
STP ?

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13. How many liters of oxygen are needed to burn 15 liters of acetylene ?
PROBLEM ON CONCENTRATION AND DENSITY

1. The lead brick on my desk measures 3 by 5 by 11 cm. Lead has a density of 11,34 g/cc. How
many lead atoms are in block ?

2. The lab technician at the Planter’s Peanut packing factory takes a bag of peanuts, puts water into
it to dissolve the salt, and dilutes the solution to one liter. She then takes ten ml of that solution
and titrates it against 0.132 M silver nitrate. One bag sample takes 31.5 ml of silver nitrate to
endpoint. What mass of salt was in the bag ?

3. What is the concentration of sugar (C12H22O11) if twenty grams are dissolved in enough water to
make 2 liters ?

4. Methyl alcohol (CH3OH) has a density of 0.973 kg/l. What volume of it is neede to add to water
to make five liters of 0.25 M solution ?

5. Magnesium has a density of 1.741 g/cc. What volume of will burn in 20 liters of oxygen at 2 atm
and 25oC ?

6. Uranium metal can be purified from uranium hexafluoride by adding calcium metal. Calcium
metal has a density of 1.54 g/cc. Uranium has a density of 18.7 g/cc.
What mass of uranium do you get for a kg of Ca ?
What volume of uranium do you get for a cubic meter of Calcium?

7. What volume of 0.27 M sodium hydroxide is needed to react with 29.5 ml of 0.55M phosphoric
acid ?

8. What volume of carbon dioxide is produced at 1 atm and 870C when 1.6 liters of methyl alcohol
burns?
What volume of liquid water is produced in this reaction ?

9. Seven kg of mercury(II) oxide decomposes into mercury and oxygen. Mercury gas a density of
13.6 g/cc
What volume of mercury is produced ?

10. Gasoline (C7H16) has a density of 0.685 kg/l. How many liters of oxygen at 37oC and 950 mmHg
are needed to burn 15 liters of gasoline ?

11. Sodium hydroxide and hydrochloride acid combine to make table salt and water.
14 ml of 0.1M sodium hydroxide is needed to an excess of acid. How many moles of table salt
are made ?
How many grams of salt is that ?

12. 50 ml of 0.25M copper (II) sulfate evaporates to leave CuSO4.5H2O. (that is the pentahydrate
crystal of copper (II) sulfate)
What is the mass of this beautiful blue crystal from the solution ?

13. 97.0 ml of 0.55 M sulfuric acid is put on an excess of zinc. This produces zinc sulfate and
hydrogen.
How many grams of zinc sulfate ?

14. By my calculations, a drop of ethyl alcohol, C2H5OH, in an Olympic-sized swimming pool

produces a 1.20 L 10M solution of alcohol in water. A drop is a twentieth of a ml. How many
molecules of ethyl alcohol are in a drop of water in pool ?

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SOAL-SOAL PILIHAN GANDA

1. Pada reaksi kimia , massa zat setelah reaksi sama dengan sebelum reaksi. Orang pertama
mengenal hukum kekekalan massa adalah…
a. Dalton d. Rutherford
b. Lavoisier e. Avogadro
c. Proust
2. Sebanyak 12 gram karbon tepat bereaksi dengan sejumlah oksigen membentuk 44 gram
karbondioksida. Sesuai hukum Lavoisier, massa oksigen yang diperlukan adalah…
a. 44 gram d. 23 gram
b. 42 gram e. 12 gram
c. 32 gram
3. Sebanyak 32 gram belerang tepat bereaksi dengan oksigen membentuk senyawa sulfur dioksida
sebanyak 64 gram. Untuk mereaksi 15 gram belerang, maka gas oksigen yang diperlukan
adalah…
a. 15 gram d. 32 gram
b. 16 gram e. 45 gram
c. 30 gram
4. Data reaksi antara belerang dan oksigen menghasilkan oksida belerang adalah sebagai berikut:
No Massa S (gram) Massa O2 (gram) Massa SO2 (gram)
1 32 32 64
2 48 48 96
3 32 16 32
4 48 32 64
Dari data diatas, reaksi yang mngikuti hukum kekekalan massa adalah nomor…
a. 1 dan 2 d. 2 dan 3
b. 1 dan 3 e. 2 dan 4
c. 1 dan 4
5. Perbandingan massa unsur-unsur dalam suatu senyawa adalah tetap. Orang yang mengemukakan
pernyataan tersebut adalah…
a. Proust d. Boyle
b. Lavoisier e. Dalton
c. Avogadro
6. Data percobaan pembakaran belerang adalah sebagai berikut :
No Massa S (gram) Massa O2 (gram) Massa SO2 (gram)
1 0.64 1.92 1.6
2 0.32 0.48 0.8
3 0.64 0.96 1.6
4 0.48 0.96 1.2
Perbandingan massa belerang dengan oksigen dalam senyawa belerang dioksida adalah…
a. 1 : 2 d. 2 : 3
b. 1 : 3 e. 3 : 2
c. 2 : 1
7. Perbandingan massa karbon dengan oksigen dalam karbondioksida adalah 3 : 8 , jika 10 gram
karbon direaksikan tuntas dengan 10 gram oksigen , maka pada akhir reaksi akan terdapat…
a. 11 gram karbon dioksida dan 9 gram sisa pereaksi
b. 13 gram karbon dioksida dan 7 gram sisa pereaksi
c. 13 gram karbon dioksida dan 2 gram sisa pereaksi
d. 13,75 gram karbon dioksida dan 6,25 gram sisa pereaksi
e. 20 gram karbon dioksida
8. Perbandingan massa karbon dengan oksigen dalam karbon dioksida adalah 3 : 8. Jika massa
senyawa karbon dioksida 176 gram, maka massa masing-masing karbon dan oksigen pereaksi
berturut-turut adalah....
a. 46 gram dan 130 gram d. 128 gram dan 48 gram
b. 48 gram dan 128 gram e. 130 gram dan 46 gram
c. 88 gram dan 88 gram

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10. Karbon dan hydrogen dapat membentuk beberap[a senyawa. Dua senyawa dari karbon dan
hydrogen adalah A dan B. Pada senyawa A, massa karbon = 12 dan massa hydrogen = 4 gram,
sedangkan pada senyawa B, massa karbon 24 gram dan massa hydrogen 6 gram. Untuk massa
hydrogen yang sama, perbandingan massa karbon pada senyawa A dan B adalah…
a. 1 : 2 d. 3: 2
b. 2 : 1 e. 3 : 4
c. 2 : 3
11. Pada suhu dan tekanan yang sama (P,T) perbandingan volume gas-gas yang bereaksi dan hasil
reaksi merupakan bilangan bulat dan sederhana. Hukun ini denyatakan oleh…
a. Avogadro d. Dalton
b. Gay Lussac e. Proust
c. Lavoisier

12. Reaksi gas hydrogen + gas nitrogen → gas ammonia dengan perbandingan volume gas
hydrogen, gas nitrogen dan gas ammonia adalah 2 : 1 : 2. untuk menghasilkan 16 liter ammonia,
maka volume gas hydrogen dan gas nitrogen yang diperlukan adalah…
a. 8 dan 16 liter d. 16 dan 8 liter
b. 8 dan 8 liter e. 16 dan 16 liter
c. 8 dan 4 liter

13. Reaksi nitrogen + oksigen → dinitrogen trioksida

2 : 3 : 2
Jika direaksikan 30 liter gas nitrogen dengan 30 liter gas oksigen, maka volume reaktan yang
tersisa adalah…
a. 10 liter nitrogen d. 20 liter oksigen
b. 10 liter oksigen e. 30 liter nitrogen
c. 20 liter nitrogen

14. setiap unsure kimia tersusun oleh partikel-partikel kecil yang disebut atom. Selama perubahan
kimia, atom tidak dapa diciptakan dan dimusnahkan. Teori Dalton ini menjelaskan hukum dari
…
a. Avogadro d. Dalton
b. Gay Lussac e. Proust
c. Lavoisier

15. Jika dua unsure membentuk lebih dai satu senyawa , maka massa-massa unsure yang satu yang
bersenyawa dengan massa tertentu lain, berbanding sebagai bilangan bulat dan sederhana.
Pernyataan ini dekemukakan oleh…
a. Avogadro d. Dalton
b. Gay Lussac e. Proust
c. Lavoisier

17. Pada suhu dan tekanan yang sama gas-gas yang volumenya sama mengandung jumlah molekul
yang sama pula. Pernyataan ini dikemukakan oleh……………
a. Proust d. Avogadro
b. Lavoisier e. Dalton
c. Gay Lussac

18. Dari pernyataan di bawah ini, yang mempunyai massa paling besar adalah……….
a. 2 mol d. 0,1 mol H2O
b. 3,01x1023 molekul H2 e. 10 lusin atom oksigen
c. 1 mol CO

19. Jika massa atom relative, Ar O=16 dan tetapan Avogadro = 6,022x1023, maka dalam 4 gram
oksigen terdapat atom oksigen sebanyak…………….
a. 7,53x1022 d. 1,5x1023
23
b. 6,02x10 e. 1,2x1024
24
c. 2,4x10

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20. Jika 3,01x1022 atom unsure X massanya 3 gram, maka massa atom relative, Ar X
adalah………….
a. 120 d. 15,05
b. 60 e. 9,03
c. 30
21. Diketahui massa atom relative, Ar H=1, C=12, N=14, dan O=16. anakah dari zat berikut ini
mengandung jumlah molekul terbanyak………….
a. 1 gam H2 d. 4 gram O2
b. 4 gram CH4 e. 3,4 gram NH3
c. 11 gram CO2
22. Volume dari 8 gram gas O2 pada 0oC, 1 atm adalah…………
a. 5,6 liter d. 22,4 liter
b. 8 liter e. 8x22,4 liter
c. 11,2 liter
23. Pada suhu dan tekanan sama , volume x molekul gas metana 10 liter, maka volume 4x molekul
belerang dioksida adalah……………
a. 2,5 liter d. 20 liter
b. 11,2 liter e. 40 liter
c. 5,6 liter
24. Volume 1,5x1025 molekul SO2 adalah y liter. Pada P,T yang sama volume 1,8x1027molekul gas
hydrogen adalah…………..
a. y liter d. 80 y liter
b. 25y liter e. 120y liter
c. 75y liter
25. Sepuluh liter gas nitrogen monoksida mengandung 3,05x1023 molekul. Pada P,T yang sama ,60
liter gas ozon mengandung molekul sebanyak………………….
a. 3,05x1021 d. 1,8 x1022
21
b. 6,02 x 10 e. 1,8x 1023
22
c. 6,02 x 10
26. Setiap 1 gram zat berikut yang mempunyai jumlah partikel terbenyak…………
a. C12 H22 O11 d. NO2
b. P2O5 e. C4H8
c. C2H5OH
26. Sebanyak 11 gram gas karbon dioksida (P,T) volumenya 6 liter. Pada P,T yang sama massa dari
12 liter gas belerang trioksida adalah ……………………………
a. 12 gram d. 80 gram
b. 22 gram e. 160 gram
c. 40 gram
27. Persentase unsure Na dalam Na2CO3.10H2O adalah…………….
a. 1% d. 16%
b. 5% e. 35%
c. 8%
28. Senyawa X tersusun dari 34,33%Na, 17,91%C, dan 47,96%O. Jika Ar C=12, Na=23, dan O=16,
maka rumus empiris senyawa tersebut adalah…………….
a. NaCO d. Na2CO3
b. NaCO3 e. Na2C2O3
c. Na2C2O4
29. Diketahui senyawa dengan rumus Mg(HCO3)2.2H2O. Dalam dua molekul senyawa itu
mengandung atom sebanyak…………….
a. 1 atom Mg, 6 atom H, dan 8 atom O
b. 2 atom Mg, 12 atom H, dan 4 atom O
c. 2 atom Mg, 4 atom H, dan 16 atom O
d. 2 atom Mg, 12 atom H, dan 6 atom O
e. 2 atom Mg, 2 atom H, dan 2 atom O

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30. Persamaan reaksi berikut yang sudah setara adalah……………….
a. Fe2O3 + 2Al → Al2O3 + Fe
b. Al + H2SO4 → Al2(SO4)3 + 3H2
c. C2H5OH + 3O2 → 2 CO2 + 2H2O
d. Mg(OH)2 + 2HCl → MgCl2 + H2O
e. 3Cu + 6H2O → 3Cu(NO3)2 + NO + 3H2O

31. Dalam 50 gram pupuk urea terdapat 22,4 gram nitrogen. Jika ArH=1, C=12, N=14, dan O=16,
maka kadar CO(NH2)2 dalam pupuk adalah………
a. 22,4% d. 48%
b. 23,3% e. 96%
c. 44,8%

32. Pada suhu dan tekanan tertentu 14 gram gas nitrogen, N2 mempunyai volume 16 liter. Pada suhu
dan tekanan sama 14 gram oksigen mempunyai volume ……………
a. 7 liter d. 16 liter
b. 8 liter e. 32 liter
c. 14 liter

33. Sebanyak 11 gram gas karbon dioksida (P,T) volumenya 6 liter. Pada (P,T) yang sama massa
dari 12 liter gas belerang trioksida adalah………………
a. 12 gram d. 80 gram
b. 22 gram e. 160 gram
c. 40 gram

34. Sebanyak 3,5 gram nitrogen tepat bereaksi dengan 6 liter oksigen membentuk suatu oksida
nitrogen. Bila Ar N=14, dan O=16, maka rumus empiris oksida tersebut adalah………
a. N4O3 d. N7O12
b. N12O7 e. N3O2
c. N2O3

35. Pada pembakaran senyawa hidrokarbon yang berupa gas terbentuk 4,4 gram gas CO2 dan 2,7
gram air. Massa 1 liter gas itu (P,T)=1,5 gram. Pada P,T yang sama 7,5 gram gas NO
mempunyai volume 5 liter. Rumus molekul senyawa tersebut adalah………..
a. CH4 d. C3H8
b. CH2 e. C2H6
c. CH3

36. Sebanyak 3,5 gram logam L tepat bereaksi dengan 1,5 gram oksigen membentuk oksida L2O3.
Jika Ar O=16, maka massa atom relative L adalah……………
a. 24 d. 56
b. 32 e. 112
c. 48

37. Karbon terbakar menurut persamaan

C + O2 → CO2
Jika 6 gram karbon dibakar dengan 32 gram oksigen maka massa gas CO2 yang dihasilkan
adalah………….
a. 6 gram d. 38 gram
b. 22 gram e. 44 gram
c. 32 gram
38. Sepuluh liter (P,T) campuran gas metana dan etana dibakar sempurna membentuk 12 liter gas
CO2 (P,T) menurut reaksi
CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O
2C2H6 + 7O2 → 4CO2 + 6H2O
Volume CH4 (P,T) dalam campuran tersebut adalah……………..
a. 8 liter d. 4 liter
b. 6 liter e. 2 liter
c. 5 liter

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39. Sebanyak 0,32 kg kalsium karbida dilarutkan dalam air menghasilkan gas asetelin, C2H2 menurut
reaksi :
CaC2 + 2H2O → Ca(OH)2 + C2H2
Volume gas asetilena (0oC, 1 atm) yang terbentuk adalah…………..
a. 11,2 liter d. 112 liter
b. 22,4 liter e. 224 liter
c. 44,8 liter

40. Volume gas CO2 (STP) yang dapat dibentuk pada pembakaran sempurna 6 gram C2H6 menurut
reaksi :
2C2H6 + 7 O2 → 4 CO2 + 6 H2O adalah……….
a. 2,24 liter d. 11,2 liter
b. 4,48 liter e. 89,6 liter
c. 8,96 liter

41. Massa dari 3,01x1023 molekul suatu gas adalah 49 gram. Volume dari 14 gram gas tersebut pada
keadaan standar adalah………..
a. 1,6 liter d. 7 liter
b. 3,2 liter e. 8 liter
c. 5 liter

ESSAY
1. Jika kertas dibakar, maka massa abu kertas lebih ringan dari pada massa kertas. Lain halnya jika
logam yang berkarat, maka massa logam yang berkarat lebih besar dari massa logam semula.
Apakah kedua peristiwa tersebut sesuai hokum kekekalan massa dari Lavoisier? Jelaskan !

2. Seng sulfide direaksikan dengan gas oksigen menurut reaksi:

2ZnS + 3 O2 → 2 ZnO + 2 SO2
Hitunglah berapa volume gas yang terbentuk setiap liter gas oksigen yang diperlukan, bila
pereaksi dan hasil reaksi diukur pada suhu dan tekanan yang sama!

3. Satu liter (T,P) gas nitrogen tepat bereaksi dengan 2 liter (T,P) gas oksigen membentuk 1 liter
gas X (T,P). Tentukan rumus molekul gas X !

4. 8 liter campuran gas etana, C2H6 dan gas betena, C4H8 dibakar sempurna dengan gas oksigen
berlebihan yang volumenya 40 liter pada suhu 150oC dan tekanan 1 atm menghasilkan gas
karbon dioksida dan uap air. Bila volume gas akhir pembakaran 54 liter, hitunglah percentase
volume gas etana, dan butena !

5. Makanan yang kita makan mengalami reaksi pembakaran dalam tubuh menghasilkan energi dan
untuk pertumbuhan dan gerak. Reaksi pembakaran dalam tubuh adlah sebagai berikut:
C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O
Bila 85.6 gram C6H12O6 dikonsumsi oleh seseorang, berapakah massa CO2 dan H2O yang
dihasilkan ?

6. Diketahui rumus molekul asam cuka, CH3COOH,

a. Berapakah mol atom hydrogen yang terdapat dalam0,1 mol cuka
b. Berapa butir atom oksigen yang terdapat dalam 0,2 mol cuka ?
c. Jika Ar C= 12, berapa gram karbon yang terdapat dalam 0,5 mol cuka?

7. a. Jika massa 0,25 mol unsure X = 4 gram, tentukan massa atom relative X ?
b. Jika massa 0,2 mol suatu senyawa =12 gram, tentukan massa molekul relative, Mr senyawa
tersebut ?

8. Suatu cuplikan 7,38 gram kristal magnesium sulfat, MgSO4.nH2O dipanaskan massanya
berkurang sebanyak 3,78 gram. Tentukan rumus molekul magnesium sulfat tersebut ?

9. Suatu senyawa x mengandung karbon, hydrogen dan oksigen dengan massa molar 85 gram/mol.
Jika 0,43 gram X dibakar dalam oksigen berlebihan terbentuk 1,10 gram karbon dioksida dan
0,45 gram air. Tentukan rumus empiris dan rumus molekulnya ?

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10 Tentukan volume gas-gas berikut pada 0oC, 1 atm (STP)
a. 6,022x1022 molekul CO2
b. 1,505x1023 atom Ne
c. 1,4 gram gas nitrogen
d. 3 gram gas etana, C2H6

11. Diketahui massa atom relative Ar H=1, C=12, hitunglah :

a. massa dari 5,6 liter gas C3H8 (STP)
b. jumlah molekul yang terdapat dalam 6,72 liter gas H2 (STP)

12. Pada suhu dan tekanan tertentu volume 7 gram gas nitrogen =5 liter. Pada suhu dan tekanan
sama, tentukanlah :
a. volume dari 8 gram gas metana, CH4
b. Volume dar 17 gram gas ammonia,NH3

13. Gas hidrokarbon, CxHy sebanyak 2 liter dibakar dengan 6 liter gas oksigen membentuk 4 liter
gas karbbon dioksida . Jika 1 Liter gas CxHy massanya 2,8 gram diukur pada keadaan yang sama
dengan 14 gram gas nitrogen volumenya 5 liter. Tentukan :
a. rumus empiris gas hidrokarbon tersebut
b. Rumus molekulnya !
14. Pada suhu dan keadaan tertentu massa dari 6 liter gas nitrogen monoksida, NO adalah 7,5 gram.
Pada suhu dan tekanan yang sama, berapa gram massa dari 48 gram gas belerang dioksida, SO2

15. Pada suhu dan tekanan tertentu massa dari 5 liter gas nitrogen, N2 adalah 7 gram. Pada suhu dan
tekanan yang sama, 1 liter gas X mempunyai massa 2,2 gram. Tentukanlah massa molekul
relative, Mr gas X (Ar N=14)

16. Berapakah molaritas larutan yang terdiri atas :

a. 0,4 mol urea dalam 2 liter larutan
b. 3,7 gram Ca(OH)2 dalam 200 ml larutan (Ar Ca=40; H=1; O=16)

17. Tersedia 100 ml larutan H2SO4 0,5M

a. Berapa gramasam sulfat yang terdapat di dalam larutan tersebut?
b. Berapa ml air harus ditambahkan ke dalam larutan tersebut agar konsentrasi larutan menjadi
0,1M

18. 5,8 gram gas butana, C4H10 dibakar sempurna dengan oksigen menurut reaksi :
C4H10 + O2 → CO2 + H2O ( belum setara)
Tentukan :
a. massa CO2 yang dihasilkan
b. volume gas oksigen yang diperlukan pada STP

19. CaO dapat diperoleh dengan menguraikan batu kapur, CaCO3 menurut reaksi :
CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
Berapa gram CaCO3 harus diuraikan untuk mendapatkan 28 gram CaO

20. Gas asetilena, C2H2 terbkar enurut reaksi sebagai berikut:

C2H2 + O2 → CO2 + H2O ( belum setara)
a. Berapa liter gas oksigen (T,P) yang diperlukan untuk membakar sempurna 2 liter gas
asetilena
b. Berapa liter gas karbon dioksida (T,P) yang terbentuk pada pembakaran 5 liter gas
asetilena.

21. Kalium nitrat, KNO3 digunakan sebagai pupuk tananman tertentu yang dihasilkan melalui
reaksi :
4KCl + 4HNO3 + O2 → 4KNO3 + 2Cl2 + 2H2O
a. Berapa gram minimum KCl yang diperlukan untuk menghasilkan 567 gram KNO3
b. Berapa ml volume gas Cl2 yang dihasilkan diukur pada suhu 25oC, 2atm

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22. Tetratsilina, Si4H10 adalah cairan yang mempunyai massa jenis 0,825 gram/cm3 .Senyawa itu
bereaksi dengan oksigen menghasilkan silica, SiO2 dan air. Hitung massa silica yang terbentuk
jika 25 cm3 tetrasilina bereaksi sempurna dengan oksigen berlebihan.

23. Gas oksigen dapat berubah menjadi ozon, bila diberi loncatan bunga listrik, menurut reaksi :
3O2(g) → 2O3(g)
Jika mula-mula ada 60 liter gas oksigen (T,P), tentukan volume gas sesudah reaksi apabila 50%
oksigen itu berubah menjadi ozon?

24. Berapa liter oksigen (OoC, 1 atm) yang diperoleh untuk membakar 16 gram methanol, CH3OH
menurut reaksi:
2CH3OH + 3O2 → 2CO2 + 4H2O
Dan berapa lietr gas CO2 yang terbentuk (STP)

26. Seng dapat larut dalam larutan HCl, menurut reaksi :

Zn + HCl → ZnCl2 + H2 ( belum setara)
a. Berapa ml larutan HCl 2M yang diperlukan untuk melarutkan 65 gram Zn
b. Berapa gram ZnCl2 yang dihasilkan
c. berapa liter gas H2 yang dihasilkan jika diukur pada suhu 27oC, 1 atm

27. Aluminium larut dalam larutan asam sulfat menurut reaksi :

Al + H2SO4 → Al2(SO4)3 + H2 ( belum setara)
Apabila gas yang terbentuk 8,96 liter (OoC, 1 atm), berapa gram aluminium yang dapat larut?

28. Campuran NaCl dan KCl yang massanya 0,476 gram dilarutkan dalam air, kemudian
ditambahkan larutan perak nitrat agar semua mengendap sebagai perak klorida. Setelah endapan
dikeringkan, massanya ditimbang ternyata sebanyak 1,435 gram. Reaksi yang terjadi adalah :
NaCl + AgNO3 → AgCl + NaNO3
KCl + AgNO3 → AgCl + KNO3
29. Kalsium fosfat, Ca3(PO4)2 adalah senyawa ion yang merupakan komponen utama dari tulang.
Berapa atom calsium yang terdapat dalam 10 gram kalsium fosfat?

30. Sebuah permen mengandung 21,1 gram sukrosa, C12H22O11 . Bila permen tersebut dimakan,
sukrosa mengalami metabolisme sesuai persamaan reaksi :
C12H22O11 + O2 → CO2 + H2O (belum setara)
Hitung volume gas oksigen yang diperlukan dan volume gas CO2 yang dihaslkan (STP)

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SOAL LATIHAN ULANGAN SEMESTER 1

PILIHAN GANDA

1. Atom terdiri atas inti yang bermuatan positif, sebab di dalam inti atom mengandung………….
a. sinar katode d. neutron dan electron
b. proton dan electron e. proton dan neutron
c. proton lebih banyak dari neutron

2. Dari pernyataan berikut :

1. Atom terdiri atas inti-inti yang bermuatan positif
2. Massa atom terpusat pada inti atom
3. Elektron di dalam atom beredar mengelilingi inti
4. Atom merupakan suatu bola yang bermuatan positif
5. Pada reaksi kimia terjadi penggabungan atau pemisahan atom
Pernyataan manakah yang menjelaskan model atom Rutherford
a. 1,2, dan 3 d. 2,3, dan 4
b. 1,3, dan 4 e. 2,3, dan 5
c. 1,2, dan 5
238
3. Atom uranium dengan notasi 92 U mempunyai…………….
a. 92 proton dan 92 neutron d. 92 neutron dan 146 proton
b. 92 elelktron dan 146 neutron e. 146 positron dan 92 neutron
c. 146 proton dan 238 elektron

4. Jika unsure X mempunyai electron 30 dan massa atom 65, maka unsure tersebut mempunyai
jumlah neutron sebesar…………..
a. 30 d. 55
b. 43 e. 95
c. 45

5. Dari pasangan unsure berikut ini, yang merupakan pasangan isoton adalah......
39 40 16 32
a. 19 K ;dan 20 Ca d. 8 O ;dan 16 S
13 14 24 18
b. 7 N ;dan 7 N e. 12 Mg ;dan 8 O
13 13
c. 6 C ;dan 7 N

6. Perhatikan table di bawah ini

Unsure Massa atom proton neutron elektron

A 14 6 …. …
B 24 … …. 11
C 20 …. 10 …
D …. …. 20 20

Dari table di atas, pernyataan yang tidak benar adalah……………

a. jumlah neutron unsure A adalah 8
b. nomor atom unsure B adalah 11
c. unsure yang berkulit luar penuh adalah C
d. Unsur A mempunyai electron sebanyak 7
e. Nomor massa unsure D adalah 40

7. Suatu unsure mempunyai massa atom 31 dan neutron 16

Penulisan konfigurasi electron di kulit K,L,M….yang benar adalah……………..
a. 2 8 18 5 d. 2 8 6
b. 2 8 8 5 e. 2 8 5
c. 2 8 7

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8. Suatu unsure X mempunyai jumlah neutron 20 dan massa atom 39, maka unsure tersebut
mempunyai electron valensi sebanyak…………….
a. 0 d. 3
b. 1 e. 4
c. 2

9. Perhatikan agan berikut ini :

Model atom
1. John Dalton a. atom terdiri bagian terkecil dari materi
2. J.J. Thomson b. atom merupakan bola yang bermuatan positif
3. Rutherford c. electron beredar mengelilingi inti pada lintasan
4. Niels Bohr terntentu
5. Model atom Modern d. atom terdiri dari inti yang bermuatan positif
e. electron bergerak tanpa melepas dan menyerap
energi

Pernyataan yang bukan merupakan perkembangan model atom adalah………….

a. 1 dengan a d. 4 dengan e
b. 2 dengan b e. 5 dengan e
c. 3 dengan d

10. Sifat kimia yang sama dijumpai pada pasangan unsure dengan nomor atom…………..
a. 3 dan 13 d. 12 dan 18
b. 5 dan 15 e. 8 dan 18
c. 11 dan 19

11. Suatu unsure mempunyai massa atom 80 di dalam intinya terdapat 45 neutron. Dalam SPU
unsure tersebut terletak pada…………….
a. golongan IVA periode 4 d. golongan IA dan periode 4
b. golongan VIIA periode 4 e. golongan VIIB periode 4
c. golongan IVA periode 7

12. Kelompok unsure berikut yang merupakan anggota unsure golongan gas mulia adalah………..
a. He, Ne, Ra, Na, Ba d. He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn
b. Ne, O, S, Ra, Ba, Xe e. F, Cl, Br, I, At
c. O,S, Se, Te, Po

13. Suatu unsure yang terletak pada periode 3, golongan VA; di dalam intinya terdapat 16 neutron.
Unsur tersebut mempunyai massa atom sebesar ……….
a. 15 d. 31
b. 16 e. 41
c. 21

14. Pernyataan yang tidak benar untuk unsure dalam satu periode dari kiri ke kanan
adalah…………….
a. sifat logam makin berkurang d. keelektronegatifan makin besar
b. energi ionisasi makin besar e. jari-jari atom makin panjang
c. afinitas electron makin besar

15. Terdapat unsure-unsur sebagai berikut: 9F, 11Na, 17Cl, 8O, 16S
Pernyataan berikut, yang tidak benar adalah…………….
a. Unsur Na paling elektropositif
b. Unsur F paling elektronegatif
c. Unsur F, Cl, O, dan Na adalah mempunyai sifat yang sama
d. Unsur F mempunyai affinitas electron terbesar
e. Jari-jari atom Na paling panjang

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16. Suatu unsure yang mempuyai kecenderungan membentuk ion negative satu (-!) , dalam system
periodic terletak pada golongan………..
a. IA d. VIIA
b. IIA e. VIIIA
c. transisi

17. Elektron valensi tertinggi terdapat pada unsure dengan nomor atom…………..
a. 16 d. 9
b. 15 e. 6
c. 12

18. Senyawa AB terbentuk akibat pelepasan dan pengikatan electron. Ikatan yang terdapat dalam
senyawa AB adalah…………
a. ikatan kovalen d. ikatan kovalen koordinasi
b. ikatan kovalen rangkap e. ikatan ion
c. ikatan kovalen non polar

19. Suatu unsure dengan konfigurasi electron : 2 8 2, akan mudah berikatan ion dengan unsure
yang konfigurasi elektronnya …………..
a. 2 8 1 d. 2 8 8
b. 2 8 3 e. 2 8 7
c. 2 8 18 4

20. Unsur X dengan nomor atom 11 berikatan dengan unsure Y dengan nomor atom 16. Jenis ikatan
dan rumus molekul senyawa yang dibentuk oleh oleh tersebut adalah……………..
a. ion, XY d. kovalen, X2Y
b. ion, X2Y e. kovalen , XY
c. ion, XY2

21. Ikatan kovalen terjadi akibat pemakaian bersama pasangan electron yang berasal dari kedua
belah pihak. Pasanagn senyawa berikut yang berikatan kovalen adalah……..
a. NaCl dan H2O d. HBr dan NaCl
b. CCl4 dan K2O e. KNO3 dan NH3
c. CCl4 dan HCl

22. Pasangan molekul berikut ini, yang berikatan kovalen polar adalah……….
a. NH3 dan H2O d. HF dan O2
b. CH4 dan CO2 e. CH4 dan Cl2
c. NH3 dan N2

23. Diantara zat di bawah ini , yang memiliki ikatan kovaeln rangkap dua adalah…………
a. N2 d. O2
b. HCl e. Cl2
c. NH3

24. Diketahui struktur Lewis dari senyawa NH4Cl sebagai berikut:

2 H 3 1
: ..
H : N : H : Cl :
.. ..
H
4 5
Ikatan kovalen koordinasi ditunjukkan oleh nomor………………..
a. 1 d. 4
b. 2 e. 5
c. 3
25. Rumus kimia dari senyawa yang terbentuk oleh ion-ion K+, Fe3+; Ca2+, SO42-; dan PO43-
adalah………..
a. Fe2(SO4)3 dan Ca3(PO4)2 d. K2SO4 dan Fe3PO4
b. KSO4 dan Fe2SO4 e. Fe3(PO4)2 dan CaSO4
c. KSO4 dan FePO4

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26. Di antara persamaan reaksi berikut yang sudah setara adalah……………..
a. Al + H2SO4 Al2(SO4)3 + 3H2
b. Cr2O3 + 2Al → Al2O3 + Cr
c. Cu + H2SO4 → CuSO4 + 3H2O + SO2
d. CH3OH + O2 → 2CO2 + 3H2O
e. Ca(OH)2 + 2HCl → CaCl2 + 2H2O

28. Pada reaksi Cu + x HNO3 → Cu(NO3)2 + y H2O + z NO2 , maka harga x,y, dan z berturut-turut
adalah……..
a. 2, 1, 1 d. 4, 2, 2
b. 3, 1, 2 e. 4, 2, 3
c. 3, 2, 2

29. Jika diketahui kadar nitrogen di udara 80%, maka volume udara yang mengandung 12 liter gas
nitrogen adalah………….
a. 8 liter d. 30 liter
b. 10 liter e. 40 liter
c. 15 liter

30. Diketahui massa satu atom unsure X =24,312 sma dan massa 1 atom C-12 = 12,011 sma . Massa
atom relative (Ar) X adalah……..
a. 0,5 d. 12
b. 1,2 e. 24
c. 2,0

31. Di antara gas-gas berikut ini dalam massa sama pada keadaan standar yang volumenya terbesar
adalah……….
a. O2 d. N2
b. H2O e. CH4
c. CO2

32. Pada pemanasan x gram kalium klorat menurut reaksi :

2KClO3 → 2KCl + 3O2
Dihasilkan gas oksigen sebanyak 672 ml (STP). Jika Ar K=39; Cl=35,5; O=16; maka harga x
adalah………………
a. 2,45 gram d. 24,5 gram
b. 3,675 gram e. 36,25 gram
c. 12,35 gram

33. Jika 4 gram NaOH dilarutkan dalam air sehingga volume larutan 250 ml, maka molaritas larutan
tersebut adalah…………
a. 0,1M d. 0,4M
b. 0,2M e. 0,5M
c. 0,3M

34. Senyawa hidrokarbon mempunyai rumus empiris CH2. Jika 17,5 gram senyawa tersebut
mempunyai volume 5,6 liter pada STP, maka rumus molekul gas tersebut
adalah………………..
a. C2H4 d. C5H10
b. C3H6 e. C6H12
c. C4H8

35. 10 gram batu kapur direaksikan dengan HCl menurut reaksi :

CaCO3 + 2HCl → CaCl2 + H2O + CO2
Mr CaCO3 = 100, Ar H=1, Cl=35,5. Massa HCl yang digunakan adalah……………..
a. 0,75 gram d. 10,65 gram
b. 3,65 gram e. 14,60 gram
c. 7,30 gram

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ESSAY

36. Suatu logam L yang massanya 28 gram tepat bereaksi dengan larutan asam klorida encer
menghasilkan 16,8 liter gas hydrogen (diukur pada STP); menurut reaksi :
2L + 6 HCl → 2 LCl3 + 3H2
Tentukan :
a. massa atom relative,Ar L ?
b. berapa gram LCl3 yang dihasilkan ? (Ar Cl =35,5)

37. a. Jika unsure P dengan nomor atom 15 bersenyawa dengan unsure q yang nomor atomnya 17,
tentukan jenis ikatan dan rumus kimia senyawa tersebut?
b. Gambarkan rumus Lewis dari H2SO4

38. Kalsium karbida, CaC2 sebanyak 16 gram direaksikan dengan air membentuk gas asetilena
menurut reaksi : CaC2 + H2O → Ca(OH)2 + C2H2
Berapa liter gas asetilena yang dihasilkan pada 0oC, 1 atm ?

39. Tabung A berisi 9,03x1023 molekul gas CO2, ternyata volume gas dalam tabung A =10 liter.
Pada suhu dan tekanan yang sama, tabung B berisi 88 gram gas CO2, berapakah volume gas
dalam tabung B?

40. Sebuah emas batangan dengan panjang 10 cm, lebar 10 cm, tebal 1cm, dan kadar emas 80%
mempunyai massa jenis 4,925 g/cm3. Berapakah jumlah atom emas tersebut ? (Ar Au=197 )

41. 93.0 ml of 0.150M magnesium hydroxide is added to 57.0 ml of 0.4M nitric acid. (magnesium
nitrate and water are formed.
What is the concentration of the magnesium nitrate after the reaction?

42. Ammonia gas and hydrogen chloride gas combine to make ammonium chloride.
What volume of ammonia at STP is needed to react with 47,7 liters of hydrogen chloride at
STP ?

43. Chlorine gas is bubbled into 100 ml of 0.25 M potassium bromide solution. This produces
potassium chloride and bromine gas. The bromine (which dissolves in water) is taken from the
solution and measured at 27oC and 925 mmHg.
What is the volume of bromine ?

44. Your car burns mostly octane, C8H18, as a fuel. How many liters of oxygen is needed to burn a
kilogram of octane ?

45. Water and calcium oxide produce calcium hydroxide.

How many grams of calcium hydroxide are made if you add 275 liters of water to enough
calcium oxide ?

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References
1. Silberberg, Principles of General Chemistry
2. Raymond Chang, Chemistry, Fourth edition
3. Cambridge, Chemistry, GCSE
4. Alagesan Jason Praba B.Sc Chemistry, STPM, volume 1
5. James E. Brady, General Chemistry Principles and Structure, second edition
6. Robert C. Atkins, Organic Chemistry, third edition
7. Dra,Uditya Azizah, MPd, Direktorat Pendidikan Dasar dan Menengah, 2004
8. Drs, Hiskia Achmad, Kimia Dasar, Universitas Terbuka, 1986
9. Michael Purba, Kimia Ia, Erlangga

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CHAPTER III
ELECTROLYTE SOLUTION AND REDOX CONCEPT

I. ELECTROLYTE SOLUTION
A . Electrolyte and non-electrolyte

Liquid substance can be divided into 2 types, they are liquid substance which can conduct
electric current and liquid substance which can not conduct electric current. liquid substance which
can conduct electric current called electrolyte , while liquid substance that can’t conduct electric
current is called non electrolyte.
Instrument called electrolyte test can be used to know whether a liquid substance can
conduct electric current or not, included solution in water.
If fresh water dissolved NaCl crystal, so the solution can conduct electric well, signed
with the lamp on in electrolyte test instrument. The same event will happen if fresh water
droped by thick sulfate acid. Solution in water and H2 SO4 called electrolyte solution. Sugar
solution, urea solution and alcohol solution in water does not conduct electric, so that
these solution called non electrolyte solution.
How can electrolyte solution conduct electric current ? in 1884, Svante Arhenius state
his theory, that in electrolyte solution that acting as conductor of electric current is particles
charge ( ion ) which move freely in solution. In solution NaCl dissociation increase into
positive ion Na + ( cation ) and negative ion Cl - ( anion ) that move freely.
A substance can become electrolyte if in solution, its substance decomposing into ions,
that move freely.
Electrolyte substance can come from ionic compound or several covalent compound,
that in dissolved solution can be composed to ions.

1. Ionic compound

Ionic compound in cystal form are as ions, but those ions string one and another with strong and
close, so that it does not move free. Becoming crystal, ionic compound does not conduct
electric current. Just the opposite if ionic compound in from of liquid or solution, ions move
freely, so it can conduct electric.

Example :
NaCl(s) + H 2O → Na +(aq) + Cl -(aq)

2. Covalent compound
Example :

HCl(aq) → H +(aq) + Cl -(aq)

Exercise :
Write ionization reaction of the following solution !
1. K2SO4
2. HNO3
3. Fe2 (SO4)3

B. STRONG ELECTROLYTE AND WEAK ELECTROLYTE

Strong electrolyte is solution that has strong electric conduction power. Weak electrolyte is
solution that has weak electric conduction power.
The electrolyte force can be differentiated by electrolyte test instrument . In strong electrolyte
solution the lamp will light brightly and around the electrode emerge many bubbles gas. While in
weak electrolyte lamp overcast or it is off but there is gas bubbles around electrode. The other
several covalent compounds , like NH3 , CH3COOH and H3PO4 in solution only partly ionized, so
that it is classified as weak electrolyte solution

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EXPERIMENT TEST POWER CURRENT OF SOLUTION

INSTRUMENT AND MATTERS

a. Electrolyte test instrument

b. Tissue paper
c. Dry cell
d. Distillate water
5. Solution : 1. NaCl 1 M
2. HCl 1 M
3. NaOH 1 M
4. Sucrose
5 . NH3 1M
6. Vinegar
7. alcohol
Activities :

1. Stack the electrolyte hints.

2. Test the solution in following table, by dipping the electrode in solution ( if you want to
change the solution, wash the electrode and dry with tissue paper )

No Matter Chemical formula Lamp Around electrode

1 Pure water
2 Sodium chloride
3 Chloride acid
4 Sodium hydroxide
5 Sucrose
6 Ammonia
7 Alcohol
8 Vinegar

Question.
1. Classify the solution that are examined into :
1. Electrolyte solution
2. Non electrolyte solution
2. Among the observed solution , which of solution contain dissolved substance in form of the
following compound :
a. Ionic compound
b. Covalent compound
3. In liquid and solution condition , ionic compound can conduct electric current , because the
ions move freely , however in solid condition ionic compound can not conduct electric
current , because this ion cannot move freely in solution . Ionic compound can compose into
positive ion and negative ion , this event is called ionization.
Complete :
a. NaCl → Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
b. NaOH →
c. K2SO4 →
d. Ba(OH)2 →

4. Covalent compound although it does not form as joint ion can decomposed into positive ion
and negative ion , because water molecule pull force characteristic is polar.
Complete :

a. H2SO4 →
b. HCl →
c. NH3 →

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II. REDOX CONCEPT
A. The Development Of Redox Reaction Concept
1. The first concept :

Oxidation is a reaction of oxygen gain to other substances.

Example : 4K + O2 → 2K2
2Mg + O2 → 2MgO

Reduction is a reaction of oxygen loss from a substance.

Example : 2Na2O → 4Na + O2
2Fe2O3 → 4Fe + 3O2

2. The second concept :

Oxidation is reaction of loss of electrons from an atom.
Example : Fe → Fe2+ + 2e

Reduction is a reaction of gain electron of an atom

Example :Cl + 2e → 2 Cl-

3. The third concept :

Oxidation is a reaction which increases oxidation number
Reduction is a reaction which decreases oxidation number.

B. Oxidation Number
Oxidation number is the quantity of load which is owned by an element in a compound.
The rule for determining oxidation number
1. Free element have oxidation number = 0
Example : Oxidation number 0 in O2 = 0 ; Mg in Mg = 0 ; F in F2 = 0 and so on.
2. The oxidation number of H is generally = +1, except in its compound with metal
of which oxidation number is -1.
Example : Oxidation number of H in HCl , H2O , NH3 = +1
Oxidation number of H in NaH , BaH2 = -1
3. The oxidation of O is generally = -2
Example : Oxidation number of O in H2O , MgO = -2
Except : in peroxide , example : oxidation number of O in H2O2 = -1
In super oxide , example : oxidation number of O in KO2 = -1/2
4. The oxidation of metal elements always have positive sign the same its valence.
Example : Na = +1 , K = +1 , Ca = +2 , Mg = +2 , Al = +3 , Zn = +2 , Ag = +1 , etc.
5. The oxidation number of ion is equal to its load.
Example : Fe3+ , oxidation number of Fe = +3
O2- , oxidation number of O = -2
6. The total of oxidation numbers in a compound = 0
7. The total of oxidation numbers of ion = its load.
Example : Determine the oxidation number of P in H3PO4
Solution : H3PO4
( + 1 X 3 ) + P + (-2X4) = 0
( + 3 ) + P + ( -8 ) = 0
P=+5
So the oxidation number of P = + 5

Exercise :

Determine the oxidation number of these elements !

1. S in H2S 6. Cl in ClO3-
2. S in SO42- 7. Mn in KMnO4
3. Cr in K2CrO4 8. C in CaCO3
4. Cr in K2Cr2O7 9. N in Cu(NO3)2
5. Cl in KClO2 10. Fe in Fe2O3

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C. REDOX REACTION
Redox Reaction is the reaction which changes in oxidation number, or oxidation and reduction
that occurs at the same time.
Oxidation reaction is a reaction which increase oxidation number. The substance that increases the
oxidation number is called reductor/reducing agent.
Reduction reaction is a reaction which decreases oxidation number. The substance that decreases the
oxidation number is called oxidator/ oxidizing agent.

Exercise :
Determine the reductor, the oxidator , the result of the oxidation and the
Result of reduction in reaction :
2HCl + Zn → ZnCl2 + H2

Solution :
-The oxidation number of H from +1 into 0,and it does reduction
reaction.HCl is called oxidator / oxidizing agent. So the result of
reduction is H2
-The reduction number of Zn from 0 into +2 , and it does oxidation
reaction. Zn is called reductor / reducing agent. So the result of
oxidation is ZnCl2

Exercise :

Determine the reductor,the oxidator ,the result of oxidation and the result of reduction in reaction
1. 4 Fe + 3 O2 → 2 Fe2O3
2. Mg + 2HNO3 → Mg(NO3)2 + H2
3. 2CuSO4 + 4KI → 2CuI + I2 + K2SO4
4. 2KClO3 + 3S → 2KCl + 3SO2
5. 2KMnO4 + 5 H2C2O4 +3 H2SO4 → K2SO4 + 2MnSO4 + 10CO2 + 8H2O

D.AUTOREDOX REACTION OR DISPROPORSIONATION

Autoredox reaction is redox reaction in which the oxidator and the reductor are the same
substances.
Example :
Cl2 + 2OH- → Cl - + ClO - + H2O
Oxidation number of Cl change from 0 into -1.It means Cl does reduction reaction or Cl2 is as
oxidator/oxidizing agent.
And oxidation number of Cl change from 0 into +1, it means Cl does oxidation reaction or
Cl2 is as reductor/reducing agent.
So Cl2 is called oxidator and reductor.
E.NOMENCLATURE OF COMPOUND
If the metal has more than one oxidation number , so mention the name of metal and followed
by the oxidation number of roman in bracket.
Example : FeSO4 = Iron (II) sulphate
Fe2(SO4)3 = Iron (III) sulphate
Exercise : 1.Name the following substance be based on oxidation number !
a. SnCl4 d. AuBr3
b. PbCl2 e. CuO
c. Mn(SO4)2
2.Make the chemical formula :
a. Nitrogen (II) oxide d. Tin (IV) sulphate
b. Iron (III) nitrate e. Plumbum (II)carbonate
c. Copper (II) sulphite
F. APPLICATION OE REDOX REACTION IN EVERYDAY LIFE
1. Combustion of Rocket’s Fuel.
Most of the rocket is filled with liquid fuel and a liquid oxidizing agent ( oxidizer ) . The
fuel and oxidizing agent mix and ignite in the combustion chamber. The presence of the
oxidizing agent ensures that the fuel burns far more efficiently than it could if it
depended on the surrounding air for oxygen.

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2.Bleaching Process
Bleaching is a process of removing the natural color of textile fibers, yarns , fabrics ,
wood pulp , paper and other products such as foodstuffs by a given chemical reaction ,
include oxidation and reduction. Many pigments can be removed from a substance by
using oxidizing agents as bleach. Most commonly of bleaches used in this process
are chlorine compounds , hydrogen peroxide , sodium perborate and potassium,
permanganate . Beside that , many pigments and colored substances can be decolored by
such reducing agents is often used to remove artificial colorants such as dyes from
textiles. Oxidizing agents usually produce more permanent whites than do reducing
agents.

3.Preventing of Free Radical Damage

Free radical is a term to represent a highly reactive atom or group of atoms having
an unpaired electron. Free radicals might play a role in various maladies , such as
arthritis and heart disease . Free radicals in the our body can attack lipids , proteins , and
nucleic acids . Besides that the free radicals can damage living cells , spoil food and
damage materials such as rubber , gasoline and lubricating oils.
To prevent free radical damage , scientist use a substance called antioxidant , is a
type of molecule that can neutralize free radical by halting the chain reaction of free
radical. Some antioxidants are themselves free radicals, donating electrons ( make use
the concept of redox ) to stabilize and neutralize the dangerous , free radicals . Other
antioxidants work against the molecules that form free radicals, destroying them before
they can begin to produce the a certain damage.
The examples of antioxidants are usually used in the body are vitamin C , vitamin
E and beta – carotene. Meanwhile antioxidants are usually used in industry are BHT
( butylated hydroxy toluene ) and BHA ( butylated hydroxyl anesole ), which are usually
added to foodstuffs in concentrations of much less than 1 percent .

4.Wastewater Treatment
The concept of redox reaction is usually used in wastewater treatment process. In
everyday life we often find the sewage sources , among others are waterborne waste from
sinks , toilets and industrial processes . Thee sewage can cause a serious problem for our
environment and health . Therefore , treatment of the sewage is required before it can be
safely buried , used , or released back into local water systems .
Generally , wastewater treatment process consist of three main phases of
treatment are primary , secondary and tertiary .
In primary treatment , most of the suspended solids and inorganic material is
removed from the sewage .
Meanwhile , the focus of secondary treatment is reducing organic materials by
accelerating natural biological processes. To reduce organic materials in the wastewater
is done oxidation reaction using activated sludge ( the sludge containing much of a kind
of aerobe bacteria that can decompose an organic material ).
Product of secondary treatment later is flowed into the place for tertiary treatment
. Tertiary treatment is necessary if the water will be reused. This treatment process I done
to remove the rest solids , toxicants , heavy metals and bacteria from the water by
various chemical processes , so the water are free from impurity as possible .

EVALUATION
I. Choose the correct answer
1.The result of experiment as follow :

Burning light bulb Gas bubbles

Solution
Yes No Yes No
1 V V
2 V V
3 V V
4 V V
5 V V
The solution is called strong electrolyte and weak electrolyte are……………

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A. 1 and 3 B. 1 and 4 C. 2 and 4 D. 2 and 5 E. 3 and 5
2. The result of experiment as follow

Burning light Gas bubbles

Solution bulb
Yes No Yes No
P V V
Q V V
R V V
S V V
T V V
The both of these weak electrolytes are………..
A. P and Q B. Q and R C. Q and S D. P and T E. R and S

3. The in correct statement for characteristic of electrolyte solution is……

A. In water that decomposes perfectly forms cation and anion.
B. The solution can transmit the electric current.
C. In the form ionic compound or covalent compound.
D. Just from ionic compound.
E. Have the ionization degree : 0 < α < 1

4. If you do an experiment of electrolyte solution, the solution does not make the light bulb
burning and produce the gas bubbles is……….
A. NaOH(aq) B. NaCl(aq) C. NH3(aq) D.C6H12O6(aq) E. HCl(aq)

5. The following strong electrolyte compound and the classified covalent compound is……
A. CaCl2 B. KBr C. NaBr D. HBr E. KCl

6. Both the covalent compound and electrolyte solution are……………

A. NaCl and HCl C. HCl and NH3 E. NH3 and C6H5OH
7.The compound in solution and most of many ion production is…..
A. H2SO4 B. AlCl3 C. Na2SO4 D. Al2( SO4 ) 3 E. HCl

8.The above correct electrict power is………..

A. NaCl > H2CO3 > C2H5OH
B. H2CO3 > C2H5OH > NaCl
C. C2H5OH > NaCl > CH3COOH
D. CH3COOH > NaCl > C2H5OH
E. H2CO3 > NaCl > C2H5OH

9.The compound in solution and most ion production is ….

A. H2SO4 B. AlCl3 C. Na2SO4 D. Al2 (SO4)3 E. HCl

10..Pair of solution which are classified into weak electrolyte solution :

A. Sulphate acid and vinegar D. Ammonia and chloride acid
B. Vinegar and ammonia E. Sulphite and sugar
C. Chloride acid and sulphate acid

11.The following system which cannot transmit the electric current is……
A. CH3COOH B. H2SO4 C. Mg(OH)2 D. C6H12O12 E. K2SO4

12.The analyzed incident electrolyte substance that becomes ions is called ….

A. oxidation B. reduction C. ionization D. correlation E. assimilation.

13. Mg3( PO4 ) 2 solution can decomposed perfectly in water . The ionization reaction is ...
Mg3+
2−
A. Mg3( PO4 ) 2 → 2 + 3 PO4
2+ 2−
B. Mg3( PO4 ) 2 → 3 Mg + 2 PO4
Mg 3+
2−
C. Mg3( PO4 ) 2 → + PO4
+ 2−
D. Mg3( PO4 ) 2 → 3 Mg + 2 PO4

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14. According to oxidation number concept, the oxidation reaction can be defined as……
A. the release of electron of a substance.
B. the increase of electrons of a substance.
C. the increases of oxidation number of a substance.
D. the decreases of oxidation number of a substance.
E. the reaction of oxygen’s increase of a substance

15.The oxidation number of chlor in HClO4 compound is…..

A. -1 B. + 1 C. +3 D.+5 E. +7

16. The oxidation number of xenon in XeF6+ is ….

A. + 7 B. + 6 C. + 5 D.- 5 E. – 7

17. The reaction : 3I2 + 6KOH → 5 KI + KIO3 + 3H2O

The oxidation number iodine change from……………
A. 0 into +1 and -5 D. +1 into 0 and -1
B. -1 into +1 and 0 E. 0 into -1 and +5
C. 0 into -1 and -2

18.The following which is not redox reaction is …………….

A. 2H2 + O2 → 2H2O
B. 2CuO + N2 → 2Cu + 2NO
C. Fe2 O3 +2 Al → Al2 O3 + 2Fe
D. C + O2 → CO2
E. SO3 + H2O → H2SO4

19.SO2 which functions as oxidator can be found in the reaction :

A. SO2 + H2O → H2SO3 D. SO2 + 2H2S → 2H2O + 3S
B. 2 SO2 + O2 → 2SO3 E. SO2 + Ba(OH) 2 → BaSO3 + H2O
C. SO2 + PbO → PbSO3

20.In the reaction : 2NaI + MnO2 + 2H2SO4 → MnSO4 +2H2O + Na2SO4 + I2

The reductor substance is……………………..
A NaI D. H2SO4
B. MnO2 E.NaI dan MnO2
C. MnO2 and H2SO4

21 .The reaction : Sn + 4HNO3 → SnO2 + 4NO2 + 2H2O

Which one is the result of the oxidation !
A. Sn D.SnO2
B.NO2 E.H2O
C. HNO3

22. Autoredox reaction can be found in the reaction :

a. H2 + Cl2 → 2 HCl
b. 2KClO3 → 2KCl + 3O2
c. 3Cl2 + 6KOH → 5KCl + KClO3 + 3H2O
d. 2KI + Cl2 → 2KCl + I2
e. MnO2 + 4HCl → MnCl2 + 2H2O + Cl2

23. The chemical formula of Tin (IV) sulphate is ….

a. SnS4 b.SnS c. Sn2(SO4) 4 d. SnSO4 e. Sn(SO4) 2

24.Which is not the application of redox reaction in everyday life ?

a. combustion of rocket’s fuel.
b. bleaching process
c. wastewater treatment
d.petroleum manufacture
e. preventing of free radical damage

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25.Activated sludge is the sludge containing much of ….
a. anaerobe bacteria
b. aerobe bacteria
c. biochemical oxygen demand
d.dissolved oxygen
e. carbon atoms

II. Answer these questions bellow briefly !

26.Complete the following table :
Strong
Numbe electrolyte/ Ionization
Solution
r Weak electrolyte/ reaction
Non electrolyte
1 NaOH
2 H2S
3 C2H5OH
4 MgCl2
5 Al(OH)3

27. Why can kitchen salt solid not transmit electric current, but kitchen salt solution can transmit
electric current,please explain !

28. Determine the oxidation number of nitrogen atom in :

+
a. NO2 b. NH 4 c.Pb(NO3) 2 d.HNO2 e.N2H4

29. The reaction : 2HNO3 + 3H2S → 2NO + 3S + 4H2O

a. Determine the substance as oxidator and reductor !
b. Determine the substance as the result of oxidation and the result of
reduction !

30. Name the following substance in accordance to the nomenclature :

a. N2O b. Fe(NO3)2 c. CuO

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CHAPTER III
HYDROCARBON AND PETROLEUM
a. CARBON COMPOUNDS ARE ORGANIC COMPOUND

Generally, the chemist classify compound in this nature into organic compounds and inorganic compounds.
Organic compounds are compounds made from the living things. Among other of organic compounds are
sugar, carbohydrate, protein vitamins, lipid, and urea. Meanwhile, organic compounds are compounds that
must not made from the non-living things. Water, table salt, sand, and alabaster are examples of inorganic
compounds.
Organic and inorganic compounds can be distinguished based on their properties, those are as follows.
Organic compounds Inorganic compounds
1. Organic compounds have the boiling and Inorganic compound have the boiling and melting
meeting points which low relative points which high relative
2. Organic compounds are soluble less in water Inorganic compounds are easy to dissolve in water
or other polar solvents, but easy to dissolve or polar solvents and less soluble in non polar
in non polar solvents, such as gasoline and solvents.
chloroform (CHCl3)
3. Organic compound are flammable than
inorganic compounds, but organic
compounds are less reactive to other
substances.
4. Chemical bond of organic compound is Chemical bond of inorganic compound generally
covalent bonds is ionic bond

Compound from living is beings contain carbon. For example, sugar, urea, acetate, alcohol, and many
kinds of vitamin. Initially, such compounds cannot be made in the laboratory, so that they are called
organic compounds. Even there has been an assumption of vitalism , saying that the formation of organic
compounds need “vital force”. Other compounds which do not always come from living being are called
inorganic compounds.
In 1828, Freiderich Wohler was successful in making urea though heating of certain ammonium.

NH 4 CNO ⃗Δ CO( NH 2 )2
Heating Urea
With the invention, millions of organic compound are successfully synthesized. Even nowadays,
many synthetic carbon compounds, which cannot be found in living beings, but they have similar
characteristics, are classified into organic compounds. However, classification of chemical compounds of
organic compounds and inorganic compounds remains useful although it now relies more on the nature of
the compounds. Nowadays no less than 9 million organic carbon compounds have been recognized;
meanwhile there are only around 500 thousand inorganic compounds. Small part of carbon compounds,
like CO, CO2, carbonate, and cyanide, is pertained into inorganic compounds. Organic carbon
compounds will be specially discussed in another branch of chemistry called organic chemistry.
In this chapter the focus discussion will be the simplest organic compound group that is hydrocarbon.
First, we will talk about how to identify carbon in organic compounds, then what is hydrocarbon
composition and the different nature between organic compound and inorganic compounds. Next, we will
also discuss about the specialty of carbon , that is about how carbon can form so many compounds. We
will also talk about alkanes, alkenes, and alkynes, representing three main groups of hydrocarbon. By the
end of this chapter, we will be learned about natural gas and petroleum, which represents the special
source of hydrocarbon in industry.

b. HYDROCARBON
a.Carbon Identification in Organic Substances.
All materials coming from living beings contain carbon. Notice what happens when some
organic materials like a piece of wood, eggs, meat or rice grain are burned. Those materials will
look black because the heat has decomposed the materials into several elements, among others,
carbon whose colour is black.
The existence of carbon and hydrogen in organic materials can also be shown through simple
experiments, for example combustion test.
The combustion of an organic sample will alter C into CO 2 and H into H2O. CO2 gas can be
recognized because it disturbs lime water (solution). Meanwhile, H 2O can be recognized with
cobalt paper because water (H2O) turns the colour of cobalt paper from blue to pink.
CO2(g) + Ca(OH)2(aq)  CaCO3(s) +H2O(l)

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Lime water

STUDENT WORKSHEET
Identifying Elements That Composes Carbon Compound

Purpose: Determine the composer elements of carbon compound.

Instrument and material:

A. reaction tube (2)
B. stand
C. cork
D. alcohol burner
E. small hose
F. sugar
G. cobalt paper
H. lime water [Ca(OH)2]

Activities:
- Fill the reaction tube with sugar, and then cover with cork which is completed by small hose
- Fill another reaction tube with lime water
- Heat the sugar in reaction tube until it has black colour. And flow gas which happens into the lime
water (see picture) please observe.
- Immerse the cobalt paper into the substance that adheres to the tube wall.

sugar

Alcohol burner
Lime water

Observation:
No Activities Observation
1. The sugar heated
2. The lime water after flown by gas
3. The change of the cobalt paper colour after immersed into
the substance that adheres to the tube wall

Question
1. What happens at sugar? Please explain!
2. What happens at lime water after gas is flown? Please explain!
3. What happens at cobalt paper after immerse into the substance that adheres to the tube wall?
Please explain?
4. Conclude, what elements compose the carbon compound?
5. What elements compose the hydrocarbon?

b.Specification of Carbon Atom

i. Carbon Atom Can form 4 Covalent Bonds
Carbon atom can form a covalent bond with the non-metallic element atoms although the
metallic element atoms. The most elements found which have form the covalent bonds with
carbon atom are hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), nitrogen (N), and halogens elements (F, Cl, Br,
and I). The following are examples of carbon compounds.

H C H Methane (CH4)

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Cl

H C Cl Chloroform (CHCl3)

Cl

H C O H Methanol (CH3OH)

b.The size of carbon atom is small relative

According to its periodic number, carbon atom only has 2 atom shells so that its radian is
relatively small. This result in:
1. relatively strong covalent bonds
2. capability to form double or triple bonds
The strength of covalent bond depends on the radians of the atoms in the bond, the longer the
radians the weaker the bond. Meanwhile, double bonds can only be formed by relatively
small atoms (The element in the second and third periods). The elements in the forth period
cannot form double bonds.
a. Single bond : if C to C atom connected to one bond line ( C – C)
b. Double bond : if C to C atom connected to two bond line ( C = C)
c. Triple bond : if C to C atom connected to three bond line ( C ≡ C)
c. Based on the chain carbon form, it can be deferred :
1. Open chain (aliphatic) : is the chain where inter tips carbon atom are not connected
| | | |
Example: – C – C – C – C –
| | | |
2. Closed chain (cyclic) : is the chain where inter tips carbon atom are connected

| |
C –C–C–
; | |
–C–C–
C_ C | |

Example :

d. Based on position carbon atom, it can be differed:

1. Primary carbon atom : is the carbon atom which is bound by 1 carbon atom
2. Secondary carbon atom : is the carbon atom which is bound by 2 carbon atom
3. Tertiary carbon atom : is the carbon atom which is bound by 3 carbon atom
4. Quartet carbon atom : is the carbon atom which is bound by 4 carbon atom

Example : C7 C8 C9
| | |
C1– C2 – C3 – C4 – C5 – C6
| |
C10 C11

a. The primary carbon atom is numbered : 1; 7 ; 8 ; 9 ; 10 ; 11 (tips C)

b. The Secondary carbon atom is numbered : 3 and 5
c. The Tertiary carbon atom is numbered : 2 and 6
d. The Quartet carbon atom is numbered :4

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Exercise 7.1

 Write some differences of organic and inorganic compound!

 Why is the carbon atom can form 4 covalent bonds? Explain!

 Explain the difference of the primary, secondary, tertiary, and quarterly carbon atoms !

 Determine the quantity of primary, secondary, tertiary and quarterly C atoms in the following carbon
compound:
CH3
|
1. CH3– CH – C – CH2 – CH3
| |
CH3 CH3

CH3
|
2. CH3– CH – CH – CH – CH3
| |
CH2 CH3
|
3. CH3

CH3
|
CH3– CH2 – CH – CH2 – C – CH3
| |
CH – CH3 CH3
|
CH3

b. The classification of hydrocarbon

The classification of hydrocarbon based on the carbon chain type and the carbon bond types as
follow

Saturated, ex : Alkanes CnH2n+2)

Its has single bond ( C – C )
Aliphatic (is open chain hydrocarbon)

Not saturated, ex :
Alkenes (CnH2n), it is has double bond
(C = C)
Hydrocarbon Alkynes (CnH2n-2),it is has triple bond ( C C)

Alicyclic, ex : Sicloalkenes (CnH2n)

Cyclic (is closed chain hydrocarbon)

Aromatic, ex : Benzene (C6H6)

c. THE SATURATETD HYDROCARBON (Alkanes)

a.The common formula is CnH2n+2
Number of C Molecule formula Name

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atom
1 CH4 Methane
2 C2H6 Ethane
3 C3H8 Propane
4 C4H10 Butane
5 C5H12 Pentane
6 C6H14 Hexane
7 C7H16 Heptane
8 C8H18 Octane
9 C9H20 Nonane
10 C10H22 Decane
b.Structure formula
Structure formula is the formula that is described by bond line.
Example:
Molecule
Structure formula
formula
H
|
CH4 H–C–H
|
H
H H
| |
C2H6 H – C – C – H or CH3 – CH3
| |
H H
C3H8 H H H
| | |
H – C – C – C – H or CH3 – CH2 – CH3
| | |
H H H
Etc

c. Nomenclature of alkanes
a.The straight chain
Mention the name that is appropriate with the quantity of carbon atom, and please give the
prefix “n” (normal)
Example:
1.CH3 – CH2 – CH2 – CH3 the name is n – butane
2.CH3 – CH2 – CH2 – CH2 – CH3 the name is n – pentane
b.The branch chain
The rule of nomenclature based on IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied
Chemistry):
1. Determine the longest chain of carbon atom, this is the main chain form
2. The carbon atom which is not located on the longest chain is called branch. The branch is
called alkyl (CnH2n+1)
The name of alkyl, the suffix of “ane” in alkanes is changed into “yl”
The molecule formula and name of alkyl groups are given the following:
Molecule formula (CnH2n+1) Name
CH3 Methyl
C2H5 Ethyl
C3H7 Propyl
C4H9 Butyl
Etc
3. Give the number of the longest chain in carbon atom from the tips which are near to the
branch. If three or more branches and if we count from left of right side is similar, the
branch numbers is added and take the small amount.
4. Nomenclature: mention branch number, branch name and name of the longest chain (main
chain).
a. If the compound that has one CH 3 branch and it’s bound by C atom number two, the
name can be given iso prefix.
b. If two or more branches and the branches are similar, the branch name is given prefix
di (2), tri (3), tetra (4), etc
c. If two or more branches and they are different, the branch is name written in
alphabetical order.

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Example: Write names for the following:

CH3 – CH2 – CH2 – CH – CH3

| 2 – methyl pentane
CH3
CH3 – CH – CH – CH2 – CH3
| | 2, 3 – dimethyl pentane
CH3 CH3
CH3
|
CH3 – C – CH – CH2 – CH2 – CH3 3 – ethyl 2,2 – di methyl hexane
| |
CH3 C2H5

c. Isomer
Isomer is two or more compounds that have some molecule formula but they have different
structure formula.
Example: CH3
Isomers of butane (C4H10) are: |
CH3 – CH2 – CH2 – CH3 and CH3 – CH – CH3

n – butane 2 – methyl propane

d.The characteristic of alkanes

i. Physical characteristic
1. The Substance form
a. From C1 up to C4 (methane to butane) are in the form gas
b. From C5 up to C12 are in the form of liquid
c. C12 up are in the form of solid
2. Boiling point / melting point
a. The bigger the relative mass atom (Mr) or the more quantity of C atom, the higher of
boiling/ melting point.
Example: the boiling / melting point of pentane is higher than propane
b. The straight chain compound has the boiling / melting point higher than branch chain.
Example: the boiling / melting point n pentane is higher than 2 – methyl butane
ii. Chemistry characteristic
1. The alkanes is difficult to react with another elements, because alkanes is saturated chain.
2. When it is perfectly burn, it will produce carbon dioxide (CO 2) and water (H2O) gas.
Example: CH4(g) + 2O2(g)  CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)
C3H8(g) + 5O2(g)  3CO2(g) + 4H2O(g)

3. Alkanes can be substituted by halogen (X2), it will produce halo alkanes and halide acid.
Example: C2H6 + F2  C2H5F + HF
CH4 + Cl2  CH3Cl + HCl
C3H8 + Br2  C3H7Br + HBr

Exercise 7.2
A. Explain the definition of the following terms:
.. Saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons
.. Aliphatic and cyclic hydrocarbons
B. Mention the name of the following
.. (CH3)3– C – CH2 – CH(CH3)2
.. CH3 – C H2 – CH(C2H5) – (CH2)2 – CH(CH3)2
.. (CH3)2 – CH – (CH2)2 – CH3
.. CH3 – (CH2)3 – CH3
C. Write the structure formula as follows :
.. 2,2 – di methyl propane
.. 2, 3, 3 – tri methyl hexane
.. 3 – methyl pentane
.. 3 ethyl – 2 – methyl heptane
.. 3 ethyl – 2, 2 – di methyl hexane
D. Write isomers from hexane and give the name for each!
E. Finish the reaction equation as follow:
.. C5H12 + O2 
.. CH4 + Br2 

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ALKENES

A. The common formula is CnH2n

The amount of C
Molecule formula Name
atom
2 C2H4 Ethene
3 C3H6 Propene
4 C4H8 Butene

B. Structure Formula
Structure Formula is the formula that is described by bond line. In the structure formula of alkenes
contains of double bond
Example:
Molecule
Structure formula
formula
H – C = C – H or CH2 = CH2
C2H4 | |
H H
C3H6 CH2 = CH – CH3 or CH3 – CH = CH

C. Nomenclature of alkenes
.. The straight chain
a. Give the number of C atom from the tips which is near to double bond.
b. Mention the appropriate name with the quantity of C atom and in front of it give number that
shows the number of C that has double bond (take the smallest number)
Example :
(1) CH2 = CH – CH2 – CH3 the name is 1 – butane
(2) CH3 – CH = CH – CH3 the name is 2 – butane
.. The Branch chain
a. Determine of longest chain of C atom which contains double bond.
b. Give the number of the longest chain in C atom from the tips which is near to double bond.
c. Nomenclature : mention the branch number, the branch name, the number of C atom that has
double bond (take the smallest number) and name the longest chain
d. In giving the branch names is like alkanes

Example :
(1) CH3 – CH – CH = CH2 the name is 3 methyl 1 – butene
|
CH3
(2) CH3 – CH2 – C – CH2 – CH3 the name is 2 – ethyl 1 – butene

CH2
D. Isomer
Alkenes has 3 kind isomers:
.. Chain isomer.
Chain isomer is caused by the difference of C atom chain.
Example: Write the chain isomer of butene

Solution: CH2 = CH – CH2 – CH3 and CH2 = C – CH3

|
CH3
1 – butene 2 – methyl 1 - propene
So 1 – butane and 2 – methyl 1 - propene is chain isomer
.. Position Isomer
Position isomer is caused by the difference of double chain position.
Example: Write the position isomer of butanes!
Solution: CH2 = CH – CH2 – CH3 and CH3 – CH = CH – CH3
1 – butene 2 – butene
So 1 butene and 2 – butene is position isomer
.. Geometrical isomer
a. The geometrical isomer happens at the compound which has double bond
b. The geometrical isomers happen because the location of alkyl in the different room
c. If the alkyl of the same kinds are located on the same position of the double bond, they are
called cis
d. If the alkyl the same kinds in the opposite position, they are called trans.

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Example:
CH3
CH3 CH3

CH CH and
CH CH

CH3
The name is trans 2 – butene The name is cis 2 – butene

ALKYNES

A. The common formula is CnH2n – 2

The amount of C
Molecule formula Name
atom
2 C2H2 Ethyne
3 C3H4 Propyne
4 C4H6 Butyne
Etc

B. Structure formula
Structure Formula is the formula that is described by bond line. In the structure formula of alkynes
contains of triple bond

Example:
Molecule formula Structure formula
C2H2 CH  CH
C3H4 CH  CH – CH3
C4H6 CH – C  C – CH3
Etc
C. Nomenclature of alkynes
The names of alkynes are derived from alkenes by changing the suffix ene into yne
Example:
(1) CH  C – CH3 the name is 1 – propyne.
(2) CH3 – C  C – CH – CH3 the name is 4 – methyl pentyne.
|
CH3
D. Isomer
Isomers alkynes is began from butyne there are :
A. CH3 – CH2 – C C 1 – butyne.
B. CH3– C  C – CH3 2 – butyne.

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THE CHARACTERISTIC OF ALKENES AND ALKYNES
- The physical characteristic ( are almost the same as of alkenes)
o The longer carbon atom chain the higher of boiling / melting point.
o In the room temperature, the low series are in the form of gas. In the middle series, they are in the
form of liquid and while in high series, they are in the form of solid.
- Chemistry characteristic
The alkenes and alkynes are more reactive than alkenes because alkenes and alkynes have double
bond and triple bond.
The Alkenes / alkyne reaction:
o Oxidation reaction (combustion)
Alkenes / alkynes if burn perfectly, it will produce carbon dioxide (CO 2) and steam (H2O):
Example:
i. C3H6(g) + 4 ½ O2(g)  3CO2(g) + 3H2O(g)
ii. C3H4(g) + 4 O2(g)  3CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)
o Addition reaction
The addition reaction of a substance to alkenes / alkynes for changing double bond / triple bond
becomes single bond.
1. Hydrogen addition
Hydrogen addition to alkenes / alkynes will produce alkanes.
Example:
 CH3 – CH = CH2 + H2  CH3 – CH2 – CH3
1 – propene n - propane
 CH3 – C  CH + 2H2  CH3 – CH2 – CH3
1 – propyne n - propane
2. Halide Acid Addition
Alkenes / alkynes are added with halide acid (HCl, HBr, HI) will produce alkyl halide
If Alkenes / alkynes is added with halide acid, so it will use Markonikov Law:
e. H atom from acid will be bounded to c atom that use double which has more H.
f. If the amount of H is similar, so H from acid will be bounded to C atom which has the
smallest number.
Example:
1. CH3 – CH2 – CH = CH2 + HCl  CH3 – CH2 – CH – CH3
|
Cl
1 butene 2 – chloro butane

Cl
|
2. CH3 – CH2 – CH = CH – CH2 + HCl  CH3 – CH2 – CH – CH2 – CH3

2 pentene 3 – chloro pentane

3. Halogen Addition
Alkenes / alkynes are added with halogen (Br2, Cl2, I2,) will produce hallo alkanes
Example:
1. CH3 – C = CH2 + Cl2  CH3 – CH – CH2
| |
Cl Cl
1 – propene 1, 2 di chloro propane

Br Br
| |
2. CH3 – C  C – CH3 + 2Br2  CH3 – C – C – CH3
| |
Br Br
2 – butyne 2, 2, 3, 3 tetra bromo butane
4. Polymerization
Polymerization is the process of combining simple molecules into bigger molecules. The
simple molecules are called monomers, whereas the result of the combination are called
polymers
Example:
CH2 = CH2 + CH2 = CH2 + CH2 = CH2 + ...  ( – CH2 – CH2 – )n
Ethene ethene ethene polyethene

Ethene is called monomer and polyethene is called polymer

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TO SHOW DOUBLE BOND AT ALKENES OR ALKYNES ARE USE
BROMO WATER REAGENT
Bromo water has brown color, it is added to alkenes / alkynes compound so the brown color of bromo
water become colourless
Example:
CH2 = CH2 + Br2  CH2 – CH2
Ethene Bromide | |
Br Br
1,2 di bromo ethane

e. THE USE OF ALKYNES COMPOUND

The most important alkynes compound is ethyne (C2H2). Ethyne is called acetylene.
Ethyne is made from carbide (CaC2) that reacted with water.
The reaction is: CaC2 + 2H2O  Ca(OH)2 + C2H2
The use of ethyne is to weld, to cut metal, to artificial ripening of fruits.

Exercise 7.3
1) Mention the name of the following
1. CH3 – C = C – CH3
| |
CH3 C2H5

CH3
|
2. (CH3)2 – CH – C – CH – C2H5

CH2
3. CH  C – CH2 – CH – CH3
|
C 2H 5
4. (CH3)2 – C – CH2 – C  C – CH2 – CH3
|
C 3H 7
5. CH3 – CH – CH – CH = CH3
| |
CH3 CH3

2) Write the structural formula at follows:

1) 3 – ethyl – 4 – iso propyl 2 - octane
2) 1 – methyl 2 – butyne
3) 2 – methyl – 3 – pentene
4) 2, 3, - dimethyl 2 – butene
5) 2 – iso propyl – 3 – methyl 1 - pentene
3) Write isomers from C6H10 and give the name for each!
4) Write isomers from C5H10 and give the name for each!
5) Among the following compounds, write the structural formula and determine
the compound having the geometric isomer!
a) 1 pentene
b) 2 – methyl 2 – pentene
c) 2 , 2 di methyl 2 - butene

D. PETROLEUM

The process of petroleum formation

Petroleum is formed from organism which is from animals and plant which had died. The organism
brought by river water with mud and was there at the seabed. Because of the millions of years, high
temperature and high pressure by above layers so the organism changed into oil bubble and gas.

The petroleum composition

Kinds of compound The amount of percentage Example
Hydrocarbon 90 – 99 % Alkanes, sicloalkanes, aromatic
Sulphur compound 0.1 - 7 % Alkanetiol ( R – S – H )
Nitrogen compound 0.01 – 0.9% Pyrol (C4H5N)
Oxygen compound 0.01 – 0.4% Carboxylic acid

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The process of petroleum in refinery.
The petroleum which is produced from drilling is still in crude oil form which cannot be used yet
instantly. The oil must processed with graded distillation.
The graded distillation is the continuous distillation process, so it produces various kind of products
based on the different boiling point.

Distillation diagram

Fractions from the distillation of petroleum and its usage.

Boiling point (oC) The amount of C atom Fraction of petroleum Usage

Below 40 Up to 40 Petroleum gases 2% 2. methane is used for cooking
3. butane is used in camping gas
40 – 130 4 – 12 Gasoline 5% and 4. Gasoline is used as fuel in cars
Naphtha 10% 5. Naphtha is used as fuel and
chemical feedstock for
petrochemicals
150 – 200 10 – 16 Kerosene 13% 6. Is used as fuel for heating,
cooking and as jet fuel
225 – 300 14 – 25 Diesel oil 20% 7. Is used as fuel for lorries and
ships
300 – 400 20 – 70 Lubricating oil 20% 8. Is used for lubrication of
machines and engines

Above 400 More than 70 Bitumen 30% 9. Is heated with gravel and sand
and made into rood tar

GASOLINE
The main component of gasoline is n – heptane and iso octane ( 2, 2, 4 – trimethyl pentane).
The quality of gasoline is stated with octant number / octant value. Octant number is the number that
indicates the amount / percentage of iso octane that is found in gasoline. The higher of octant number, the
higher of gasoline quality. Based on octant number, gasoline can be differed:
a)Premium gasoline is gasoline which has octant number 82. The meaning is the gasoline contain of
82% iso octane and 18% n-heptane
b) Super gasoline is gasoline which has octant number 98. The meaning is the
gasoline contain of 98% iso octant and 2% n – heptane
c)Premix gasoline is gasoline which has octant number 94. The meaning is the gasoline contain of 94%
iso octane and 6% n-heptane

To increase the quality of gasoline, so it is added anti knocking substance. For example is Tetra Ethyl
Lead (TEL). The molecule formula is Pb(C2H5)4.

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The impact of gasoline combustion to environment.
Some pollutant substance which is caused by gasoline combustion from motor vehicles.
Pollutant substance Source Impact
CO2 gas Fuel combustion Global heating / glass house effect
CO gas Non completed fuel combustion Poisonous can disturb respiration
which can cause death
NO / NO2 gas Fuel combustion at high Acid rain
temperature in which nitrogen in
the air joins in oxidation
Lead (Pb) metal Its is produced of gasoline which For Children : the body weight
contains of TEL decrease and the development of
nerve system is slow
For adults : lost eating appetite,
feel tired easily, irritation of
respiration line.
SO2 gas Petroleum combustion SO2 gas if mixed with rain water
cause acid rain.

Exercise 7.4
1. Explain how is the formation process of petroleum and natural gas?
2. Write the components of petroleum and natural gas!
3. Explain the method to obtain the petroleum fraction!
4. Determine the octant number of gasoline containing 75% of iso octane and 25% of n-heptane!
5. How to increase the octane number of gasoline?
6. Mention the advantages and disadvantages of TEL addition to gasoline!
EVALUATION
I. Choose one of the most correct answer!
a. An organic sample is heated and produces gas which can muddy lime water. The gas
is …
a. Nitrogen
b. Hydrogen
c. Oxygen
d. Carbon monoxide
e. Carbon dioxide.
b. Powder, sugar, meat, bone if they are burned will become charcoal. It shows that the
matter contains of element …
a. Hydrogen
b. Oxygen
c. Carbon
d. Nitrogen
e. Sulphur
c. Hydrocarbon is the simplest group of carbon compound. It just consists of elements
…
a. Hydrogen and oxygen
b. Hydrogen and carbon
c. Chlor and hydrogen
d. Carbon and chlor
e. Carbon and nitrogen
d. Three group which include aliphatic hydrocarbon are …
a. Alkanes, alkenes, and alkynes
b. Alkanes, benzene, and alkynes
c. Alkanes, alkynes, and sicloalkanes
d. Alkanes, alkenes, and sicloalkanes
e. Alkanes, alkynes, and benzene
e. Which one from these is the saturated carbon bond?
a. Single bond
b. Double bond
c. Triple bond
d. Four bond
e. Five bond

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6. The structure formula :

CH3 CH3
| |
CH2 – C – C – CH – CH2 – CH2 – CH3
| | | |
CH3 CH2 CH3 CH2
| |
CH3 CH3

The amount of the tertiary carbon atom is …

a. 1 b. 2 c. 3 d.4 e. 5
The incorrect of the characteristics of carbon atom is …
f. Can form covalent bond
g. Can form closed chain (Cyclic)
h. Can form single and double covalent bond
i. Have 4 valence electron
j. The element is very reactive
f. Which pairs are groups of alkanes compound?
a. C2H2 and C4H4
b. C2H2 and C2H5
c. C2H6 and C3H7
d. C2H6 and C3H8
e. C2H6 and C3H6
g. The correct name according to nomenclature of alkanes is …
a. 3, 5, 6 – tri methyl octane
b. 2, 5, 5 – tri methyl heptane
c. 6 – ethyl 3, 4 dimethyl heptane
d. 2 – ethyl 4, 5 dimethyl heptane
e. 2 – diethyl 3 – methyl hexane
h. The compound :
(CH3)2 – CH – CH2 – CH – C – (CH3)3
|
C2H5
Its name is …
a. 3 ethyl 2,2,5 p tri methyl hexane
b. 2, 5, 5 tri methyl 3 – ethyl hexane
c. 2 – ethyl 1, 1, 4, 4 tetra methyl butane
d. 3 – isopropyl 5, 5 – dimethyl hexane
e. ethyl – tri methyl hexane
i. Which one is the structure formula from 3,3 – diethyl 2 – methyl hexane?
a. CH3 – CH2 – CH (CH3) – CH – (C2H5)2
b. CH3 – CH(CH3) – C(C2H5) – C3H7
c. CH3 – CH2 – C (CH3)2 – C(C2H5)2 – CH3
d. (CH3)2 –CH – CH – (C2H5)2
e. CH3 –CH(C2H5) – CH(C2H5) – (CH2)2 – CH3
j. Which one is not isomer of n- hexane?
a. 2 methyl pentane
b. 2,3 dimethyl butane
c. 2, 2 dimetyl butane
d. 2,2 dimetyl pentane

Fractions from the distillation of petroleum and its usage.

e. 3 metyl pentane
k. Which one is incorrect about alkanes ?
a. The longer the carbon atom chain , the higher of boiling point
b. Have the same empirical formula
c. From C1 up to C4 ( methane to butane ) are liquid in room temperature
d. The saturated hydrocarbon
e. With chlor gas they can be substitution
l. The perfect burning of pentane will produce …
a. C and H2O
b. CO and H2O
c. CO2 and H2O
d. C and CO2
e. CO and CO2

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m. The compound which has the highest boiling point is …

a. CH3 ─ CH3
b. CH3 ─ CH2 ─ CH3
CH3
|
c. CH3─ CH ─ CH3
d. CH2 ─ CH2 ─ CH2 ─ CH3
|
CH3
e. CH3 ─ CH2 ─ CH2 ─ CH2 ─ CH3

n. Data: 1. CH3C(CH3)CH2
2. CH3CH2CHCH2
3. CHCCH3
4. CH3CHCHCH3
5. CH3CH2CH2CH3
The alkenes groups are ….
i. 1, 2, 3
ii. 2, 3, 4
iii. 3 , 4 , 5
iv. 1 , 2 , 4
v. 1 , 2 , 5
o. The structure formula: (CH3)2CH − CH ═ C(CH3)−C(CH3)3 . The name is ….
i. n – butane
ii. 1 – buthyne
iii. 2 – buthyne
iv. 1 – butene
v. 2 – butene
p. Which substance has geometrical isomer?
i. CH2C(CH3)(CH2)2CH3
ii. CH2CHCH(CH3)CH2CH3
iii. CH3C(CH3)CCH2CH3
iv. CH3CHCHCH(CH3)2
v. CH2CHCH2CH(CH3)2

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