Chapter 3

Cell Structures and Their

Functions

Lecturer: Carol M. Maniquiz, MAN, RN

Copyright © 2019 by McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Learning Objectives
▪ Explain how the structures of a cell
contributes to its functions.
▪ List the four main functions of a cell.
▪ Describe the structures of the cell
membrane.
▪ Define diffusion and concentration
gradient.
Lecturer: Carol M. Maniquiz, MAN, RN
Copyright © 2019 by McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Learning Objectives
▪ Explain the role of osmosis and
concentration gradient.
▪ Explain the role of osmosis and that of
osmotic pressure in controlling the
movement of water across cell
membrane.
▪ Describe the endocytosis & exocytosis.
Lecturer: Carol M. Maniquiz, MAN, RN
Copyright © 2019 by McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Learning Objectives
▪ Describe the structures and function of the
different parts of the cell.
▪ Describe the process of gene expression.
▪ Explain what is accomplished during
mitosis.
▪ Define differentiation, and explain how
different cell types develop.
Lecturer: Carol M. Maniquiz, MAN, RN
Copyright © 2019 by McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved
 Cell Structure
Cell - are the basic, structural and highly organized units
of all living things containing organelles.
Organelles - specialized structure that perform specific
functions.
Nucleus – is an organelle containing the cell’s genetic
material.
Cytoplasm – the living material surrounding the nucleus,
containing many types of organelles.
Lecturer: Carol M. Maniquiz, MAN, RN
Copyright © 2019 by McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved
 Cell Structure

Lecturer: Carol M. Maniquiz, MAN, RN

Copyright © 2019 by McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved
 Cell Structure

Lecturer: Carol M. Maniquiz, MAN, RN

Copyright © 2019 by McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved
4 Major Functions of the Cell
1. Cell metabolism and energy use – the chemical
reactions that occur within cells are called cell
metabolism. It used for cell activities e.g. synthesis of
new molecules, muscle contraction & heat production.
2. Synthesis of new molecules – cells synthesizes
different types of molecules such as lipids, proteins and
nucleic acids based on their structural and functional
characteristics.
Lecturer: Carol M. Maniquiz, MAN, RN
Copyright © 2019 by McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved
4 Major Functions of the Cell
3. Communication – cells produce and receive chemical
and electrical signals that allows them to communicate to
one another. E.g. nerve cells with muscle cells, causing
muscle cells to contract.
4. Reproduction and inheritance – each cell contains
the copy of genetic information of an individual.
Specialized cell ( sperm and egg cells) transmit the
genetic information to the next generation.
Lecturer: Carol M. Maniquiz, MAN, RN
Copyright © 2019 by McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved
 Cell Membrane
Cell or Plasma membrane – is outermost component of a
cell with 2 major types of molecules: phospholipids &
proteins.
• It supports the cell content, acts as a selective barrier that
determines what moves in and of the cell.
• It encloses the cytoplasm and forms the boundary
between extracellular and intracellular fluids.
• Extracellular fluid – substances or fluids outside the cell.
• Intracellular fluid – substances or fluids inside the cell.
Lecturer: Carol M. Maniquiz, MAN, RN
Copyright © 2019 by McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved
 Cell Membrane: Structure
• The fluid mosaic model structure depicts the plasma
membrane as an exceedingly thin (7–15 nm) structure
composed of a double layer of lipid molecules with protein
molecules dispersed in it.
• The proteins which float in the fluid lipid bilayer, form a constantly
changing mosaic pattern.
• Membrane channels and carrier molecules are involve within the
movement of substances through the cell membrane.
• Receptor molecules are part of intracellular communication system.
Lecturer: Carol M. Maniquiz, MAN, RN
Copyright © 2019 by McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved
 Cell Membrane

Lecturer: Carol M. Maniquiz, MAN, RN

Copyright © 2019 by McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Movement Through Cell Membrane
• Cell membrane are selectively permeable, meaning they
allow substances, but not others, to pass into or out of the
cells. protein molecules dispersed in it.
• Its permeability characteristics and the ability to transport
certain molecules, cells are able to maintain proper
intracellular concentrations of molecules.
• Movement through the cell membrane may be passive or
active.
Lecturer: Carol M. Maniquiz, MAN, RN
Copyright © 2019 by McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved
 Passive Transport
• No energy required (in the form of ATP)
• Move due to concentration gradient
– differences in concentration of a solute in a solvent
between two points divided by the distance between the
two points.
• Move to equalize the gradient
– movement from high concentration to a lower
concentration
Lecturer: Carol M. Maniquiz, MAN, RN
Copyright © 2019 by McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Types of Passive Transport

1. Diffusion
2. Osmosis
3. Facilitated diffusion

Lecturer: Carol M. Maniquiz, MAN, RN

Copyright © 2019 by McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved
 Diffusion
• A solution is generally composed of two major parts:
solutes and solvent.
• Solutes (ions or molecules) are substances dissolved in a
predominant liquid or gas, which is called solvent.
• Diffusion is when solutes tend to move from an area of
higher concentration to an area of lower concentration of
that same solute in solution.

Lecturer: Carol M. Maniquiz, MAN, RN

Copyright © 2019 by McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved
 Diffusion

Lecturer: Carol M. Maniquiz, MAN, RN

Copyright © 2019 by McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved
 Osmosis
• Osmosis is the diffusion of water (solvent) across a selectively
permeable membrane from an area of higher water
concentration to an area of lower water concentration.
• Osmotic pressure is the force required to prevent the
movement of water across a selectively permeable membrane.
• Hydrostatic pressure is when the pressure in the
compartment into which water is flowing is raised to the
equivalent of the osmotic pressure, movement of water will stop.

Lecturer: Carol M. Maniquiz, MAN, RN

Copyright © 2019 by McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved
 Solution Differences
• Solvent + solute = solution RBC in Three Solutions
• Hypertonic – the solution has a higher
water concentration than the cell cytosol,
and water moves out of the cell leading to
shrinkage (crenation).
• Isotonic – solute is equal inside & out of
cell e.g. 0.9% NaCl & LR
• Hypotonic – the solution has lower water
concentration; water will enter the cell,
and the cell will swell leading to lysis.

Lecturer: Carol M. Maniquiz, MAN, RN

Copyright © 2019 by McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Carrier- Mediated Transport Mechanism
• Carrier- Mediated Transport Mechanism is the
movement of water across a membrane by means of a
carrier molecule.
• The substances transported tend to be large, water-
soluble molecules or ions.
• Types: Facilitated diffusion, active transport, and
secondary active transport

Lecturer: Carol M. Maniquiz, MAN, RN

Copyright © 2019 by McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved
 Facilitated Diffusion
• Moves substances from a higher to lower concentration
• No energy is used (ATP form)
• Protein binds with molecule, shape of protein changes, and
molecules move across membrane

Lecturer: Carol M. Maniquiz, MAN, RN

Copyright © 2019 by McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved
 Active Transport
• Moves substances from a lower to higher concentration
• Requires energy (ATP form) e.g. sodium-potassium pump

Lecturer: Carol M. Maniquiz, MAN, RN

Copyright © 2019 by McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved
 Secondary Active Transport
• Uses energy of one substance moving down its concentration
gradient to move another substance across the cell membrane.
• Types: Cotransport – substance move in the same direction;
Countertransport – move in opposite direction.

Lecturer: Carol M. Maniquiz, MAN, RN

Copyright © 2019 by McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved
 Endocytosis
• Endo = internal and Cytosis = transport mechanism
• Purposes:
✓ Taking in nutrients for cellular growth, function and repair like
proteins and lipids to function.
✓ Capturing pathogens or other unknown substances that may
endanger the organism
✓ Disposing of old or damaged cells.
• Types of endocytosis
– bulk-phase (nonspecific)
– receptor-mediated (specific)
Lecturer: Carol M. Maniquiz, MAN, RN
Copyright © 2019 by McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved
 Types of Endocytosis

Lecturer: Carol M. Maniquiz, MAN, RN

Copyright © 2019 by McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved
 Exocytosis
• Exocytosis the process by which cells move materials from
within the cell into the extracellular fluid.
• Purposes:
✓ Removing toxins or waste products from the cell’s interior to
maintain homeostasis e.g. removal of carbon dioxide.
✓ Facilitating cellular communication: Cells create signaling
molecules like hormones and neurotransmitters.
✓ Facilitating cellular membrane growth, repair, signaling and
migration.
Lecturer: Carol M. Maniquiz, MAN, RN
Copyright © 2019 by McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Types of Exocytosis

Lecturer: Carol M. Maniquiz, MAN, RN

Copyright © 2019 by McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved
 Lecturer: Carol M. Maniquiz, MAN, RN
Copyright © 2019 by McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved
 Organelles
• Organelle is a subcellular
structure that has one or
more specific jobs to perform
in the cell, much like an
organ does in the body.
• Major parts of cell
organelles: nuclei;
mitochondria, & ribosomes.

Lecturer: Carol M. Maniquiz, MAN, RN

Copyright © 2019 by McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved
 Nucleus
• Nuclear envelope: consist of 2
separate membranes that form nuclear
pores.
• It is important in regulating the actions
of the cells.
• Nucleoli consist of RNA & proteins;
site of ribosomal subunit assembly.

Lecturer: Carol M. Maniquiz, MAN, RN

Copyright © 2019 by McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved
 Nucleus #2
• DNA or deoxyribonucleic acid, contains the
information needed for the creation of proteins
(which include enzymes and hormones) and is
stored in the nucleus, in the form of chromatin
or chromosomes (23 pairs).
• DNA is the hereditary material of the cell &
control cell activities.
• The nucleus is the site of DNA duplication,
which is needed for cell division (mitosis) and
organism reproduction and growth.

Lecturer: Carol M. Maniquiz, MAN, RN

Copyright © 2019 by McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved
 Nucleus #3
• RNA or ribonucleic acid are made
from the DNA template:
1. Messenger RNA (mRNA) directs the
synthesis of a protein.
2. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) joins with
ribosomal proteins to make ribosomes.
3. Transfer RNA (tRNA) binds to an
amino acid and holds it in place on a
ribosome until it is incorporated into a
protein during translation.
Lecturer: Carol M. Maniquiz, MAN, RN
Copyright © 2019 by McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved
 Ribosomes
• Ribosomes: Dense particles
consisting of two subunits, each
composed of ribosomal RNA and
protein.
• The sites of protein synthesis.
• Free or attached to rough
endoplasmic reticulum.

Lecturer: Carol M. Maniquiz, MAN, RN

Copyright © 2019 by McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved
 Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
• Membranous system enclosing a
cavity, the cistern, and coiling
through the cytoplasm. Externally
studded with ribosomes.
• Sugar groups are attached to
proteins within the cisterns. Proteins
are bound in vesicles for transport to
the Golgi apparatus and other sites.
• External face synthesizes
phospholipids.
Lecturer: Carol M. Maniquiz, MAN, RN
Copyright © 2019 by McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved
 Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
• Membranous system of
sacs and tubules; free of
ribosomes.
• Site of lipid and steroid
(cholesterol) synthesis, lipid
metabolism, and drug
detoxification.

Lecturer: Carol M. Maniquiz, MAN, RN

Copyright © 2019 by McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved
 Golgi Apparatus
• A stack of flattened
membranes and associated
vesicles close to the nucleus.
• Packages, modifies, and
segregates proteins for
secretion from the cell,
inclusion in lysosomes, and
incorporation into the plasma
membrane.
Lecturer: Carol M. Maniquiz, MAN, RN
Copyright © 2019 by McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved
 Peroxisomes
• Membranous sacs of catalase
and oxidase enzymes formed
from the Golgi apparatus.
• Free radical scavengers.
• The enzymes detoxify a
number of toxic substances.
The most important enzyme,
catalase, breaks down
hydrogen peroxide.
Lecturer: Carol M. Maniquiz, MAN, RN
Copyright © 2019 by McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved
 Lysosomes
• A vesicle formed from the Golgi apparatus that
• Function as intracellular digestive system.
• Sacs containing acid hydrolases that destroy the
phagocytized bacteria.

Lecturer: Carol M. Maniquiz, MAN, RN

Copyright © 2019 by McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved
 Mitochondria
• Small organelles, rodlike, double- membrane structures
• Inner membrane folded into projections called cristae and the
mitochondrial matrix which contain the enzymes & mitochondrial DNA
(mtDNA).
• Site of ATP synthesis; powerhouse of the cell.

Lecturer: Carol M. Maniquiz, MAN, RN

Copyright © 2019 by McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved
 Cytoskeleton
• Cytoskeleton acts as the internal framework
of the cell.
• It consist of 3 protein structures:
✓ Microtubules support the cytoplasm,
assist in cell division, & formed
components of cilia and flagella.
✓ Microfilaments composed of the protein
actin. Involved in muscle contraction &
determine cell shape.
✓ Intermediate filaments provides
mechanical support to the cell e.g. keratin.

Lecturer: Carol M. Maniquiz, MAN, RN

Copyright © 2019 by McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved
 Centrioles
• Centrosome is a specialized area of
cytoplasm close to the nucleus that
contains two centrioles.
• Paired cylindrical bodies, each
composed of nine triplets of microtubules.
• Organize a microtubule network during
mitosis (cell division) to form the spindle
and asters.
• Form the bases of cilia and flagella.

Lecturer: Carol M. Maniquiz, MAN, RN

Copyright © 2019 by McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved
 Cellular Projections

• Cilia is a short cell-surface projections;

each cilium composed of nine pairs of
microtubules surrounding a central pair.

• Coordinated movement creates a

unidirectional current that propels
substances over the surface of the cells
e.g. cilia in the lungs.

Lecturer: Carol M. Maniquiz, MAN, RN

Copyright © 2019 by McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved
 Cellular Projections #2

• Flagella is like a cilium, but

longer; only example in
humans is the sperm tail.
• Propels the cell.

Lecturer: Carol M. Maniquiz, MAN, RN

Copyright © 2019 by McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved
 Cellular Projections #3

• Microvilli are tubular

extensions of the plasma
membrane; contain a bundle
of actin filaments.
• Increase surface area of
cells thus aid in absorption.

Lecturer: Carol M. Maniquiz, MAN, RN

Copyright © 2019 by McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved
 Cell Activity: Gene Expression
Gene expression is the process by which the instructions in our
DNA are converted into a functional product, such as an enzyme
(protein). It has two steps:
1. Transcription, the sequence of nucleotides in DNA (gene)
determines the sequence of nucleotides in mRNA; the mRNA moves
through the nuclear pores to ribosomes.
2. Translation, the sequence of codons in mRNA is used at ribosomes
to produces proteins. Anticodons of tRNA binds to the codons of
mRNA, and the amino acids carried by the tRNA are joined to form a
protein.
Lecturer: Carol M. Maniquiz, MAN, RN
Copyright © 2019 by McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Cell Activity: Gene Expression

Lecturer: Carol M. Maniquiz, MAN, RN

Copyright © 2019 by McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved
 Cell Cycle

• Cell Cycle have two major phases:

1. Interphase
2. Cell division

Lecturer: Carol M. Maniquiz, MAN, RN

Copyright © 2019 by McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved
 Interphase
1. Interphase is the nondividing
and metabolic phase of the cell,
in which the cell obtains
nutrients and metabolizes them,
grows, replicates its DNA in
preparation for mitosis, and
conducts other cell functions.
• Phases: Gap 0 (G0), Gap 1
(G1), S (synthesis) phase, Gap
2 (G2).
Lecturer: Carol M. Maniquiz, MAN, RN
Copyright © 2019 by McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved
 Cell Division
2. Cell division is the process by which a parent cell divides
into two or more daughter cells.
• The new cells necessary for growth and tissue repair are
formed through mitosis, and the sex cells necessary for
reproduction are formed through meiosis.
• Mitosis Phases: prophase, prometaphase, metaphase,
anaphase, and telophase.
• Cytokinesis is the physical process of cell division, which
divides the cytoplasm of a parental cell into two daughter cells.
Lecturer: Carol M. Maniquiz, MAN, RN
Copyright © 2019 by McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved
 Cell Division #2
• Each cell of the body contains 46 chromosomes except for sex
cells.
• The 46 chromosomes are the diploid and are organized to form
23 pairs of chromosomes. Of the 23 pairs, 1 pair is the sex
chromosomes, which consist of 2x chromosomes (for female) or an
X and Y chromosome for male that determine the sex of an
individual.
• The remaining 22 chromosomes are called autosomes and
determines the characteristics of an individual.
Lecturer: Carol M. Maniquiz, MAN, RN
Copyright © 2019 by McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved
 Phases of Mitosis

Lecturer: Carol M. Maniquiz, MAN, RN

Copyright © 2019 by McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved
 Phases of Mitosis

Lecturer: Carol M. Maniquiz, MAN, RN

Copyright © 2019 by McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved
 Differentiation and Apoptosis

Differentiation is the process in which a cells develop

specialized structures and functions, results from the
selective activation and inactivation of DNA.

Apoptosis is the programmed death of cells.

• It regulates the number of cells within various tissues of
the body.

Lecturer: Carol M. Maniquiz, MAN, RN

Copyright © 2019 by McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved
 Diversity of Cell Types
• An average person is estimated to contain roughly 30 trillion human
cells, according to recent research.
• There are about 200 different types of cells in the body such as red
blood cells, skin cells, neurons & fat cells.
• Each of the 200 different types of cells in the body has a different
structure, size, shape, and function, and contains different organelles.
• Cells are constantly dying, and new ones are being made
simultaneously.
• The number of cells will vary from person to person, depending on
their age, height, weight, health, and environmental factors.
Lecturer: Carol M. Maniquiz, MAN, RN
Copyright © 2019 by McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Diversity of Cell Types #2

Lecturer: Carol M. Maniquiz, MAN, RN

 Cellular Aspects of Aging
1. Cellular Clock refers to the hypothesis of aging that
suggests after a passage of time or a certain number of cell
divisions, results in the death of a given cell line.
2. Death genes refers to the hypothesis of aging that during
late in life or sometimes prematurely, causing cell to
deteriorate and die.
3. DNA damage refers to the hypothesis that through time,
DNA in damaged, resulting in cell degeneration and death.
Lecturer: Carol M. Maniquiz, MAN, RN
Copyright © 2019 by McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved
 Cellular Aspects of Aging #2
4. Free radicals refers to the DNA direct damage due to mutations
that may result in cellular dysfunction and cell death.
• Free radicals are atoms or molecules with an unpaired electron.
5. Mitochondrial damage theory of aging suggest that mitochondrial
DNA may be more sensitive to free-radicals damage than is nuclear
DNA.
• Mitochondrial DNA damage may result in loss of proteins critical to
mitochondrial function.
• Proposal: Reducing caloric intake may reduce free-radical damage.

Lecturer: Carol M. Maniquiz, MAN, RN

Copyright © 2019 by McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Cellular Aspects of Aging #3

Lecturer: Carol M. Maniquiz, MAN, RN

Copyright © 2019 by McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved