MODEL HOME WORK --- 3

Part-A

Q1. ALOHA and CSMA/CA are the two techniques for multiple access. Which out of these
techniques is better and why?
SOL:
CSMA/CA is the better technique for multiple accesses because of the following reason:
1) Before sending the data over channel station first sense the medium which reduce the
chance of collision of the data but in case of ALOHA medium is shared between
stations so the chance of collision increases as When a station sends data, another
station may attempt to do so at the same time. The data from the two stations collide
and become garbled.
2) To reduce the chance of collision ALOHA uses BACK-OFF TIME. Each station waits
for this much random time before sending the data But CSMA/CA uses three methods
to reduce the collision:
a) Inter frame space.
b) Contention window.
c) Acknowledgement.
Procedure for aloha protocol: start

WAIT
Send the
TIME
frame

Choose a
random Wait time
number R quit time

Ack
k>kma K=k+1 recieve
x
d

abort success
3) To increase the performance CSMA/CA is used by using the bandwidth of the medium
properly.
4) In CSMA/CA, if the station finds the channel busy, it does not restart the timer of the
contention window; it stops the timer and restarts it when the channel becomes idle.
Q2. The subset of HDLC is SDLC. There are few similarities and differences between them.
Analyze a few
SOL:

HDLC shares the frame format of SDLC, and HDLC fields provide the same functionality as
those in SDLC. Also, as in SDLC, HDLC supports synchronous, full-duplex operation.

HDLC differs from SDLC in several minor ways, however. First, HDLC has an option for a
32-bit checksum. Also unlike SDLC, HDLC does not support the loop or hub go-ahead
configurations.

The major difference between HDLC and SDLC is that SDLC supports only one transfer
mode, whereas HDLC supports three:

• Normal response mode (NRM): This transfer mode is also used by SDLC. In this
mode, secondaries cannot communicate with a primary until the primary has given
permission.
• Asynchronous response mode (ARM): This transfer mode enables secondaries to
initiate communication with a primary without receiving permission.
• Asynchronous balanced mode (ABM): ABM introduces the combined node, which
can act as a primary or a secondary, depending on the situation. All ABM
communication occurs between multiple combined nodes. In ABM environments, any
combined station can initiate data transmission without permission from any other
station.

Q3. In Wireless LAN, how DCF solves the problem of collision of data frames?
SOL: In wireless LAN DCF uses CSMAICA as the access method.
I.) Before sending a frame, the source station senses the medium by checking the energy level
at the carrier frequency.
a. The channel uses a persistence strategy with back-off until the channel is idle.
b. After the station is found to be idle, the station waits for a period of time called
the distributed interframe space (DIFS); then the station sends a control frame called the
request to send (RTS).
2. After receiving the RTS and waiting a period of time called the short interframe space
(SIFS), the destination station sends a control frame, called the clear to send (CTS), to the
source station. This control frame indicates that the destination station is ready to receive
data.
3. The source station sends data after waiting an amount of time equal to SIFS.
4. The destination station, after waiting an amount of time equal to SIFS, sends an
acknowledgment to show that the frame has been received. Acknowledgment is needed in
this protocol because the station does not have any means to check for the successful arrival
of its data at the destination.
COLLISION AVOIDANCE aspect of this protocol is accomplished by NAV (NETWORK
ALLOCATION VECTOR).
When a station sends an RTS frame, it includes the duration of time that it needs to occupy
the channel. The stations that are affected by this transmission create a timer called a network
allocation vector (NAV) that shows how much time must pass before these stations are
allowed to check the channel for idleness. Each time a station accesses the system and sends
an RTS frame, other stations start their NAV. In other words, each station, before sensing the
physical medium to see if it is idle, first checks its NAV to see if it has expired.

Q4. In Bluetooth architecture what is the role of L2CAP layer, Baseband Layer and Radio
Layer?
SOL:

L2CAP
The Logical Link Control and Adaptation Protocol, or L2CAP (L2 here means LL),is roughly
equivalent to the LLC sub layer in LANs. It is used for data exchange on an ACL link. The
I6-bit length field defines the size of the data, in bytes, coming from the upper layers. Data
can be up to 65,535 bytes. The channel ID (CID) defines a unique identifier for the virtual
channel created at this level..The L2CAP has specific duties: multiplexing, segmentation and
reassembly, quality of service (QoS), and group management.

Baseband Layer
The baseband layer is roughly equivalent to the MAC sub layer in LANs. The access
method is TDMA. The primary and secondary communicate with each other using time slots.
The length of a time slot is exactly the same as the dwell time, 625 Ils. This means that
during the time that one frequency is used, a sender sends a frame to a secondary, or a
secondary sends a frame to the primary.

Radio Layer
The radio layer is roughly equivalent to the physical layer of the Internet model. Bluetooth
devices are low-power and have a range of 10 m.
Band
Bluetooth uses a 2.4-GHz ISM band divided into 79 channels of 1 MHz each.
FHSS
Bluetooth uses the frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) method in the physical
layer to avoid interference from other devices or other networks. Bluetooth
hops 1600 times per second, which means that each device changes its modulation frequency
1600 times per second. A device uses a frequency for only 625 Ils (1/1600 s)
before it hops to another frequency; the dwell time is 625 Ils.
Modulation
To transform bits to a signal, Bluetooth uses a sophisticated version of FSK, called
GFSK (FSK with Gaussian bandwidth filtering), GFSK has a cannier frequency. Bit 1 is
represented by a frequency deviation above the carrier; bit a is represented by a frequency
deviation below the carrier. The frequencies, in megahertz, are defined according to the
following formula
For each channel:
fc=2402+n n =0, 1,2,3, ..., 78

Q5. Discuss Standard Ethernet common implementations. Also specify the communication
media used for each and their specifications.
SOL:
1) 10Base5: Thick Ethernet
The first implementation is called 10BaseS, thick Ethernet, or Thicknet. The nickname
derives from the size of the cable. 10Base5 was the first Ethernet specification to use a bus
topology with an external transceiver (transmitter/receiver) connected via a tap connector to
a thick coaxial cable. The transceiver is responsible for transmitting, receiving, and detecting
collisions. The transceiver is connected to the station via a transceiver cable that provides
separate paths for sending and receiving. This means that collision can only happen in the
coaxial cable. The maximum length of the coaxial cable must not exceed 500 m, otherwise,
there is excessive degradation of the signal. If we want to exceeds the length of the cable we
use repeaters.

2) 10Base2: Thin Ethernet

The second implementation is called l0Base2, thin Ethernet, or Cheaper net. 10Base2 also
uses a bus topology, but the cable is much thinner and more flexible. In this case, the
transceiver is normally part of the network interface card (NIC), which is installed inside the
station. Collision occurs in the thin coaxial cable. This implementation is more cost effective
than 10Base5 because thin coaxial cable is less expensive than thick coaxial and the tee
connections are much cheaper than taps. Installation is simpler because the thin coaxial cable
is very flexible. However, the length of each segment cannot exceed 185 m (close to 200 m)
due to the high level of attenuation in thin coaxial cable.

3) 10 Base-T: Twisted-Pair Ethernet

The third implementation is called l0Base-T or twisted-pair Ethernet. 10Base-T uses
a physical star topology. The stations are connected to a hub via two pairs of twisted cable.
Two pairs of twisted cable create two paths (one for sending and one for receiving) between
the station and the hub. Any collision here happens in the hub. The maximum length of the
twisted cable here is defined as 100 m, to minimize the effect of attenuation in the twisted
cable. Full duplex mode is used.

4)10Base-F: Fiber Ethernet

Although there are several types of optical fiber 10-Mbps Ethernet, the most common is
called 10Base-F. lOBase - F uses a star topology to connect stations to a hub. The stations are
connected to the hub using two fiber-optic cables.

Q6. How addressing affect the transmission of data in virtual circuts?

SOL: Addressing
In a virtual-circuit network, two types of addressing are involved: global and local
(Virtual-circuit identifier).
Global Addressing:
A source or a destination needs to have a global address-an address that can be unique in the
scope of the network or internationally if the network is part of an international network.
Virtual-Circuit Identifier:
The identifier that is actually used for data transfer is called the virtual-circuit identifier
(VCI). A VCL is a small number that has only switch scope; it is used by a frame between two
switches. When a frame arrives at a switch, it has a VCI,when it leaves, it has a different VCl.
VCI does not need to be a large number since each switch can use its own unique set of VCls.
A source and destination need to go through three phases in a virtual-circuit network: setup,
data transfer, and teardown. In the setup phase, the source and destination use their global
addresses to help switches make table entries for the connection. In the teardown phase, the
source and destination inform the switches to delete the corresponding entry. Data transfer
occurs between these two phases.

Data Transfer Phase

To transfer a frame from a source to its destination, all switches need to have a table entry for
this virtual circuit. The table, in its simplest form, has four columns. This means that the
switch holds four pieces of information for each virtual circuit that is already set up. The data
transfer phase is active until the source sends all its frames to the destination. The procedure
at the switch is the same for each frame of a message. The process creates a virtual circuit,
not a real circuit, between the source and destination.

Setup Phase
In the setup phase, a switch creates an entry for a virtual circuit. For example, suppose source
A needs to create a virtual circuit to B. Two steps are required: the setup request and the
acknowledgment. Setup Request A setup request frame is sent from the source to the
destination.
Teardowil Phase
In this phase, source A, after sending all frames to B, sends a special frame called a
teardown request. Destination B responds with a teardown confirmation frame. All
switches delete the corresponding entry from their tables.
INCOMING OUTGOING INCOMING OUTGOING
PORT VCI PORT VCI PORT VCI PORT VCI
1 14 3 66 2 22 3 77

INCOMING OUTGOING
PORT VCI PORT VCI
1 66 2 22