Electrical Circuits

Power Factor
V rms
V s (rms)

Form Factor
V rms
V ave
Crest Factor
Vp
V rms
Semiconductors
capacitance
- microwave switches
Vacuum Tubes Varactor (Varicap/Epicap/Tuning) Diode
- plate(anode), cathode, control grid – more - variable capacitor in reverse bias
voltage, less electrons absorbed by plate - frequency modulators/multipliers, RF tuning,
(thermionic emission) etc.
- Tungsten, 4.5eV work function (energy gap),
1
2500 degree-Kelvin. Thorium 3.5eV. figureof merit = - capacitance ratio
2 π f R s CT
- Space Charge – electrons at vacuum
Varistor (Transient Suppressor)
Energy Gap
- voltage dependent resistor
- Silicon, 1.11eV
- line filtering
- Germanium, 0.67eV
Gunn Diode
BorGaInAl - 3, BiAsPhoAnti – 5
- negative resistance, for microwave
Impurity ¿ Intrinsic Ratio=1 :108
Tunnel (Esaki) Diode
Fermi Level – amount of heat needed to move one
- negative resistance
electron
- GaAs
- energy level which is occupied by the electron
- used in local oscillators
orbital at 0 K
∆T K
Backward Diode
V 'TH =V TH + ( 2 mV ) Si ∆ T → 2.5 mV ¿ I ' =I × 2 10 - conducts better at -0.1 V than in +0.7 V
S S

Eddy Loss – changing magnetic field, iron core

Dynamic Resistance
conductivity (reduced by core lamination)
d V D 26 mV kT K
rd = = ;V T= W e =ne f 2 B2
dID ID qe
Hysteresis Loss – tiny molecular agents in the core are
Zener Diode
constantly being arranged
- less than 4V, positive (+) temp. coefficient
- higher than 6V, negative (-) temp. coefficient W h =nh f B1.6

Schottky (Hot Carrier/Surface Barrier) Diode PI V Half∨bridge ≥ V p +0.7

- zero reverse recovery time PI V Centertapped ≥ 2 V P +0.7
- metal – n-type
- high frequency applications I dc
- majority carriers only V C=
fC
- higher reverse saturation current, lower cut-in
voltage (0.2-0.35V) due to higher concentration V r ( peak ) I dc
V r ( rms )= = =√ V 2rms −V 2dc
of electrons in metal √3 2 √3 f r C
- VHF/UHF detector
- rectifies up to 300 MHz V r (rms )
r %= → 121 % HW ∨48 % FW
- ESBAR (epitaxial Schottky barrier) V dc
Point Contact Diode Rectifiers – 80% of PIV for solo, one third of PIV for
- cat-whisker fine line, signal mixing/detection series, 20% higher

PIN Diode Voltage Regulators

- Forward, variable resistor - 78xx/79xx series, LM317/337 series (1.2V to
- Reverse, fixed capacitor
- I layer (lightly doped) minimizes diode
 37V) 100 RB ≤ Rs ≤0.01 R L R B=bulk resistance
R2 R =series resistance
V o =V ref 1+ ( R1 )
+ I adj R2 →V ref =1.25V , I adj =100 μA s
Liquid Crystal Display
Semiconductor Identification System - dynamic-scattering or field-effect type
XNYYY – X = number of junctions, N = semicon, - transmissive/reflective/transflective (used nowadays)
YYY = ID mode

Semiconductor Resistance Metal-Oxide Varistor (MOV)

V 2−V 1 V F −V TH - replacing Zener/transient diode suppressors because
R B= = they are able to shunt a much higher current surge and
I 2−I 1 I F −0 A
cheaper
Junction Capacitance
Barrier Potential
k
C j= n k =constant k T K D p Dn
( V B−V R ) ln
V B =barrier potential
q n2i
V R=reverse bias voltage
n=0.5 → step junction
n=0.33 →linearly graded
Series – more efficient

Shunt – built-in circuit protection

Switching regulators are more efficient than linear, low

voltage high current

Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle

- constraining electrons in small volume to raise
their energy

Pauli’s Exclusion Principles

- limits no. of electrons with the same energy

Matthiessen's Rule
ρT =ρthermal + ρimpurity + ρdeformation

Selenium
- photoconductive property (solar cells)

Galena
- early communication receiver

Germanium
- low frequency, low power applications

Silicon
- stability

Tin to Lead Ratio in Solder

- 60/40 common
- 63/37 Eutectic (no plastic/semi-liquid)
- high lead, higher melting point
 Io
Transistors h21=
Ii
=shortcircuit forward transfer current ratio

t on=t rise +t discharget off =t storage +t fall I

h22= o =opencircuit output conductance
Vo
hie =β r e
y-parameter
Fixed Bias/Emitter Stabilized/Voltage Divider - short-circuit parameters
−hfe RC RC ∨¿ r o
Z b ≅ β ( r ' e+ R E ) AV = AV ≅− z-parameter
hie + ( h fe +1 ) R E r ' e+ R E
- impedance characteristic
Transconductance
AC load line is higher than the DC load line, same when
2 I DSS ac RC = dc RC
gmo =
|V GS ( off )| Fixed/Base Bias
V ID
gm =g f = y f =gmo

AC Drain Resistance
( 1− GS =gmo
VP )
I DSS √
=2 k ( V GS−V GS ( Th ))
- poor stability due to Beta dependence
- suited for switching only

Emitter Stabilized Bias

1 1 - good stability due to RE and CE
rd = =
go yo
Collector Feedback/Self Bias
Common Source - good stability due to degeneration (negative feedback)
1 - “offsetting effect”
Zi =RG∨R 1∨¿ R2 Z o=R D ∥ r d ∥
y on
Two-source Emitter Bias/Emitter Bias
−g ( r ∥ R ) - good stability due to 2 sources
AV (bypassed )=−g m ( r d ∥ R D ) AV (unbypassed) = m d D
1+ gm R S
Combinational/Voltage Divider Bias
Common Gate - good stability due to combination bias

1 r +R
Zi =RS ∨¿
gm [
=R S ∥ d D AV =gm R D
1+ g m r d ] Gain Bandwidth
- bandwidth at gain = 1
Alpha Cut-off
Common Drain - bandwidth at gain = 70.7
1 gm RS
Z o=RS ∨¿ AV = Good Coupling
gm 1+ g m R S X C ≤ 0.1 R
Gate Feedback Darlington Pair
RF - high gain, high input impedance
Zi = Z =R D ∥ r d
1+ gm R D o
Depletion Mode – heavily doped
R D ∥ rd Enhancement Mode – lightly doped
AV =−gm R D=−g m
( 1+ g m
RD RS
RF )
=−g m ( R D ∥r d )
Lateral Double-Diffused MOSFET

V-Groove MOSFET
BJT common base - has 2 source terminals
- stabilize RF amp
TMOSFET
Vi - VMOSFET that is easier to manufacture
h11 = =shortcircuit input impedance
Ii
Dual Gate MOSFET
V - used for high frequency due to low capacitance
h12= i =opencircuit reverse transfer voltage ratio
Vo
Active Load
- E-MOSFET gate connected to the drain

Intrinsic Stand-off Ratio

- voltage to trigger ON a UJT

Base = 10^17 dopants / cu. Cm

Collector = 10^19 dopants / cu. Cm
Emitter = 10^15 dopants / cu. Cm

Current Gain
hf
Ai = Voltage Gain
1+h o R L
A v =¿

β dc =1.1 β ac
Filters
fL
AV =−20 log
f
Resistor Capacitor (Pole)
10 :1 change∈frequency =1 decade
Roll off →−20 dB per decade
2 :1 change∈frequency =1 octave
Roll off →−6 dB per octave
Gain-Bandwidth Product and Unity-Gain Frequency
AV × BW ∨ A V × f H
mid mid

Center/Resonant Frequency (Geometric Mean)

fr 1 L R
f c =f r= √ f L f HQ=

C X
BW
Q¿ =
√ =
R C X

Q series =R
√ =
L R
Capacitor
High Voltage, Low Current

LC Choke
Voltage regulation is important

LC Capacitor
radio receivers

RC Capacitor
Voltage regulation is NOT important
Power Amplifiers
Class A
V CE I CE
Pout (max )=
2
Class B/AB
V CC I C (sat )
Pout (max )=
4
Class C
V 2CC
Pout (max )=
2 RC

Class B
V L ( p)
η %=78.54 ( )
V CC
Op-Amps
- Bessel: lower than -20 dB/decade
- Butterworth: -20 dB/decade
Modes of Operation - Chebyshev: higher than -20 dB/decade
- Single Ended Input *Order is the number of poles (RC)
- Double Ended Input or Differential Input (Typical)
- Single Ended Input Double Ended Output Cutoff Frequency (two poles)
- Differential Output 1
f c=
- Common Mode 2 π √ R 1 R2 C1 C2
V 2+V 1
V o =A d ( V 2−V 1) + A c ( 2 ) Zero-crossing Detector
- comparator with a trip point of zero

Op-Amp Characteristic – LM41C Op-Amp Frequency Response Test

- Open-loop (differential) voltage gain = 200k (infinite) - step response
- Unity-gain frequency = 1MHz (infinite) - 10% and 90%
- Input Resistance = 2M Ohms (infinite)
Three-stage Op-Amp
- Output Resistance = 75 Ohms (zero)
- negative 270-degree phase lag
- Input bias current = 80nA (zero)
- Input offset current = 20nA (zero) Schmitt Trigger
- Input offset voltage = 2mV (zero) - comparator with hysteresis
- CMRR = 90 dB (infinite) - voltage divider formula for trigger
- Slew Rate = 0.5 V/microsecond (infinite)
Highest, Higher, High Input Impedance (opp. output)
Input Bias Current - Voltage Follower, Non-inverting, Inverting
- minimum current to operate first stage of op-amp
−¿
I
Z o ACL
+¿+ ¿ =
I IB =I 2
¿ r o A OL

Input Offset Current

- difference between the input bias currents
I IO =¿

Input Offset Voltage

- required voltage across the input terminals to drive
the output to zero voltage

Maximum Peak Output Voltage Swing

V OM =± 14 V

Ad
Common-mode Rejection Ratio CMRR=
Ac
Slew Rate
∆Vo
SR=
∆t
Buffer = Source Follower
Differentiator
d V i (t)
V o ( t )=−RC Integrator
dt
−1
V o ( t )= V ( t ) dt Active Filters
RC ∫ i
Feedback Circuits
Gain Stability with Feedback
d Af 1 dA
Positive Feedback
- reduces stability and bandwidth
| |
Af
= ×
|1+ βA| A | |
- increases noise and distortion
Negative Feedback
- increases stability and bandwidth
- reduces noise and distortion

Voltage Gain with Feedback

A
Af = ± → β=feedback fraction
1 ∓ βA
Bandwidth with Feedback
BW f =BW ( 1 ∓ βA )
±

Sampling Network (feedback from output)

- Voltage Sampling/Shunt Drive
- Current Sampling/Series Drive

Mixing/Summing Network (feedback to input)

- Series Mixing/Voltage Summing
- Shunt Mixing/Current Summing

Voltage-series (OI) / Series-shunt (IO)

- Voltage Amplifier (Vo/Vi)
Zi =Z i ( 1+ βA ) → Seriesinput
f

Zo
Zo = → Voltage(shunt )output
f
1+ βA
Voltage-shunt (OI) / Shunt-shunt (IO)
- Transimpedance Amplifier (Vo/Ii)
Zi
Zi = → Shunt input
f
1+ βA
Zo
Zo = → Voltage(shunt )output
1+ βA
f

Current-series (OI) / Series-series (IO)

- Transconductance Amplifier (Io/Vi)
Zi =Z i ( 1+ βA ) → Seriesinput
f

Z o =Z o ( 1+ βA ) →Current (series) output

f

Current-shunt (OI) / Shunt-series (IO)

- Current Amplifier (Io/Ii)
Zi
Zi = → Shunt input
f
1+ βA
Z o =Z o ( 1+ βA ) →Current (series) output
f

*These four are all negative feedbacks

Oscillators
- adds another capacitor in series with the inductor
1 −1 −1
→C t=( C−1 −1
f r= 1 +C 2 +C )
Barkhausen Criterion 2 π √ LC t
1. loop gain (A) times feedback ratio (beta) must be
equal to unity Crystal Oscillators
2. phase shift around the feedback loop must be 0 or - RLC in parallel with a capacitor
360 degrees (positive feedback) - 0< f < f rs → capacitive - f r < f <f rp →inductive -
f rp < f → capacitive
βA=1 → steady oscillation∨¿ sustain f rp −f rs ≅ 1 kHz
βA> 1→ getsclipped ∈time∨¿ start
1 1 −1 −1
βA< 1→ getsdamped f rs= ; f rp = →C p=( C−1
m +C s )
2 π √L Cs 2 π √L Cp
Sinusoidal Oscillators
- RC – lower than 1MHz Relaxation Oscillators
- LC – higher than 1MHz - Multivibrators (pulse) – Astable, Monostable, Bistable
- Crystal (Quartz) – piezo electric effect, Silicon Dioxide - Unijunction Transistors – sawtooth, simple oscillators,
phase control, timing circuits
RC Phase-Shift Oscillator
- 3 RC = 360-degree phase shift Steady Stable State
- Feedback factor (beta) = -1/29 - state will not change unless disturbed
- Voltage gain (A) >= -29 Quasi Stable State
1 - state doesn’t change for only a certain period of time
f r=
2 π √ 6 RC Astable MV (Free-running MV)
- No steady stable state/resistors
Wien-Bridge Oscillator (RC) – widely used up to 1MHz
- 2 quasi stable state/capacitors
- lead-lag circuit (parallel and series RC)
- Feedback factor (beta) = 1/3
T =1.38 RC →inner resistor - for 555 timer, RRC
- Voltage gain (A) >= 3 T =0.693 ( R1 +2 R 2 ) C
1
f r= Monostable MV (Single-shot/One-shot MV)
2 π √ R1 R 2 C 1 C 2 - 1 steady stable state/resistor
- 1 quasi stable state/capacitor
Armstrong/”Tickler” Oscillator (LC)
T =0.693 RC - for 555 timer, RC
- transformer paralleled to a capacitor
T =1.1 RC 555 Timer Pulse Width = kRC
- disadvantage in size and cost
- Monostable: k=1.1
1
f r= - Non-retriggerable Monostable (74121): k=0.69
2 π √ LC - Retriggerable Monostable (74122): k=0.32
Hartley Oscillator (LC) Bistable MV (Flip-flop Binary/Eccles-Jordan MV)
- tapped inductor/2 inductors, parallel with a capacitor - 2 steady stable state/resistor
1 - No quasi stable state/capacitor
f r= → Leq =L1+ L2+2 M
2 π √ Leq C - for 555 timer, R only

Colpitts Oscillator (LC) – most widely used Twin-T Oscillator (RC)

- capacitor voltage divider, parallel with an inductor - RCR in T formation, paralleled to CRC in T formation
1 −1 −1 - bandstop
f r= →C eq =( C−1
1 + C2 )
2 π √ LC eq Timer 555 Duty Cycle
Clapp Oscillator (LC) R1 + R2
n=
- improvement of Colpitts R 1+2 R2
Digital Electronics
Clocks – timing signal
- simplest clock is an astable or free-running
Minterm – Sum of Products multivibrator
Maxterm – Product of Sums Counters – device that counts
Standard Form – simplified - total number of counts or stable states (m = 2^n) is
Canonical Form – complete called Modulus
- Modulo is used to describe the count capability
IEC – square
US – typical Register – temporary storage device
DE – OR, overlap. AND, not overlap. XOR, strikethrough. - stores data, memory addresses, operation codes
XNOR, identical. XOR/XNOR, encircled plus - referred to by the number of stages they contain/bits
they will store
Combinational – present input only so logic gates only - parallel register/shift (serial) register
Sequential – present input and output so logic gate and
memory elements Magnetic Core Storage – made up of doughnut shaped
rings made of ferrite
Quarter Adder – 2 input, 1 output Semiconductor Storage – tiny electronic circuits etched
Half Adder/Subtractor – 2 input, 2 output on a silicon chip.
Full Adder/Subtractor – 3 input, 2 output Bubble Storage – very thin semiconductor crystal
Multiplexer – data pins, selector pins, enable pin to one Programmable ROM
output pin - one time through blowing fuse
Demultiplexer – one data pin, selector pins, enable pin Erasable PROM
to multiple output pin - programmable using UV
Synchronous – clock controlled Electrically EPROM
Asynchronous – non-clocked - programmable using electrical signals
Electrically Alterable PROM
Flip-flops - only specific part can be erased
- used to store data, multiply/divide, count,
receive/transfer information Static RAM – Flip-flops, faster
- smallest memory element. Dynamic RAM – Capacitors, higher capacity, needs
refreshing (charge/discharge)
RS Flip-flop
- stores one binary/information temporarily Resistor(I) Transistor(O) Logic – RTL
- 1 S = 1 Q, 0 R = 0 Q - transistor driven to saturation
- 0 0 keeps state, 1 1 undefined - NOR (NORTL)
- NOR circuit. Values take the opposite for NAND Diode(I) Transistor(O) Logic – DTL
D Flip-flop (Delay FF) - each input, one diode
- Data sets the output - diode with resistor forms AND gate
- has clock - transistor serves as current amp while inverting signal
- NAD (NANDTL)
T Flip-flop
- 1 for Toggle changes output Transistor(I) Transistor(O) Logic – TTL
- has clock - improvement of DTL
- 74xx, commercial use. 54xx, for military use
JK Flip-flop OR 7432, AND 7408, NOR 7402, NAND 7400, XOR 7486,
- widely used for versatility XNOR 74266, 7411 three 3-input AND, 7421 two 4-input
- 1 J = 1 Q, 0 K = 0 Q AND, 7475 4bit bistable latch with complementary latch
- 0 0 keeps state, 1 1 toggle
- has clock
Emitter Coupled Logic – ECL Transient Program Area
- non-saturated holds DOS operating system and other program that
- fastest but worst noise immunity and efficiency/power controls the computer system
dissipation System Area
- emitter follower memory that holds either ROM/Flash Memory and RAM
data for storage
Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor – CMOS
- better performance than TTL and low power Clock Multiplier/Ratio
speed ratio of frontside bus and CPU
1st Gen – vacuum tube, machine language
2nd Gen – transistors, symbolic/assembly language Standard and Isolated I/O – Intel
3rd Gen – miniaturized circuits Memory mapped I/O – Intel and Motorola
4th Gen+ – LSI/VLSI, computer system components
IEEE 1394/Firewire/i.link
Scale Integration
Polling
Small – 1 to 12
processor periodically checks status of the device, for
Medium – 13 to 99
low bandwidth devices
Large – 100 to 9,999
Very Large – 10,000 to 99,999 Von Neumann CPU’s operation
Ultra/Extremely Large – >100,000 Fetch – Decode – Execute – Writeback
Machine Language – uses 1’s and 0’s CPU is composed of:
Assembly Language – Uses abbreviations/OP codes to Data Path Unit – arithmetic operations and data holding
represent instructions Control Unit – direct sequence of operation
High-Level Language – English-like language to write
instructions Register Transfer
each action of the datapath
Compiler – high level to assembly/machine language
Assembler – assembly/source to machine language Call – or subroutine instruction
Interpreter – reads source program in high level Return (RET) – go back to the calling program, retrieve
language, translates and executes the statement in one the value of program counter from stack register
operation Microcoding – lowest programmable level usually
555 Timer Pulse Width = kRC considered part of hardware, stored in section of CPU
- Monostable: k=1.1 called “control store”
- Non-retriggerable Monostable (74121): k=0.69 Macrocoding – user-instruction language
- Retriggerable Monostable (74122): k=0.32 Pinch
Glue Logic delay between CPU and RAM
Simple logic circuit used to connect complex logic Watchdog Timer (WDT)
circuits together resets the processor in case of malfunction
Form Factor
size and layout of motherboard

CMOS setup
program used to edit H/W settings in the BIOS

Jumper
convenient and reversible way of reconfiguring circuitry
on PCB

EEPROM – erase at byte level

Flash Memory – erase at Block level (hundreds of bytes)
Basic I/O System (BIOS) Chipset – contains northbridge and southbridge,
electronic set of instruction to successfully start southbridge connected to disk drives, input and
operating, from ROM expansion
Power-On Self Test (POST)
Bridge – acts as traffic cop, organizing the flow of signal
series of built-in diagnostic performed by the BIOS when
in the motherboard
computer is first started
Bootstrap Loader Frontside Bus – main link between CPU and system
calls the OS into RAM memory, both connected to northbridge
Operating System (OS)
master control program Standard/Isolated I/O (I/O Port Addressing)
memory space is different from I/O space
Cold/Hard Boot – from start, any value other than Memory Mapped I/O (I/O Port Addressing)
1234H in memory address 0000:0472H I/O space is mapped within memory space
Warm/Soft Boot – restart, skips POST
Reboot – forcefully restarts OS High/binary 1 – I/O is selected
Low/binary 0 – memory is accessed
Segment: Offset Address Scheme
address within a segment is called an offset or logical Programmable I/O
address - Unconditional I/O
microprocessor can send data to an external device
Primary Memory – where all programs are executed anytime
Processor Memory/Register – used during computation - Conditional I/O
microprocessor outputs data via handshaking
Address Bus – going into ROM/RAM
Interrupt I/O
Data Bus – going out of ROM, going in/out of ROM
device initiate I/O transfer, external device can force
Control Bus – going into ROM
system to stop executing current program temporarily
Output Enable – allow READ operation
Direct Memory Access
Write Enable – allow WRITE operation
method of moving data directly between memory and
Gate/Select – select specific memory location
an external device
Memory Bandwidth – transfer rate - Block Transfer
Memory Access Time – average time CPU needs to transfers hundreds/thousand bit of data
access memory - Cycle Stealing
Memory Size – amount data that can be stored steals clock cycle without microprocessor’s recognition
- Interleaved
Interleaving – next byte of memory accessible while
transfer data when microprocessor is not using system
current byte is being refreshed
bus
Latency – number of clock cycles to read a bit of
information Maskable Interrupt – can be enabled/disabled by an
instruction
L1 Cache – level 1 Cache memory, internal
Mask – pattern of bit to specify which bits/parts of
L2 Cache – level 2 Cache memory, external
another bit pattern to be operated on and which to be
Service – sending/taking data from the device or ignored
performing some updating process
Command Register/ Data Direction Registor
Software I/O - internal
configures bits in port as input or output
Interrupt-driven I/O – external
Port Data Register
Small Computer System Interface (SCSI) – external contains the actual bit value
parallel bus standard
Polling
Universal Serial Bus – external serial bus standard
processor periodically checks on status of device,
normally done for low-bandwidth devices (mouse)
Bus Interface Unit computer reads and interprets, the only language
section of 8086 for generating bus control signals understood by computer
Interlock
Hyper-Threading Technology – makes OS think there
holding up of instruction during pipelining
are two CPUs installed
Harvard/Reduced Instruction Set Computer
Inter-IC Bus – two-line, synchronous, serial bus widely
used by Microcontroller Unit (specific tasks only)
used to connect chips together (since MCU has CPU,
Von-Neumann/Complex Instruction Set Computer
ALU and memory)
performs multitasking
Cache Coherency Protocol
Accumulator (ACC) – register for storing most ALU
- Modified – 1 cache contains a modified copy
operations
- Exclusive – 1 cache contains an un-modified copy
Program Counter/Instruction Pointer – points to the
- Shared – 2 or more caches contain un-modified copies
next instruction to be fetched
- Invalid – another cache contains a modified copy
Stack Register – holds value of Program Counter once
Relocatable Program – no references be made to
an interrupt routine is executed
physical addresses, no changes to the segment
*LIFO – last in, first out
registered allowed
PUSH Operation – Write data into stack
*the result of segment offset is the physical address
POP Operation – Read data from stack
Bus Arbitration – prevents two sources from trying to
Status Register/Condition Code – contains info about
use the bus at the same time
activity within MPU or condition of a functional unit
Bus Contention – when 2 or more devices try to output
Flags – individual bits which has a setting where
opposite logic levels on same common bus line
information in status register is found, cannot be
modified by the user
Zero – Parity – Overflow – Half-carry/Aux – Carry – Sign
*Interrupt, Trap, Direction Flag can be modified by user

Scalar Processor/SISD
in Flynn’s Taxonomy, Single Instruction – Single Data
Vector Processor/SIMD
in Flynn’s Taxonomy, Single Instruction – Multiple Data
MISD, MMMD

*MOV A, B
Operational Code – MOV
part of machine instruction that tells the computer
what to do
Operand – A, B
data operated-on
*content of B (source) is moved to A (destination)

Compiler – high level language to machine language

Assembler – assembly language to machine language
Interpreter – executes high level language, reads source
code one instruction or line at a time

High Level Language – programmer’s level

Low Level/Assembly Language – closer to the language
by computer (machine language)
Machine Language – collection of bits that the
ASCII

32 – blank

(64) 65 – A

(96) 97 – a

48 – 0
Industrial Electronics
- turn-off time = 1μs
- turn-on ≈ turn-off time
Diode (rectification) Silicon Controlled Switch
- John Ambrose Flemming 1904 - GTO with two gates
- Flemming Valve - higher gate current, lower breakover voltage
Triode (amplification) - turn-off time = 1μs to 10μs
- Lee De Forest 1906 DIAC/Diode AC
- Audion Tube - npnpn, can be 3/4/5 layers
Tetrode - most popular breakover voltage = 32 V
- Henry Round 1926 - used to trigger larger thyristors, never used alone
- Higher Frequency - Bidirectional Trigger Diac (npn bjt like)
- Eliminates inter-electrode capacitance - Bidirectional Diode-Thyristor Diac (two diodes)

Pentode TRIAC/Triode AC
- reduce secondary emission (emission of electrons - DIAC with gate
from a surface that is bombarded by particles such as Light Activated SCR
electrons or ions from a primary source) - lower resistor between gate-cathode, lower sensitivity
Plate (Anode/Drain) - Max Current = 3 A rms
Filament (Cathode/Source) Unijunction Oscillator (Relaxation Oscillator)
Grid (Gate) - JFET Symbol with bent arrow
Screen and Suppressor - Two bases (n), one emitter (p)
Thyristor (family of devices) - sequential rise in base-base voltage = Voltage Gradient
- semiconductor thyratron - sawtooth waveform
- 4 or more semiconductor layers 1
f o=
- Break-over voltage is needed to turn on
- minimum duration of On-pulse = 10μs
RT C T ln ( 1−η1 )- Inter-base Resistance (50 ohms
- max dc current = average forward current to 5k ohms)
- conduction angle (ON), firing delay angle (OFF) R BBO=RB 1 + R B 2 → arrow points ¿ B 1
Thyrector - Intrinsic Stand-off Ratio
- viewed as two Zener diodes back-to-back in series
RB 1
- used to support voltage surges and transients η= → 0.4 ≤ η≤ 0.6- Peak (voltage) point, Valley
R BBO
Shockley Diode (William Shockley) (voltage) point
- unilateral device (one way) - negative resistance region, saturation region
- half diode symbol V P=0.7+ ηV BB=V EB 1V V =0.1 ( V BB )- Forward
Silicon Controlled Rectifier breakover voltage = Peak point
- semiconductor highest current capacity, withstands
overloads better Programmable UJT
- Shockley Diode with gate turn on - four-layer UJT
- higher gate current/voltage, lower breakover voltage - base resistance is programable by external circuit
- turn-off time = 5μs to 30μs - has anode gate
- turn-on time = 10μs to 25μs - turns on after reaching Valley point
R1
- frequency range = 50 kHz

Gate Turn-Off Thyristor

V P=0.7+ V GV G =V BB
( )
R2 + R1
→ same as UJT

- SCR with gate turn off too Silicon Unilateral Switch (SUS)
- PUT with built-in avalanche diode between gate and
cathode
- incorporates a terminal for synchronizing purposes
- encircled Shockley diode symbol with gate

Silicon Bilateral Switch (SBS)

- bilateral SUS or low current TRIAC
- two SUS symbol combined

Blocking Region & Conduction Region

Breakdown/Avalanche Region
Breakover Voltage & Breakback Voltage
Switching Current & Holding Current

Anode Current Interruption & Forced Commutation

Current is maintained when it starts conducting

Snubber (RC in parallel with thyristors)

- counteracts excessive voltage rise in thyristors
- eliminate false triggering

Crowbar
- overvoltage protection

Saturable Reactor
- 2 windings, one common iron core
- control winding is supplied with small dc current

Magnetic Amplifier
- saturable reactor with regenerative feedback

Trip Free/Non-trip Free Circuit Breaker

- still trips open/doesn’t trip open when switch held ON

Selective Tripping
- causes the circuit breaker CLOSEST to the fault to trip
- isolates a faulty circuit without affecting others

Thyratron
- Gas-filled triode

Ignitron
- highest current capacity, withstands overloads better
- SCR for semiconductors
Power Electronics
Half Wave Half Controlled Resistive Rectifier
π
Power Electronic System
Power Source – ac or dc
Filter – prevents harmonics from converter to
feedback to source or space
Control – monitors condition at load, compares
V rms =V m
√ ∫ sin 2 x dx
α
2π
Full Wave Half Controlled Resistive Rectifier
π

√
to preset then adjusts converter drive if
necessary ∫ sin 2 x dx
α
Power Conditioner – the converter part, V rms =V m
π
composed of semiconductor devices operating
in switching mode

Converters Full Wave Half Controlled Inductive Rectifier

ac to dc – Rectifiers π−α
dc to dc – Choppers
ac to ac – Cycloconverters
V rms =V ave
√ π

dc to ac – Inverters Full Wave Full Controlled Inductive Rectifier

π +α

V ave =V m ( ∫ sin x dx
α
π
) V rms =V ave

Three Phase Half-Wave Converter

π
+α
3

Resistive Step-Down Chopper

t t
V ave =V m

V ave
( ) ∫
−π
3
+α

V 2ave
cos θ dθ

2π
3

( )
V ave =V i on V rms =V i on P=I 2rms R
T T √ V rms = ,P =
√ 3 ave R
Inductive Step-Down Chopper Three Phase Full-Wave Converter
−t on −t on π
Vi
I 1= 1−e( T ) + I ( e ) I =I ( e )
T
−t off
6
+α

( )
T
0
R 0 1
∫ cos θ dθ
2 −π

√ ( I 1 −I 0 ) +α
6
I rms = I 1 I 0 + V ave =V m
3 π
3
1 t
Step-up Chopper V o =V i ( 1−D T)
→ D= on
V rms =
V ave
, P ave =
V 2ave
Vi 3 R

I b 1∧b 2=
V
2
o
±
( V −V i )
Vo o √ 2
Vi R 2 fL Class A (Load Commutation)
- thyristor series to LC

Class B (Resonant Commutation)

- thyristor parallel to LC
Class C (Complementary Commutation)
- two thyristor with capacitor in between

Class D (Auxiliary Commutation)

- uses diode

Class E (External Pulse Commutation)

- uses pulse generator

Class F (Line/Natural Commutation)

- Half Wave Controlled Rectifier

Force Commutating Thyristor through Capacitor

1.43t off I
C=
V

DC-AC Inverters Summary

Resistive – 2T
Inductive – 2T 2D
McMurray – 4T 2D
Modified M – 4T 4D
M Bedford – 2T 2D 1CL
MMB – 2T 4D 2CL
Three Phase Bridge – 6T 6D

AC-AC Voltage Regulator

Triac Phase Controller with Resistive Load

π

V rms =2 V s
√
Triac Burst-Firing Controller
∫ sin2 x dx
α
2π

t on
V rms =V s
√ T
String Efficiency – degree of capacity utilization
ActualV ∨I Rating of whole string
SE=
(V ∨I rating of one SCR ) × ( n SCR )

Derating Factor – string efficiency deviation from unity

DF =100 %−SE
Instrumentation
with no current
- AC and DC
Absolute Error Thermocouple Meter
Difference of measured and expected value - thermocouple and D’arsonval meter
Gross Error - AC and DC
Due to user’s fault in gathering data/value - for very high AC current (above 50 MHz)
- senses heat produced by resistor and is
Systematic Error thermally coupled, but electrically isolated
Due to problems in instrument, environment or
observation D’Arsonval for DC (Ammeter)
- Instrument Errors - measures current by series connection
- Environmental Errors - ideal ammeter has zero resistance and needle
- Observational Errors (commonly parallel error) deflection is proportional to current

Random Error Ammeter Errors

Accumulation of large numbers of small effects Calibration error – meter face is not accurately
marked
D’Arsonval Meter Ammeter insertion error – internal resistance
- permanent magnet moving coil meter Accuracy = ammeter reading over actual current
movement (PMMC) Percent loading error = (1-accuracy) times 100%
- uses “taut band” suspension for more
sensitive meter movement DC Ammeter Shunt Resistance
- moving coil, spring, permanent magnet - increase measuring capability
- for DC, can also be for AC with rectifier I true Rinternal
=1+
- most widely used for direct I measured R shunt
current/voltage/resistance
- errors due to temp, spring/magnet aging Arytron Shunt (3 Shunt Resistors)
- universal shunt, prevents being used without
Deflection/Moving Torque shunt
- moves the pointer from zero
DC Voltmeter
Controlling (Spring) Torque - measures voltage across element
- opposes (and is equal) to deflection torque - ideal voltmeter has infinite resistance
Damping Torque DC Voltmeter Multiplier (Series Resistance)
- ensures pointer comes to an equilibrium to - to extend voltage range of D’arsonval
prevent oscillation V true R series
=1+
Electrodynamometer V measured Rinternal
- moving coil (armature), 2 stationary field coils
Sensitivity, S of the meter movement
- DC and AC
- reciprocal of full-scale deflection current
- Wattmeter, standards meter, transfer
instrument, frequency meter Voltmeter Loading Effects
- voltage across component is less when
Iron Vane Movement
voltmeter is connected (loading effect)
- iron vane inside coil
- results to “loading error”
- DC only
- square law, but can be design to be linear Ohmmeter
- Automobile indicator - D’arsonval meter with battery and a resistor
- battery aging, the cause of ohmmeter error
Electrostatic Movement
- variable capacitor/measures voltage directly
Multimeter/Volt-Ohm-Milliammeter Electronic Voltmeter – uses vacuum
- normally designed around basic 50μA meter tubes/transistors/op-amps, has high input
movement resistance
- can have continuity check and diode check - Transistor Voltmeter: uses transistor
- Vector Voltmeter: magnitude and phase
AC Voltmeter Half/Full (bridge) Wave
- Vector Impedance: for impedance
- D’arsonval meter that measures AC voltage of
half/full wave through rectification Reflectometer - measures reflected waves in the
transmission lines, Optical Time Domain
Bridges
Reflectometer
- instruments for making comparison
measurements of resistance, capacitance, Signal Generator
impedance
Sine Wave Generator
- operates in “null indication principle” meaning
indication is independent of calibration Audio Frequency Generator
Wheatstone Bridge (DC) Radio Frequency Generator
- measures resistances, with each branch
containing two resistors Pulse and Square Wave Generator
R1 X=R 2 R3- a null detector, usually Function Generator - variety of output waveforms a
galvanometer, is connected between the wide range of frequencies
parallel branches to detect a condition of
balance Distortion Analyzer - measures signal distortion
- balanced bridge/null indication = zero current Wave Analyzer - tuned to the frequency of one
Kelvin Bridge (DC) signal while rejecting all other signal
- modified Wheatstone bridge components
- eliminates effect of contact and lead Oscilloscope – time domain (CRT)
resistance when measuring low resistance
- high accuracy of range 1 microohm to 1 ohm Spectrum Analyzer - frequency domain (also CRT)
Murray Loop Test – to locate ground faults in Fourier Analyzer - high accuracy, stability and
sheathed cables repeatability in spectrum
Varley Loop Test – to locate shorts between
conductors or faults to ground and conductor Geiger Counter – alpha/beta/gamma radioactivity

Opposite Angle Bridge/Hay Bridge (AC) Galvanometer – small current, zero current is at
- measures impedance of inductive circuit center

Heaviside Bridge (AC) Clamp Probe – measures current without opening

- measures mutual inductance the circuit

Maxwell Bridge/Maxwell-Wien Bridge (AC) VTVM – Vacuum Tube Voltmeter

- inductance with capacitance standards
Electroencephalogram (EEG) – for the brain
Wien Bridge (AC)
Electrocardiogram (ECG) – for the heart
- measures equivalent series/parallel
components of an impedance Sweep Voltage – voltage applied to the horizontal
- lead/lag circuit (RC series/parallel) deflection plates of oscilloscope

Schering Bridge (AC) Sweep Generator of CRT produces sawtooth

- measures capacitance waveform

Common and Electronic Measuring Instruments Logic Clip – can test all pins of IC at the same time
VOM – lacks sensitivity & high input resistance
Parallax Error – analog meter reading error due to
physical position with respect to the meter scale

Dynamometer – measures output power of motor

Vibrating Reed Type (power line) – vibrating iron

reeds

Precision Diode – diode and op-amp, clips low level

signals

Swamping Resistor is connected in series with the

coil of ammeter to compensate for the
temperature variations

Harmonic Distortion – caused by non-linear

operation of amplifier

Volt Box – extends range of potentiometer very

easily, precision voltage divider network
sometimes called resistance ladder used in
conjunction with a potentiometer
Motors
PN
f= P= polesf =frequency
2
N=rotational speed (Hz∨rev per sec )
ϕpNZ
E= E=generated emf per∥path∈armature
a
ϕ=flux per pole (Wb ) p=number of poles
N=rotational speed ( Hz∨rev per sec )
a=number of∥paths∈armature
a=2 ( wave wound generator )
a= p(lap wound generator)
Electromagnetism
Fleming’s Right-Hand Rule
F=q ( v × B )
Fleming’s Left-Hand Rule
F=( B× I ) l
Fleming’s Hand Rule
Thumb=ForceIndex=Field
Middle=Electron Current
Faraday’s Law
∆Φ ∆B
emf =−N cos ϕ=−NA cos ϕ=ωNBA sin ϕ
∆t ∆t
Energy Density
1 1 1 2
¿ ( ϵ ) E 2¿
2 ()
2 μ
B

Toroid Inductance
R
μ N 2 h ln
r
L=
2π