COURSE

GUIDE

MAC 442
ADVANCED BROADCAST NEWS/PROGRAMME
PRODUCTION

Course Team Comfort Ene Obaje (Course Developer/Writer) –

Kwararafa University, Wukari, Taraba State
Dr. Livi Chinaka Nwodu (Course Editor) –
Anambra State University
Dr. Jonathan E. Aliede (Programme Leader) –
NOUN

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

 MAC 442 COURSE GUIDE

National Open University of Nigeria

Headquarters
14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way
Victoria Island, Lagos

Abuja Office
5 Dar es Salaam Street
Off Aminu Kano Crescent
Wuse II, Abuja

e-mail: centralinfo@nou.edu.ng
URL: www.nou.edu.ng

Published by
National Open University of Nigeria

Printed 2014, 2021

ISBN: 978-058-306-8

All Rights Reserved

Printed by: NOUN Press

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MAC 442 COURSE GUIDE

CONTENTS PAGE

Introduction………………………………………………………. iv
What you will Learn in this Course……………………………… iv
Course Aims……………………………………………………… iv
Course Objectives………………………………………………… v
Working Through the Course…………………………….………. v
Course Materials………………………………………..………… v
Study Units……………………………………………………….. v
Textbooks and References…………………………………...…… vi
Assessment………………………………………………….......... vii
Tutor-Marked Assignment……………………………………..… vii
Final Examination and Grading…………………………….......... vii
Course Marking Scheme………………………….……………… vii
Presentation Schedule……………………………………………. vii
Course Overview……………………………………………….… viii
How to Get the Most from this Course…………………...……… ix
Facilitators/Tutors and Tutorials………………………………… x
Conclusion……………………………………………………….. x
Summary…………………………………………………………. x

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 MAC 442 COURSE GUIDE

INTRODUCTION

This course, MAC 442: Advanced Broadcast News/Programme

Production is a three-credit unit course designed for undergraduate
students of mass communication. The material has been developed in
accordance with the National Open University of Nigeria
guidelines. The course reflects broadcast news and other programmes.
It therefore provides an opportunity for you to acquire the knowledge
necessary to handle production at whatever level in the broadcast
station. When you have gone through this course, you should be able to
write and package broadcast programmes perfectly, understand the
working of the various personnel behind production and fit perfectly
into the present system of digital broadcast production.

The course guide has been designed to give you an insight into the
content of the course and the materials you will need to be familiar
with for an adequate understanding of the subject matter. With this
guide, you will understand the best approach to give your tutor-marked
assignments (TMAs) and other requirements for the course.

WHAT YOU WILL LEARN IN THIS COURSE

Advanced Broadcast News/Programme Production provides you

with the opportunity to gain mastery and an in-depth understanding of
production techniques in the broadcast station. It goes beyond the mere
knowledge that news is the report of an event that has just happened
and appealed to a reasonable number of people, to understanding
what it takes to produce the news in the form that people would make
sense out of it. This course will also provide you the opportunity to
understand the duties of all the team members that bring out every
programme for listeners and viewers. The course will also avail you
the opportunity of producing some programmes in order to be familiar
with the requirements.

COURSE AIMS

The aims of this course are to:

 give you an insight to the nature of broadcast news

 provide the basic writing styles for broadcast news you need to
know.
 present to you the way scripts are written for all programmes in
the broadcast stations
 give you understanding of the manner broadcast programmes are
produced
 discuss digital broadcast production.

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MAC 442 COURSE GUIDE

COURSE OBJECTIVES

At the end of this course, you should be able to:

 explain the nature of broadcast news

 write broadcast news effectively, using the different styles open
to you
 write scripts for all kinds of programmes on the broadcast station
 explain the requirements for the production of all programmes
 handle production processes
 fit into digital audio and video production.

WORKING THROUGH THE COURSE

In order to get the best out of this course, you need to carefully study
all materials provided for you, beginning with the study guide. Then
study each unit carefully, since they have been designed sequentially
to give you step by step understanding to the final production of news
and other broadcast programmes. Always take note of areas you do not
understand so you can present them when you have tutorials. You will
be required to complete all exercises. It will also help you to take
time to monitor the presentation of news and other programmes on
radio and television. If given the opportunity, visit these broadcast
stations to understand how they package their stories.

COURSE MATERIALS

The basic materials you will need for this course are as follows:

i Course guide
ii Study units
iii Relevant textbooks
iv Assignment file
v Presentation schedule.

STUDY UNITS

There are five modules in this course. Each module has units under it.
The units are between three and five, depending on the scope of the
module. The modules for this course are as follows:

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 MAC 442 COURSE GUIDE

Module 1 Broadcast News

Unit 1 Understanding Broadcast News

Unit 2 Newsgathering for Broadcast
Unit 3 Writing Broadcast Copy

Module 2 Putting the Radio/TV Story Together

Unit 1 Packaging the News

Unit 2 TV: Writing to Still
Unit 3 Writing the VO/SOT
Unit 4 Copy Editing and Producing
Unit 5 Delivering the News

Module 3 Other Broadcast Programmes Production

Unit 1 Classification of Broadcast Programmes

Unit 2 Script Writing
Unit 3 Broadcast Programme Management
Unit 4 People behind Programme Production

Module 4 Production Proper

Unit 1 Production Procedure

Unit 2 Stages of Production
Unit 3 Elements of Production
Unit 4 Shooting Techniques/Camera Movement
Unit 5 Television Lighting

Module 5 Digital Broadcast Production

Unit 1 Understanding Broadcast Digitisation

Unit 2 Digital Radio Production
Unit 3 Digital Television Production

Each unit has an introduction, a list of objectives and the main content.
You also have self-assessment exercises (SAEs) for your study
and tutor–marked assignments (TMAs) which you are expected to
work on and submit for marking.

TEXTBOOKS AND REFERENCES

At the end of each unit, you will find a list of relevant

reference materials which you may wish to consult or purchase. You
can also consult other textbooks you find relevant for this course that
have not been included here.

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MAC 442 COURSE GUIDE

ASSESSMENT

Two types of assessments are involved in the course: the self-

assessment exercises (SAEs) and the tutor-marked assignments
(TMAs). Your answers to the SAEs are not meant to be submitted,
they should help you assess your understanding of the course content.
On the other hand, the tutor-marked assignments (TMAs) are to be
carefully answered and kept in your assignment file for
submission and marking. The assessment counts for only 30 percent
of your total score. Make sure you submit the final assignment,
including the tutor-marked assignment form on or before the
deadline for submission. Always contact your tutor in case of any
difficulty in the process.

TUTOR–MARKED ASSIGNMENT

As mentioned earlier, the tutor–marked assignments are found at the

end of every unit. You are expected to answer them as instructed and
put in your assignment file for submission.

FINAL EXAMINATION AND GRADING

The final examination for this course will last for three hours and will
cover all the areas of the course. The examination questions will
reflect what you have covered in the SAEs and TMAs you have
previously worked on. You are therefore advised to revise your work
thoroughly before going in for the examination.

COURSE MARKING SCHEME

Below is the breakdown of actual course mark allocation.

Assessment Marks

Best three assignments out of the marked ones 30%

Final examination 70%

Total 100%

PRESENTATION SCHEDULE

You will be notified of the dates that all assignments will be

submitted. You will also be properly informed of the completion of the
study units and dates for examination.

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 MAC 442 COURSE GUIDE

COURSE OVERVIEW
UNITS TITLE OF WORK WEEKS ASSESSMENT
ACTIVITY (END OF
UNIT)
Module 1 Broadcast News
1 Understanding Broadcast Week 1 Assignment 1
news
2 News gathering for Week 1 Assignment 2
broadcast
3 Writing broadcast Copy Week 2 Assignment 3
Module 2 Putting the Radio/TV Story Together
1 Packaging the news Week 3 Assignment 1
2 TV: Writing to Stills Week 3 Assignment 2
3 Writing the VO/SOT Week 4 Assignment 3
4 Copy Editing and Producing Week 4 Assignment 4
5 Delivering the News Week 5 Assignment 5
Module 3 Other Broadcast Programmes Production
1 Classification of Broadcast Week 6 Assignment 1
Programmes
2 Script Writing Week 6 Assignment 2
3 Broadcast Programme Week 7 Assignment 3
Management
4 People Behind Programme Week 8 Assignment 4
Production
Module 4 Production Proper
1 Production Procedure Week 9 Assignment 1
2 Stages of Production Week 9 Assignment 2
3 Elements of Production Week 10 Assignment 3
4 Shooting Week 10 Assignment 4
Techniques/Camera
Movement
5 Television Lighting Week 11 Assignment 5
Module 5 Digital broadcast Production
1 Understanding Broadcast Week 11 Assignment 1
Digitization
2 Digital Radio Production Week 12 Assignment 2
3 Digital Television Week 12 Assignment 3
Production
For a better understanding of this course, you need to review all
you have learnt about broadcasting from your 100 level to 300 level.
You will also need to purchase some text books relevant to this course
and visit recommended websites from time to time to equip yourself
with current trends in the broadcast industry.

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MAC 442 COURSE GUIDE

By now, I believe you understand fully that distance learning is quite

different from formal university education, so you should work
solely on your own and contact your tutors where you have difficulties.

HOW TO GET THE MOST FROM THIS COURSE

You already know that distance learning is different from formal

university system in the preparation and presentation of materials. In
distance learning, you read lectures and not listen to lectures, as it is
obtainable in the formal university system. Here, you have been
provided with the course material in the format that is similar to what
happens in the formal university system.

Each unit begins with an introduction which gives you an insight

into the main body of the work. It is followed by a set of learning
objectives that enable you to know what you should do after going
through each unit. It is expected that when you go through a unit, you
should crosscheck to verify if you have achieved the objectives.

The main content is the major part of each unit. It contains what
you need to know about a particular unit. You can build the main
content further by reading the materials recommended.

To get the most from this course, you need to do a number of things:

 Read the Course Guide carefully. This is your first assignment.

 Prepare your own study schedule and take it that you are in a
formal class. Stick to this schedule please. Always let your tutor
know when you have challenges.
 Always refer to the objectives to help you know what you have to
achieve at the end of the unit.
 Always keep in touch with your Study Centre for up-to-date
information concerning your course.
 Always submit your tutor-marked assignments on time.
 Make sure you have achieved a unit’s objectives before moving
 to the next. Do so steadily.
 Keep working until you get through with all your assignments.
 Do not wait for a marked assignment before you work on
another.
 Always prepare for examination as you go through the units. Do
not wait until the date is announced.

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MAC 442 ADVANCED BROADCAST NEWS/PROGRAMME PRODUCTION

FACILITATORS/TUTORS AND TUTORIALS

A good number of tutorials will be organised to cover the period

you will take this course. You will be notified of the dates and location
of these tutorials, together with the name and phone number of your
tutor as soon as you are allocated a tutorial group. The tutorial provides
you opportunity to meet with your tutor face to face and to have
your questions answered instantly. Your tutor will mark and
comment on your assignments and keep a close watch on your
progress. Make sure you attend the tutorials regularly and promptly.
You are also expected to submit your tutor–marked assignments
promptly. Feel free to contact your tutor if you need help, especially
where you do not understand any part of the study or the assigned
readings. You can note such questions and ask them during tutorials.
Be reminded too, that active participation during tutorials would
improve your understanding of the course.

CONCLUSION

Advanced broadcast news/programme production is more of a

practical class than theory. But since you may not have the opportunity
to participate in production often, do your best to understand the basic
principles and visit studios of broadcast stations regularly.

SUMMARY

This Course Guide has been designed to provide the information you
need for a fruitful experience in this course. It provides the aims and
objectives of the course as well as the study units you need to study
and the best ways to approach the study in order to get good results.

I wish you success in this last lap of your study.

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MAC 442 ADVANCED BROADCAST NEWS/PROGRAMME PRODUCTION

MAIN
COURSE

CONTENTS PAGE

Module 1 Broadcast News……………………………. 1

Unit 1 Understanding Broadcast News…………….. 1

Unit 2 Newsgathering for Broadcast……………….. 11
Unit 3 Writing Broadcast Copy…………………….. 20

Module 2 Putting the Radio/TV Story Together……. 33

Unit 1 Packaging the News…………………………. 33

Unit 2 TV: Writing to Still…………………………. 40
Unit 3 Writing the VO/SOT………………………… 46
Unit 4 Copy Editing and Producing………………... 56
Unit 5 Delivering the News………………………… 68

Module 3 Other Broadcast Programmes Production 77

Unit 1 Classification of Broadcast Programmes…… 77

Unit 2 Script Writing……………………………….. 91
Unit 3 Broadcast Programme Management………… 102
Unit 4 People behind Programme Production……… 110

Module 4 Production Proper…………………………. 121

Unit 1 Production Procedure……………………….. 121

Unit 2 Stages of Production………………………… 128
Unit 3 Elements of Production……………………… 134
Unit 4 Shooting Techniques/Camera Movement…... 144
Unit 5 Television Lighting………………………….. 153

Module 5 Digital Broadcast Production……………… 160

Unit 1 Understanding Broadcast Digitisation……… 160

Unit 2 Digital Radio Production…………………… 167
Unit 3 Digital Television Production………………. 176

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MAC 442 MODULE 1

MODULE 1 BROADCAST NEWS

The way broadcast news appears seems so simple that most audience
often think there is nothing to it. But there is a lot of work to do, such
that even when members of the public are sleeping, the producer is
busy thinking of how best to package and present the news stories.

The core of radio and television broadcast therefore is news writing

and reporting. For every production to be successful, the stories
must be well written. You may have the best studio in the world or the
most expensive equipment, but if what you are passing to the
audience through the studio is not well written and properly presented,
the audience would not appreciate you.

This module presents to you the basic things you need to know about
broadcast news; how to gather stories for news cast; the writing styles
open to you and the best way to prepare broadcast copies.

Unit 1 Understanding Broadcast News

Unit 2 Newsgathering for Broadcast
Unit 3 Writing Broadcast Copy

UNIT 1 UNDERSTANDING BROADCAST NEWS

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Nature of Broadcast News
3.2 What is Newsworthy?
3.3 Criteria for Selecting Broadcast News
3.4 Characteristics of Broadcast News
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

This unit introduces you to the nature of broadcast news. It is assumed

that you have learnt so much about news in your previous levels, so we
do not have to dwell so much here. The nature of broadcast news
would also lead us to looking at the characteristics of broadcast news
and the criteria for selecting stories for broadcast news.

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 MAC 442 ADVANCED BROADCAST NEWS/PROGRAMME PRODUCTION

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 explain the technical definition of news

 explain the nature of broadcast news
 describe the characteristics of broadcast news
 provide the criteria for selecting broadcast news.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Nature of Broadcast News

News has been defined by Mitchel Charnley quoted in Ugande
(2006:
75) as “a timely account or report of facts or opinion that holds interest
or importance or both for a considerable number of people.” This
explains news for both the print and broadcast media and it
clearly brings out the fact that nothing can be news until it is reported.
The report too, must come out on time and it must interest a
considerable number of people (news values).

Much of what is studied as journalism concerns newspapers, the way

stories are written for the print media. But broadcast is different, so the
news for broadcast should be written in a different way. In broadcast,
Hewitt (1995: 2) says you must write for speech patterns, design stories
around the various sound and visual recordings made in the field, and
work within severe time limitations. In writing for broadcast, the writer
must consider the needs of the audience. This is more evident in
broadcast than in print.

People receive broadcast messages while doing so many different

things. Some people may just sit and listen to radio or television, but
others may be washing, cooking, driving, taking care of children,
lying in bed, or even reading newspapers. This brings about the
possibility that audience attention may drift in and out. It therefore,
takes clever leads and an interesting broadcast style to bring the
audience into each and every story.

Tracing the origin of broadcast news, Nwodu (2006: 73) puts it that
“… broadcast news began in the 1920s. Before then, print (newspaper
and magazine) news has begun to flourish. Thus, newsmen who were
highly skilled in newspaper management and production wrote early
broadcast news. The implication is that the bulk of news being churned
out from the electronic broadcast then was highly inundated with news
from newspaper wire services or stylistic copies of newspaper wires.”
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MAC 442 MODULE 1

Nwodu (2006) further writes that “with the passage of time, experts
realised that structuring broadcast news in the pattern of newspaper
style not only makes the news boring and clumsy, but also inhibits its
comprehension. This is due to the fact that newspaper news conforms
strictly to the rules of written language as against the rules of spoken
languages, which broadcast news demands.” That is why Fang (1980)
cited in Nwodu (2006: 76) agrees that “gradually, it becomes apparent
that radio news must not be just spoken newspaper copy. A listener
cannot skim broadcast news items looking for a story in which he is
interested. In radio and television, trimming from the bottom means
throwing out entire stories.”

The print media news, according to Nwodu (2006:76) therefore, are

largely written in the inverted pyramid format primarily to highlight the
major facts of the news first and to ensure easy trimming of the news
from the bottom, while retaining the main gist of the news.
Nevertheless, the realisation that trimming radio and television news
from the tail of the story would amount to “throwing out entire stories”,
challenged experts to search for an alternative format of presenting
broadcast news.

The curiosity indeed, paid off. The hard but not too long a search led to
the discovery of narrative treatment of the news after the lead. This
becomes the most effective way of presenting broadcast news.

This sudden discovery marks the gradual but steady departure from
packaging broadcast news in the pattern or fashion of print media news.
Radio and television news writers began to tailor their news in a manner
that will suit electronic media. Today, radio and television news are
written to be spoken and hardly to be read. This makes it important for
broadcast news to be written in conversational format in order to appeal
to a good number of audience.

This point clearly brings out the difference between broadcast and print
media news stories.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Trace the origin of broadcast news, stating why its style of writing
differs from that of print media news.

3.2 What is Newsworthy?

According to Keller and Hawkins (2002:10) the general definitions that
identify “news” are not always helpful in determining whether a
specific story has news value. The following, as presented by them
might help you decide whether a story should be broadcast:

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MAC 442 ADVANCED BROADCAST NEWS/PROGRAMME PRODUCTION

a) Is there conflict?
Most news stories contain a central conflict or disagreement that
contributes to the news value. The stress point may be found among
people or in opposing social forces. The tension can be the old way
versus the news way, good versus evil, right versus wrong.

b) Is the story unique or unusual?

The most unusual the story, the more newsworthy and interesting it is.
In fact, stories about crime are considered newsworthy because they are
unusual.

c) Is someone or something prominent involved?

Most of us can stub a toe or catch a cold and our misery carries no great
significance because we do not live lives of prominence. On the other
hand, insignificant events become newsworthy when they are related to
someone or something widely known. If the president of Nigeria catches
a cold, the condition could easily become national news, especially if
symptoms of the cold are apparent in a major appearance.

d) What is the impact of the story?

People are naturally interested in information that affects them in a
personal way. For this reason, occurrences that have an impact on a
large number of people become important news. If a company
announces a large layoff of employees, the information is vital to
employees and their families. When taxes go up or developers propose a
new shopping mall in a community, the story is newsworthy to that
community.

e) Is the story relevant?

Information that is relevant or connects to people in some way is
newsworthy. Some stories may be interesting and give insight into the
lives of other people but may be irrelevant to the lives of media
audience.

f) What is the location?

The location of a story can determine whether it has news value or not.
A widespread 24-hour power failure in a town 100 kilometres away
would not be very important or interesting unless the cause was unique
or unless it affected people in an usual way. In the same vein, when
some people die in an usual way in a state in Nigeria, it would interest
Nigerian media more than when double of that same number of people
die in another country.

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MAC 442 MODULE 1

g) Does the story offer human interest and emotional impact?

Much of the reality of our daily lives exists in our thoughts and feelings.
Many of us carry out similar actions and routines each day, but our
individual reactions to people and events can be very similar to – or
very different from – those of others. As we go through life, we discover
and define ourselves in part by this comparison to others. Stories about
other people are interesting and important to us. For this reason, stories
that stir emotions become news, but in a different way from the stories
that lead the newscast. Stories that focus on emotional elements and do
not generally affect people’s lives in other ways are known as human
interest stories.

3.3 Criteria for selecting broadcast news

Broadcast news are written in a special way because of the peculiarities
of the media. Therefore, apart from the general criteria for selecting
news stories which include timeliness, proximity, human interest,
conflict, prominence, bizarre, change and novelty. Ugande (2006: 79)
identifies the following as criteria for selecting broadcast news.

They include:
 timeliness
 information
 audio-visual impact
 people.

 Timeliness
The broadcast media are the “now” media. They are instantaneous
because, as events are occurring so are they being reported. For this
reason, the broadcast news writer emphasises timeliness above all
criteria.

Due to the importance greatly attached to timely events, regular

programming is often interrupted when an event is considered
significant and timely enough. In fact, Brooks, Kennedy, Moen and
Ranly (1996:426) rightly points out:

This sense of immediacy influences everything in broadcast news from

what is reported to how it is reported. Even when television and radio
air documentaries or in-depth segments, they typically try to infuse a
sense of urgency, a strong feeling of the present, an emphasis on what is
happening now.

Information
Explaining this point, Ugande (2006:79) says while the print media are
heavily constrained by space, the broadcast media are constrained by
time. Time or lack of it determines how an event is reported. The fact

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MAC 442 ADVANCED BROADCAST NEWS/PROGRAMME PRODUCTION

that airtime is precious often makes the broadcast news writer

emphasise the ‘what’ and the ‘where’ at the expense of the ‘why’ and
the ‘how’. This means that broadcasters generally care more about
informing ‘what’ and where it happened. The why and how elements
will consume time, which is often lacking in the broadcast media.
Mencher (1997:220) adds that “broadcast news serves a purpose
different from that of the newspaper. Its intent is to provide the public
with basic information quickly and succinctly. The broadcast writer’s
job is to get the story idea across without detail. To communicate events
in such short bursts to an audience that cannot read or hear the material
again. The broadcast journalist follows a special set of guidelines.”

 Audio- visual impact

Audio-visual impact is yet another criterion which sets broadcast news
selection apart from print. This is due to the technologies involved.
Radio and television are concerned with sound and sight. Sometimes,
news is selected for radio because it contains an actuality which is more
likely to convince the audience of the event reported. Some news stories
are selected for television because they are visually appealing or
exciting. For this reason, news of accidents or fire outbreak that may get
attention only in the record, column of the newspaper may get important
play on a television newscast.

 People
Broadcasting more often attempts to tell the news through people.
Broadcasting is generally concerned with finding problems. Identifying
‘who’ is at the centre of the problems and knowing how the person is
going about solving the problems. Broadcast journalists are concerned
with people or someone who is affected by the story. Concrete concepts
with sound and visuals matter more to the broadcast journalist. This is
probably why broadcasting is said to humanise the story.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
What are the criteria for writing broadcast news?

3.4 Characteristics of Broadcast news

Broadcast news writing is couched in timeliness. This necessarily
demands from news writers the characteristics of immediacy,
conversional style, tight phrasing and clarity. Ugande (2006:82) points
out that these are applicable to both radio and television.

Immediacy
One constant with broadcasting is its sense of immediacy - “newness”.
This is achieved through the avoidance of the past tense and emphasis
on the present tense as much as possible. For this reason, the
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MAC 442 MODULE 1

progressive form is chosen at the expense of the past. The progressive

form usually indicates continuing action. E.g. Governor Dan Baba says
(instead of said). The progressive form usually indicates continuing
action.
The cause of fire is not yet known but eye witness accounts are saying
that…

When it is imperative to use past tense, broadcasters don’t hesitate.

However, sometimes they achieve a sense of immediacy by adding time
element. White (1996:27) adds that, “without deceiving an audience by
treating an old story as if it were fresh, the broadcast news writer’s job
is to tell the news as though it is in progress or has just recently
happened.”

One way of avoiding the past tense is to avoid yesterday’s story. Except
where the intention is to upgrade yesterday’s story through follow ups.
Radio and television are the now media and it is only desirable that their
stories convey this important characteristic.

Conversational style
This characteristic of broadcast news writing reminds us of the saying:
“write the way you talk and read your copy aloud.” We talk (converse)
naturally with informal choice of words (not slang or colloquialism
though), the use of contractions such as that’s, can’t don’t, shouldn’t
isn’t. We also use simple ways and words. That is the chief
characteristic of broadcast news writing. Also, we are encouraged to
read aloud what we write so that we can ascertain the level of
conversationality in our writing. If we have difficulty in reading what
we write, then it would be more difficult for the anchorperson to read.
Above all, it would be difficult for the anchor to be fluent and achieve a
conversational style which is a desirable goal in broadcast media
writing. To achieve conversational style in news writing therefore,
writers must use simple short sentences written with transitive verbs in
the active voice. Writers are to remember that the broadcast media are
credited with raising the standard of spoken English so it is imperative
for them to make their contribution in this regard.

Example
“The flood forced the families in Ankpa to flee from their houses” and
not “the families in Ankpa were forced to flee from their houses by the
flood.”

Tight phrasing
This means being concise, cutting down adjectives and adverbs,
eliminating the passive voice, using strong active verbs. It also means
making every word count. In fact, it refers to embarking on economy of

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MAC 442 ADVANCED BROADCAST NEWS/PROGRAMME PRODUCTION

words. Since the writer rarely has time for the whole story selecting
facts carefully is what is required of him or her. In broadcast writing
even when there is enough time, tight phrasing is given top priority. For
example: “The governor says” instead of “The governor, who is walking
down the road, says.”

Clarity
Being clear and precise is an important characteristic of broadcast new
writing. The words chosen should convey a clear and precise meaning
(remember the essence of writing to effectively communicate your
intended meaning to the audience). This is why the choice of clear and
precise words which assist in conveying meaning is necessary for
broadcast news writers. This is more so that listeners and viewers can’t
go back over the copy as newspaper readers do, because broadcast
media messages are transient in nature, the words chosen to
communicate such messages need to be clear and precise. For example,
it is better to say: “Members of the construction company voted to stop
building the bridge” than to say “Members of the construction company
voted to terminate the construction of the bridge.”

In addition to the few points mentioned by Ugande; O’ Donell, Benoit,

and Hausman (1990:208) emphasis that “in writing news stories, words-
their order, their meaning and their rhythm - can be considered to be a
production value. The style of writing influences the sounds and writing
does, of course, put the whole package together. Writing also involves
the way sound elements are assembled.” Ugande (2006:82) reinforces
this position where he posits that “what is written must sound right
when it is read aloud and must be conversational. Stilled, ponderous
writing has no place in radio and television. The listeners have only one
opportunity to understand what is being said; they cannot look back as
they can with a newspaper article.”

Broadcast news stories especially those for radio demand short

sentences and active verb tenses. This style of writing is really quite
different from newspaper journalism. To repeat a popular and
worthwhile phrase, ‘radio writing is written for the ear, not the eye,’ will
drive home the point.

For example, a newspaper lead might read:

Twenty-four year old John Agbu, of 31, Dikko Street in Wukari, was
killed in an accident today near the market when his car collided with a
truck that was travelling the wrong way, police said.

That sentence (which is not extremely long as newspaper leads go)

would be confusing to listeners, who would be better served by:

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MAC 442 MODULE 1

A man died today when his car collided with a truck, police say he was
heading the wrong way on an expressway.

Now, the details can be presented in ear pleasing bite-size fashion.

Sentences in broadcast news writing should be kept short (20 or 25

words or fewer) attribution is usually put first. In order words, “Division
Police Officer, Andrew Akatu said today that there is no word on the
fate of the missing hunter,” rather than “There is no word on the fate of
the missing hunter, said Andrew Akatu of the police division.”

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Discuss the characteristics of broadcast news.

4.0 CONCLUSION

This course is a follow up to other courses you offered under broadcast

media in your previous classes; therefore this unit is just an attempt to
update your knowledge of the basics of broadcast news.

5.0 SUMMARY

This unit has presented you the nature of broadcast news. Broadcast
news is different from print news because it emphasises immediacy,
uses conversational style and appeals to the senses of sight and sound.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Pick five news stories from a national daily, read the stories carefully
and rewrite them for broadcast, taking into consideration the
characteristics of broadcast news.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Brooks, B. et al. (1996). News Reporting and Writing. New York: St.
Martins Press.

Hewitt, J. (1995). Writing for Broadcast News. (2nd ed.). London:

Mayfield Publishing Company.

Keller, T. & Hawkins, S. A. (2002). Television News – A Handbook for

Writing, Reporting, Shooting and Editing. Scottsdale, Arizona:
Holcomb Hathway Publishers.

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MAC 442 ADVANCED BROADCAST NEWS/PROGRAMME PRODUCTION

Mencher, M. (1997). News Reporting and Writing. (7th ed.). New York:
McGraw Hill.

Nwodu, L. C. (2006). Journalism Practice: News, Aesthetics, Ethics

and Laws. Enugu: Rhyce Kerex Publishers.

O’Donell, L., Benoit, P. & Hausman, C. (1990). Modern Radio

Production. (2nd ed.). California: Wadsworth Publishing
Company.

Ugande, G. (2006). Broadcast Programme Writing and Production.

Makurdi: AsaGod Printers.

White, T. (1996). Broadcast News Writing, Reporting and Production.

(2nd ed.). Boston: Focal Press.

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MAC 442 MODULE 1

UNIT 2 NEWS GATHERING FOR BROADCAST

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Preparation
3.2 Methods of News Gathering
3.3 Sources of News Stories
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

It takes a ‘nose for news’ for you to understand that when certain things
happen, they are news worthy. Then it takes an aggressive and efficient
search for facts and behind it all, solid preparation to effectively gather
stories worth reporting.

Broadcast reporters must be fast. They are more conscious of their

watches than newspaper reporters as they cover events. Most radio and
TV reporters have deadline every hour because many stations now
report news on an hourly basis so they are always ready to give new
accounts.

However, gathering news for radio or television is more than just a race.
Being first means nothing if there are holes in the story or it is
erroneous.

Facts are very important to reporters and that is why it is necessary for
the reporters to begin the business of gathering facts with preparation.
This unit presents to you how to prepare for news gathering; methods of
news gathering; and sources of news stories.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 state the need for preparation for news gathering.

 identify the methods of news gathering
 use the methods effectively when assigned to work
 mention the sources of broadcast news
 explain how to maintain sources of news.

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MAC 442 ADVANCED BROADCAST NEWS/PROGRAMME PRODUCTION

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Preparation
Preparation for news gathering begins with digging. According to
Stephens (1986: 129) “to have a ‘nose for news’, a reporter has to be
nosey-curious, willing to pry into things. It is very common that some
people will drive past a construction site every day without thinking
twice about it. But a good reporter will immediately start wondering
what is being built, how much it costs, who is paying, who is getting the
jobs and what this will mean for the local economy and environment.
This goes to saying that stories could be found everywhere. Reporters
have to sniff around and smell them out.”

Stephens (1986: 130) further writes that “stories have to be dug out of
reticent people as well as out of dense volumes. People do not always
realise that a strange tale they have been telling friends qualifies as
news, and when they realise they have a story, they sometimes prefer to
keep it quiet. The reporter’s job is to share these tales with the
community and to ensure that controversial stories are heard. To
accomplish this, shyness must be left at home. Reporters do not have to
be outgoing. In fact, some journalists are said to have chosen the
profession to compensate for a retiring nature, but they must be
industrious and aggressive enough to pull a story out of its
protagonists.”
Besides digging, reporters also have assignment. They may be assigned
specific beats-political news, court news, for instance, or go for general
assignment. Where reporters are sent is determined by a combination of
their own news judgment and that of their superiors. The raw materials
for that determination are news sources such as the wires, tips, police
radio, along with the station’s future file or schedules prepared by the
station.

Preparation is necessary for carrying out these assignments – be they

preplanned events, breaking news or stories reporters originate
themselves. Preparation for preplanned events is not so difficult because
the reporters are informed early enough for them to get ready for the
events. To serve as reminder, when the station is notified, it files the
notice under that date in the future and assigns reporters to cover them.
Preplanned events are too often merely media events – staged strictly
for publicity.

For breaking news, reporters are always prepared and anxious to toss
out their schedules to track the unexpected event that gives news its
reputation as a live wire. Most times, the news room learns of breaking
developments first. That is why it is so important for reporters to check
in regularly. As a matter of necessity too, reporters should always have
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MAC 442 MODULE 1

their writing materials with them and recorders to take report of the
events.

Another approach to preparation is the need to be equipped with

background information all the time. Stephens (1986:133) goes on to
say that:

“With or without advance notice, as a reporter, you have to try to

approach a story with as much of the background information as
possible already in your head, or in your notes. It is always important
that you are knowledgeable, well read and, if you know what your
assignment is going to be, do some research beforehand. On a planned
story there is no excuse for failure to do the homework. You can go
through news releases, newspaper previous reports on such an
assignment, other stories the station has done on that subject. Phone
calls can also be an important element in a reporter’s preparation.

On breaking stories there may be no time for detailed research, but an

abbreviated form of that information hunt is still worth the moment or
two it requires. Reporters should at least grab whatever is around. If
reporters are given a story while still in the field, or if they have to dash
off before looking through the files, background information should be
secured by others in the newsroom and communicated by phone at the
first opportunity. Preparation pays. It is necessary to be informed before
proceeding to become well informed.”

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Explain how a reporter can prepare for news gathering.

3.2 Methods of News Gathering

Some of the methods of gathering news according to Stephens (1986)
include:
 On the phone
 On the scene
 Questioning
 Preparing a Beat
 Contacts

3.2.1 On the Phone

Telephones are powerful devices. In some big and government
establishments, phone numbers are listed and there are people whose job
is to help the press get facts. The telephone is the all-purpose reporting
instrument. It fills holes in stories, finds local angles, determines exact
spellings, pursues leads. It will be very helpful if you have a book where

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MAC 442 ADVANCED BROADCAST NEWS/PROGRAMME PRODUCTION

you can store important phone numbers.

3.2.2 On the Scene

Stephens (1986: 136) stresses that the best place to be when covering a
news event is at that event. The telephone restricts reporters to one
person at a time and one sense (their hearing) at a time. When you are
present at the scene of event, you are more able to get the flavour of the
event. Your presence also gives you opportunity to meet people and
make contacts that can be useful on future stories.

3.2.3 Questioning

Once reporters have been set on the trail of some news, the trick is to
find the story-better yet, to find a bunch of stories. Stories may be
conspicuous sitting there in the first controversial words of the
statement – or stories may be hiding in the questions that are not being
asked or behind an optimistic smile.

Reporting is the search for answers, and they are usually uncovered by
intensive questioning. To do it well, reporters need the right questions.
Questions should always be to the point. It is not acceptable for you to
ask a question like: “I heard you were around when that man started
shooting. I really want to know what your thought was at that time.
What do you think really happened?” It is better for you to ask questions
one after the other. Stick to the subject – one subject at a time. You can
ask, “What happened?” Then later, ask “how did you react?”

When you go out to ask people, make sure you have at least a little
understanding of the subject matter. A question that sounds ignorant
sometimes may be dismissed with a joke. It is unacceptable for you to
ask, “When are you going to start work on that new hospital? Where is
it?” To show that you know the site for the building, you can ask,
“When will work begin on the new hospital at Oshodi Road?”

The right question sometimes requires research; it may take a whole day
for you to reflect on what to ask. If there is time, it is wise to write the
questions out beforehand. Even if you do not refer to them, the act of
writing questions down can help focus thoughts, and written questions
are a hedge against forgetting under pressure.

With all this in mind, it is still important to remember that the job of a
question is to get information, not to prove how much a reporter knows.
It is better for you to ask and sound uninformed in an interview than not
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MAC 442 MODULE 1

to ask and sound uninformed on the air.

3.2.4 Preparing a Beat

All reporters have areas for which they are responsible. Since most
radio and television reporters are on general assignment, the area could
be as large as the city of Lagos or as small as just Lekki, Oshodi, or it
could be the general hospital or police division office.

When assigned to an area, reporters have to plan to know certain things

about that area. They will have to read through some issues of
newspapers or news letters from the areas they are assigned to
familiarise themselves with the major ongoing issues.

Reporter preparing a beat will also want to find out where the relevant
public records can be found. If they are covering the courts those
records would include, for example, the calendar of scheduled cases,
transcripts of hearings and trials or depositions (sworn statements by
witnesses). Covering politics, reporters would want to know the
political parties that exist in the state, their various activities and where
their offices are located.

Of course, most stories will be about people, not papers. A reporter

starting out in an area must get to know the characters most likely to be
performing in upcoming stories. Who wields power in the town? Who
leads the different political factions? Who are the major business
leaders? As the reporters try to find out all of these and more, names and
titles will start pouring out. Then it’s time to get to know the people
behind the names and titles.

3.2.5 Contacts
Some things do not get mentioned in news releases or announced at
news conferences. This means reporters need contacts, sources, people
who are willing to inform them about happenings.

Contacts also help reporters to get stories faster. If an accident occurs,

for instance, a friendly police officer might decide to give a reporter a
call. If there is a clash among members of a political party, a concerned
person may call the reporter to find out what is going on.

News travels through people, so reporters benefit from establishing a

personal relationship with as many people as possible. Contacts can be
found by hanging around with newsmakers, acting friendly, asking
questions and listening.

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MAC 442 ADVANCED BROADCAST NEWS/PROGRAMME PRODUCTION

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
You are in the newsroom and the university in your community has just
received 10 million naira to establish an e-library. List the people you
would call and the questions you would ask.

3.3 Sources of News

News gathering is the process of collecting raw information from
various sources to be reported as news. A source is a person or a
document with information the reporter needs for a story or for
background. Anyone on the inside of any given news situation is a
potential source but they only turn real sources when they come up with
a bit or a lot of, relevant information. According to Mencher (1997:
306), the reporter relies on two types of sources which are:
 physical sources
 human sources.

The physical sources

The physical sources consist of records, documents, reference works
and newspaper clippings. Documents could be routine written sources
from the police and courts such as traffic offences, accidents,
complaints, arrests, fines and files.

Wire service can constitute good sources. Folarin (1998: 20) writes that
“media houses subscribe to news agency or press association services
which collect and distribute news to them in return for their
subscription. News agency services are wire service which means that
only subscribers connected to their services by wire or cables can
receive their (telex) transmissions.”

According to Shrivastava (1991: 32), “the wire services have large

network of teleprompter circuits connecting hundreds of cities and
towns from where their reporters gather news and after processing it
deliver to media houses subscribes in their newsroom at a teleprompter
receiver set.”

News releases or news statements or handout can also be a good source

of news. It is a statement on behalf of a government, political party,
institution or even an individual given to the media. Normally, it is
signed by an office which is competent to issue it.

Speeches delivered at news conferences could also be used for news

reports. News conferences are usually organised to intimate newsmen
about happenings in the organisations.

The Internet has also become a very good source of news for journalist.
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MAC 442 MODULE 1

Earlier, journalist considered the Internet a toy for the technologically

minded. But beginning in the mid-nineties, it received growing
acceptance. Much of the acceptance, Itule and Anderson (1997: 157)
believe, is due to the enormous number of publications that are
published both printed pages and background research on the world
wide web (www), the graphical representation of the Internet that
combines text, video and sound in one format.

Other standard information sources include dictionaries, encyclopedias,

telephone directories, state directories and biographical references.

The human sources

The human sources consist of authorities and people involved in events.
They are often less reliable than physical sources because they may
have interest to protect and they are untrained observers and sometime
tell reporters what they think the reporter wants to hear. Ciboh and
Iyorkaa (2004: 24) add that human sources also include the reporter
himself. The reporter usually approaches the events, ideas, situations
and personalities that make news with his own background knowledge.

The background knowledge is what he has within him before his

exposure to the news situation. It can be the knowledge of his
community, its prominent citizens, groups and institutions, its socio-
economic and political life, beliefs, norms and values. The background
knowledge may be just what he knows or is being able to research of the
event, idea, situation or personality that is his assignment. This
knowledge shapes and influences his perception of whatever he is
exposed to, how he tackles his assignment and what questions he asks.
Facts for news stories can be obtained wholly from humans through
observation and personal contact.

 Observations
The reporter is a major source of news through observation. Observation
usually is done on the spot and requires that the reporter be on the scene
of the event. Events or situations observed can be planned for or they
may be inadvertent.

The reporter can observe in two ways: either as a participant in the news
situation or as a mere observer. Participant is through personal
involvement in the story.

As mere observer, reporters usually are staffed to cover pre-planned

events or breaking news in person.

Some events are staffed as a matter of routine, such as legislature

sessions, launchings, meetings, sporting competitions.

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MAC 442 ADVANCED BROADCAST NEWS/PROGRAMME PRODUCTION

 Personal contact
Often times, reporters are never physically present on the scene of
events. When this happens, reporters rely on persons who were present
for firsthand accounts of such events. The reporter gets facts from these
persons through the process of questioning. He or she asks appropriate
and probing questions to elicit these facts. Questions then become the
instruments for ascertaining the elusive truth about the happenings.

Persons that serve as sources through contacts are acquaintances that

can be trusted to supply straight information or a written report or
document.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
What are the sources of news?

4.0 CONCLUSION

This unit helps to acquaint you with the knowledge necessary for the
gathering of stories for subsequent presentation as newscast. Proper
preparation and knowledge of whom to contact and how to contact him
or her will go a long way in bringing about a good production. In order
to get the best out of the contacts, reporters need to be aggressive,
thorough and curious.

5.0 SUMMARY

This unit presents the steps needed in news gathering. It begins with
preparation which lays emphasis on digging for facts to the methods of
news gathering (which include: on the phone; on the scene; questioning;
preparing a beat; and contacts). The sources of news stories discussed in
this unit include physical source and human sources.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Write extensively on the process of preparing and conducting

interview.
2. Identify different human sources of news and discuss how you
can maintain them.

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MAC 442 MODULE 1

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Ciboh, R. & Iyorkaa, T. (2004). News Writing. Makurdi: Aboki

Publishers.

Folarin, B. (1998). News Reporting, Hints for the Beginners. Ibadan:

Kraft Books Ltd.

Itule, B. & Anderson, D. (1997). News Writing and Reporting for

Today’s Media. (4th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Companies,
Inc.

Mencher, M. (1997). News Reporting and Writing. (7th ed.). London:

Brown and Benchmark.

Shrivastava, K. (1991). News Reporting and Editing. New Delhi:

Sterling Publishing Private Ltd.

Stephens, M. (1986). Broadcast News. Fort Worth: Holt, Rinehart and

Winston, Inc.

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MAC 442 ADVANCED BROADCAST NEWS/PROGRAMME PRODUCTION

UNIT 3 WRITING BROADCAST COPY

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Writing Style
3.2 Broadcasting Demand on the Writer
3.3 Writing for the Radio Newscast
3.4 Writing for the TV Newscast
3.5 Broadcast News Copy Format
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Broadcast writing requires a different approach from print writing.

Writing for the broadcast media means writing for speech. That is to
say, whatever is written is meant to be heard. For that reason, the writer
of broadcast copy must be familiar with the requirements for broadcast
writing. He or she needs to understand the writing styles as well as the
demand of preparing the radio and TV newscast. This unit seeks to look
at all these requirements.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 identify the writing styles for broadcast media

 explain the qualities of the broadcast copy writer
 discuss the way radio newscast is prepared
 discuss the way television newscast is prepared
 explain the differences between radio and television newscast.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Writing Style

Broadcast style is very different from other styles of writing, principally
because broadcast copy is written for the ear, not the eye, unlike most
other writings. For this reason, there are guidelines broadcast writers
must follow to arouse and sustain audience interest in the news. Here
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MAC 442 MODULE 1

are some tips on the writing style.

 Use of conversational style
Writing in a conversational style means writing in a way someone
would listen to you. Newspapers obviously are written for the eye,
which means that if readers do not understand something, they can
return to the paragraph or sentence and read it a second time. In
broadcast news, however, the audience has no such luxury; they hear the
copy just once; so broadcast copy must be written clearly and simply.
Thoughts must be expressed clearly with brief, crisp, declarative
sentences.

 Use of contractions
White (1996: 14) stresses that broadcast news writers must write the
way most people speak. When we have a discussion with another
person, we automatically do a number of things of which we are not
usually aware. For example, we almost always use contractions. We are
more likely to say “I’m going to work now, James,” than “I am going to
work now, James,” And we might add, “let’s get together for lunch
again soon,” instead of “Let us get together again soon.” In other words,
if we contract our words in conversation, we should do the same in
broadcast copy.

 Avoid information overload

When you have one sentence, it should have just one meaning. In that
way, people do not have difficulty understanding you. Some newspapers
are guilty of overloading sentences; but readers can always reread
complicated passages. Here is an example of a copy from a newspaper
and how it could be simplified for broadcast.

President Goodluck Jonathan worried by attacks from Boko Haram sect

that continued to threaten his leadership of the country, Monday
promised broad security measures that he said would ensure safety of
lives and properties.

For this copy to sound better in broadcast, you will need to break it into
two sentences. Check it for the most important detail. So the story could
start out like this:

President Goodluck Jonathan promises to beef up security in the country

for better living of the citizens.

Goodluck made the promise on Monday, as the Boko Haram sect

continues to threaten his leadership of the country.

Avoiding information overload also means that you avoid relative

clauses. According to White (1996:17), relative clauses are introduced

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MAC 442 ADVANCED BROADCAST NEWS/PROGRAMME PRODUCTION

by the relative pronouns who, which, that, what, whoever, whichever,

and whatever and add information to simple sentences.

 Eliminate long words

Short words are usually easier to understand than long ones and,
crucially for broadcast news, where time is precious, they take less time
to deliver. Example:

Police abandoned the search, is more difficult to say than Police gave
up the search.

Here are examples of long words and some shorter ones that could
replace them in broadcast copy:
Avoid Use
Extraordinary Unusual
Acknowledge Admit
Initiate Start, begin
Transform Change.

 Avoid direct quotes

Quotation marks cannot be heard, and since broadcast copy is meant for
the ears, broadcast writers need to paraphrase what someone said. If
however, a direct quote becomes imperative, then special language is
sometimes inserted like:

His or her words, “…”

Responding, the president says, “…”

Other tips to help the broadcast writer to maintain broadcast writing

style is to:
 use present tense
 avoid highly technical words, professional jargons and clichés.
 For example: “the doctor will carry out myomectomy on the lady
today.” Myomectomy is a medical term which refers to the
surgical removal of a uterine fibroid. Use simpler term like
operation instead
 find the lead, then tell story chronologically
 avoid sexism in pronouns. For example: “Each student is
responsible for planning his own schedule.” The pronoun is
sexist because it assumes that all students are male use
humour sparingly.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
Explain the guidelines necessary for broadcast news writing.

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MAC 442 MODULE 1

3.2 Qualities of a Broadcast Writer

In order to write effectively, the writer needs to possess some qualities
and understand the business of broadcasting too. Ugande (2006: 33–35),
agrees that regardless of the medium, a writer needs to be conversant
with the nuances of the medium. The broadcast media writer should
therefore be conscious of the basic characteristics of the broadcast
media while writing broadcast news. Some of these characteristics are
immediacy, simultaneity and topicality. Willis (1967:3-4) further
expands the characteristics a broadcast writer needs to possess to
include:

Innate talents
Writers are born not made. The truism about this saying is that a writer
cannot begin to write successfully because they have been taught to
write. Those who write do already have innate talents, which are often
reinforced by instructions. If natural talents do not already exist, no
matter how well one is taught, one can hardly be a successful writer.

Language facility
A writer’s tools are words and he must have a special way with them.
Clarity and precision in word choice, for example, are essential for the
new writer who must describe events accurately.

The ability to create

Writing is a creative endeavour and broadcast writing is indeed
creativity. While experience and knowledge contribute largely to
writing, creativity makes a major contribution to attract the wavering
attention of the audience; the writer needs to create something that never
existed before.

The capacity to re-experience

Writers must have good memories and ability to recall events. They
should be able to live through experiences again by recalling and
painting vivid pictures of what happened before their very eyes. Making
use of one’s experience creatively is what is required of the broadcast
writer.

Story telling ability

The broadcast writer needs the ability to tell stories. It is possible to
make a dull story interesting once you have the ability to tell stories.
Although not all broadcast scripts require storytelling, drama and other
documentaries heavily depend on storytelling. The writer’s ability to
handle these scripts well will also depend on his story telling ability.

Self-evaluation
The broadcast writer needs a gift of self-criticism to be able to measure
his or her success objectively and independently. Writing is an art,

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MAC 442 ADVANCED BROADCAST NEWS/PROGRAMME PRODUCTION

which requires the writer to be alone when writing, if a writer does not
develop self-evaluation, he may see nothing wrong with what he writes,
even if there are problems with what is written. This can mar rather than
make a writer.
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
What qualities should broadcast writer possess to function well?

3.3 Tips for Writing Radio Newscast

Newscast refers to radio or television broadcast of news. Radio news
operations keep changing, getting shorter, especially now that people
are in a hurry to get the news and do other things. In order to have a
good newscast certain factors should be considered. According to White
(1996:103) these factors include:

Knowledge of the audience

One of the continuing debate in both print and broadcast news is
whether the news should provide the kind of information that people
need to know or the information they want to know. Most journalists
agree that the answer lies somewhere in the middle. People must be
informed, but it also makes sense to tailor the news for the audience. It
is expected that the story selection would be different for news delivered
in urban and rural areas. Stories about the weather would be important
in farm countries, whereas stories about traffic congestion would be
important in the city.

Organisation of material
Before radio news producer decides which story should lead the
newscast and which story should follow, he must know what news he
has to work with. A good way to start is to call the important
departments in the area your station is located to see if anything is going
on, then read the newspaper carefully.

Selection of the lead story

The method for selecting the first story in the newscast the lead story –
may sound simple: just pick the most important story. But how do you
decide which story is most important? Should a local, national, or
international story be the lead? Does the story affect the local audience
in some way? The answer to these questions can help in some way? The
answers to these questions can help you determine which story should
lead the newscast.

The rest of the newscast

You can use the formula you established for choosing the lead story to
pick the rest of the stories in the newscast. Once you have selected the
lead, determine which of the remaining stories would hold the most
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MAC 442 MODULE 1

interest for your audience, then the next most interest, and so on. The
stories would then be broadcast in that order.

There are important exceptions to this formula, however, sometimes; it

makes sense to place stories back-to-back because they have something
in common. For instance, reporting terrorist attack in a particular
community may be followed up with a story from the security agents or
the government house on the measures taken. This might also be
followed by a reaction-type story on the attack from a poll of the
community opinion.

Story length
The length of a story is determined by the length of the news to report.
The stories may have to be longer than they would be normally. If there
is a lot of news, most stories should be short to allow sufficient time for
the major stories.

Actualities
The voices of the newsmakers are called actualities or sound bites.
White (1996: 108) stresses that they are the heart of radio news. Colour
is often provided by the voices of the people in the story. A good writer
can tell the story without the actual voice, but he or she faces a great
challenge. Even the best news writers would tell you that if given a
choice, they would rather have the actual sound bite provide the colour
than their paraphrase of what was in the sound bite. Regardless of the
writer and newscaster’s talent, it’s not possible to capture all of the
nuances in a sound bite with a paraphrase and the newscaster’s voice.
Good tape is essential.

Lead-in
Almost every radio field report is preceded by a studio introduction,
read by the newscaster, called a lead-in. A lead-in prepares the ground
not tell the story. It serves as a perspective funnel, wider at the
beginning and narrower at the point immediately before the reporter’s
voicer, wrap, remote, or package. It is a place to put story information
crucial to the story that would not fit in the field report.

Wrap around
The combination of sound and words is known as a wrap around. This
technique, as the name suggest, uses the voice of the newscaster or
reporter at the beginning and end of a story or report and the voice of
the news maker in the middle. Wraparounds frequently have more than
one sound bite in the middle. The anchor or reporter may wrap several
different pieces of sound with script.

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MAC 442 ADVANCED BROADCAST NEWS/PROGRAMME PRODUCTION

Teases
The short sentences used in a script to hold the audience’s attention just
before a commercial break is called teases. The idea of a tease is to give
the audience some reason to keep listening, rather than turning the dial.
This is best accomplished by giving just a hint of what is to come after
the commercial. The clearer the tease, the greater the chance the
audience will put up with the commercial. If a wraparound were to
follow a commercial, this is the way it might be teased:

Inspector General of police promises a crime-free society. The details

after this (Then commercial comes in).

If the news is long enough, or being written for an all-news station, it is

effective to tease two or more stories before going to a commercial.
Such a tease gives the writer more opportunities to hook listeners. If
they are not interested in the first story that is teased, they might go for
the second or third one.

Headlines
Headlines are another form of tease. Headlines come at the top of a
newscast and should reflect the most interesting and exciting stories to
be presented in the upcoming newscast.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

What factors enhance radio newscast?

3.4 Writing for the TV Newscast

The major difference between radio and TV news is the use of pictures.
When you write for television, pictures are always crucial to a story. In
radio, you must create mental pictures in the audience minds and then
find the words to paint those mental pictures. In television, you can
show the actual pictures.

Some of the considerations in writing for TV newscast as White (1996:

115) prescribes include:

Combining words and pictures

The battle over which are more important in television news –words or
the pictures – is endless. There is no doubt that words are vital and that
some broadcast writers use them more effectively than others. Great
pictures and great words make great television news.

The beauty of good pictures is that they do not need a lot of words – just
some good ones. The challenge for TV writers is to avoid clashes with
the video. Do not tell viewers what they are seeing. Instead, support the
video by saying what the video does not or cannot reveal. Fill in the
blanks, but do not over power the video. Give your viewers time to
savour the pictures.

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MAC 442 MODULE 1

Sound bites
As in radio, sound bites, the words of newsmakers, are key to telling a
good TV news story. An advantage for TV writers is that TV sound
bites feature the faces of the newsmakers as well as their voices. Good
TV news writers weave their copy between and around the sound bites,
much in the way that radio writers create wraparounds. This
combination, called a package, is the best way to tell a news story on
television.

The television news writer

In television, as in radio, a writer’s duties depend on the size of the
newsroom. For small newsroom, fewer writers are needed but in a large
newsroom a big market and at the networks, several writers and,
perhaps, associate producers who also write are required.

Television news writers have three basic writing tasks: prepare stories
that are read by the newscasters only; prepare voice-overs, that is copy
that the newscaster reads while video or other graphics are shown and
lead-ins, that is the information the newscaster give before the voice of
the newsmakers in the middle of the story.

Headlines and teases

Depending on the size of the news operation, headlines and teases
usually are turned out by the writer, the editor, or the producer.

As always, the major difference between headlines for television and

those for radio is that headlines and teases on television are normally
supported with pictures. Most television stations present headlines with
flashes of video.

Here’s a sample of how a television newsroom scripts headlines should

be:
(BANU) ENENCHE
Coming up on CTV at nine
V/O #5 (JTF with arms beside Joint Task Force intercept a
bomb-laden car) bomb-laden car in
Maiduguri.

RUNS: 04 BANU
WIPE TO V/O #3 Police arrest two suspected
(POLICEMEN IN FRONT OF A BUILDING) suicide bombers; discover
bomb factories in Kogi.

RUNS: 04 ENENCHE
WIPE TO V/O #2 Jonathan mourns the death
(PHOTOGRAPH OF PRIME MINISTER) of Ethiopian Prime Minister

RUNS: 03
O/C Enenche Good evening, I am Enenche
Akpa
BANU
And I’m Banu James.

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In the left column, ENENCHE indicates that one newscaster reads the
opening line of the newscast and the first headline, while (BANU) –
note the parentheses – indicates that the other anchor is also on camera,
both newscasters quickly disappear from the screen, but Enenche is
heard reading the first headline over video showing the JTF beside the
bomb-laden car. The video runs about 4 seconds. After the first
headline, the video wipes to a shot of police men in front of a building
while Banu reads that headline. The second voice-over also runs for
four seconds. The video wipes a third time to a three-second shot of
photograph of prime minister.

Enenche reads that headline, as indicated, over the video. Then both
newscasters return on camera as Enenche says “good evening” and
identifies himself. Banu does the same.

The numbers next to the voice-over symbols indicate which playback

machines will be used in the control room, information that is vital to
the director. If the director or the assistant calls for the wrong machine,
the wrong video would appear, and the newscast would get off to a
confusing start. Some stations give numbers to the tapes instead of the
machines. In that case, the tape numbers would be placed on the scripts
so that the director could call for the proper one.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
What are the requirements for preparing television newscast?

3.5 Broadcast News Copy Format

Broadcast news copy format vary from station to station, newscaster to
newscaster. While some want it double-spaced, others prefer it triple-
spaced. Here are some elements that are common to in every broadcast
script format.

 The story slug

Every story on both radio and television carries a single word identifier
known as the slug. Its purpose, according to Hewitt (1995: 19) is to
standardise the identification of the story. The slug stays the same
through the entire day, ending up as the newscast ends. The slug should
be a single word that relates to the topic. For example, in a story about
federal action on banking, you might use “BANK”, later, if that story
grew wider during the day, you might use composite slugs, such as
“BANK PHB” or “BANK MERGER” or ‘BANK-JOBS’, to cluster all
of the related topics for this particular story.

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 The header
A header according to Ugande (2006: 83) refers to some basic
information right on the top of the page. This includes the slug, the
writer’s name or initials, the date and time of broadcast.

He further says the header provides an easy means of identifying the

story itself and who wrote it in case something about the story is
questioned or another reporter needs additional information and must
talk with the writer. The exact location of the header varies from station
to station. Some stations put the slug items on separate lines, flush
against the left margin, e.g.

ABUJA
OBAJE
23/08 5:00pm

Yet some stations put it across the top line for example
ABUJA OBAJE 23/08 5: 00pm

Radio news script

A radio script generally extends across the page with 1 – inch margins.
This gives the announcer the chance to read 1 line for four seconds and
about 8 lines for 30 seconds. Because radio does not employ a large
control room staff, the scripts do not need extensive technical
information.

Technical information is usually a matter of indicating which CART

you will be using, whether or not it is cued, what the incue and the
outcue are, and what the TRT is on the actuality. For example:

BANK
OGWUCHE
28/2 6:00am

Federal Bank Examinations are promising to investigate All States

Banks for charges of fraud.
Some depositors say they are afraid they will lose their money.

(CART # 1F TRT = : 25)

Incue: “we think this is a scandal”

Outcue: “…are prepared for anything.
Officials of the Federal Bank say investigation begins as early as
Tuesday.
=#=

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The script opens with the slug (BANK) and the name of the reporter or
writer. Then the date and time of broadcast. This is followed by the first
paragraph that is the lead, read by the newscaster. Notice that after the
introduction of the second paragraph, an actuality or sound bite comes
in – (CART # IF TRT =:25)

CART means the cartridges on which the actuality is recorded and

which will be inserted into a radio newscast. The letters after CART, i.e.
1F refers to the number given to the CART for identification – TRT
stands for total tape running time. It is used for the tape only, not the
news copy. In cue is a phrase written to tell the man in the control room
at what point in the CART to play. It usually includes the first four or
five words of the bite. While the out cue usually includes the last four or
five words of an actuality. This helps the director know when to cue the
newscaster to resume reading.

Television news scripts

Television scripts differ from radio scripts because they contain both the
newscaster’s words and an explanation of how the video is to be used.
The format for a TV script is known as the split page.

The split page is divided vertically so that about 60 percent of the page
is in the right column and about 40 percent is in the left. Most TV
stations now provide their staff with computers to write their scripts,
which are often sent electronically to the teleprompters. However,
typewriters are still used at some stations.

The right side of the split page is reserved for the copy that will be read
by the newscaster, while the left side of the script contains information
relating to the slug, the video, the audio instructions and tape times for
the director. Because of the limited space on the left side of the script,
abbreviations are used for the various technical instructions. Here are
some common ones.
1. O/C “on camera”, tells the director that at this point in the script
the newscaster will be on camera.
2. V/O, “voice – over”, means the newscaster is reading copy while
the audience is seeing something else, such as silent videotape or
graphics.
3. SIL indicates “silent” videotape and is used in combination with
the V/O symbol.
4. SOT, “sound on tape”, it could be a sound bite with a news
maker or a report from the field that was taped earlier.
5. NAT SOUND UNDER – it means that the tape sound should be
kept at a loud level.
6. CG – ‘Character Generated’ – This indicated that names, titles
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and other information are superimposed over video or graphics to

identify newsmakers, locations, and various other pictures
appearing on TV screens.
7. REMOTE – where this is a line shot. A remote is a production
outside of the studio to televise live and or live-record a large
scheduled event that has not been staged specifically for
television. Examples include sporting events, parades, political
gatherings, and studio shows that are taken on the road.
8. TRT – Total tape running time.
9. SL, ESS, or ADDA Indicate that pictures or graphics of some
sort will be shown next to the newscaster. SL stands for “slide”,
ESS refers to Electronic Still Storage, an electronic graphics and
video computer system; ADDA is the name of a computer
system that also provides electronic storage. If the word box
appears next to any of these abbreviations, the graphic will be
enclosed in a box next to the anchor, rather than fill the entire
screen.
10. Camera shots may also be indicated – CU, LS, MS, MCU, etc.
CU means close-up, LS means long shot, MS means medium
shot (between close-up and long shot), MCU means medium
close-up.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
i. Read the front page of a newspaper, and decide which of the
stories you would lead with in a newscast.
ii. What is the major difference between writing for radio and
writing for television?

4.0 CONCLUSION

Preparing a copy for broadcast newscast is a very demanding exercise

that requires the writer to be very knowledgeable and alert. It also
demands that the writer possesses some qualities that would put him
ahead of writers in other fields. Some of these qualities were discussed
in this unit.

5.0 SUMMARY

This unit introduces a variety of tips for writing broadcast news.

Emphasis is on keeping it in a conversational manner since broadcast is
meant for the ear and the eye (in the case of TV). This unit therefore
explains the qualities of the writer of broadcast copy. The manner radio
and television newscast are prepared was also discussed in the unit.

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6.0 TUTOR–MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Bearing in mind the writing style for broadcast news, take five stories
from a newspaper and rewriter them to be read on radio as a news
bulletin. Take note of the organisation and technicalities involved in
radio news writing.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Hewitt, J. (1995). Air Words, Writing for Broadcast News. (2nd ed.).
London: Mayfield Publishing Company.

Ugande, G. (2006). Broadcast Programme Writing and Production.

Makurdi: AsaGod Printers.

White, T. (1996). Broadcast News Writing, Reporting and Producing.

(2nd ed.). Boston: Focal Press.

Willis, E. (1967). Writing Television and Radio Programmes. London:

Holf, Reinhard and Nintson Inc.

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MAC 442 MODULE 2

MODULE 2 PUTTING THE RADIO/TV STORY TOGETHER

Radio and television news take a lot to bring out a good newscast. When
reporters leave the newsroom on assignment, they are expected to come
back with good stories. Most times a package – a story that includes one
or more sound bites, the reporter’s narration, and video – as in the case
of television. Putting the story together for a newscast also demands that
scripts are written. Some scripts may indicate that the story be read
without pictures (for TV) or without actualities (for radio and TV).
Others may demand that there is voice-over or sound on tape. Editing
also plays important role in the packaging of stories for newscast. All
these and the actual delivery of the stories on radio and television will
be discussed in this module.

Unit 1 Packaging the News

Unit 2 TV: Writing to Stills
Unit 3 Writing the VO/SOT
Unit 4 Copy Editing and Producing
Unit 5 Delivering the News

UNIT 1 PACKAGING THE NEWS

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Organising the Package
3.2 The Standard Parts of Packages
3.3 Types of Packages
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

A package according to Hewitt (1995: 174) is a complete videotaped

news story from the field with the reporter’s voice tracks narrating the
entire segment. Similarly, Keller and Hawkins (2002: 249 see the news
package as a report produced and edited prior to broadcast time,
typically consisting of a reporter’s recorded voice telling the story,
pictures with accompanying natural sound to cover the narration, sound
bites and usually a stand-up. Television newscasts are mostly made up
of packages. If they are done well, packages have all the elements that

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bring a story alive: good pictures; interesting sound bites or actualities;

and a well-written script. If any of these elements is weak, the story may
be downgraded or kept short. In other words, the quality of the video
and the sound bite often determines the length of a package. What goes
on in the news that day also determines the length of the package. Be it
long or short, the organisation of the package is very important in every
news production.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 explain what a package means

 discuss the packaging process
 identify the kinds of packaging
 organise a good package for TV newscast.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Organising the package

The organisation of package begins at the scene. For radio, much work
is not demanded. The reporter only records the voice of the news
makers. But television demands the taking of pictures as well.

According to White (1996: 222), good organisation is essential in

putting together a successful package. Reporters try to decide quickly
how they are going to produce the package. They may not have every
detail pinned down, but they generally decide on some fundamentals,
such as whether they are going to do the open, the close or a transition
in the middle on camera.

Good organisation requires good notes. When you have a good note,
you do not over look anything. It is true that the human mind can forget
easily, so before you go out for a coverage, put down all you want to get
and make sure you cross check your note to be sure you have gotten all.
Having a good package also demands that you have good pictures. It is
always better to look your pictures up and then support them with
words. Television news operation is more the business of pictures than
the business of words.

Dotson in White (1996: 224) argues that “the problem with writing your
script first and then trying to paste the pictures to it, is you end up with
wall paper and it doesn’t flow. Suddenly you have a paragraph and no
pictures to cover the paragraph.”

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MAC 442 MODULE 2

In organising the package, you need to think ahead as you get the
pictures and sound bites. For most stations, you may not have all the
time to think and to put your thought together, so you can begin your
thinking from where you sit in the car, on your way back to the station.
Some people do not think about what they are going to do with the story
until they sit down in the newsroom or at the typewriter. This may not
give them enough opportunity to come up with a good package.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
How do you organise a package for newscast?

3.2 The Standard parts of Packages

The following could form the kinds of materials to combine into a
package.

 Visuals, B – Roll, and sequences

For television, you need pictures to tell the stories, and not just any
pictures but the best available. This almost always means going to a
location, to fly in a plane, drive along on the road, shoot pictures in a
drug store, attend a graduation party in a school, find a mechanic who is
working on a particular type of car, or walk a mile with protesters.

In short packages, there may be limited opportunities for pictures,

possibly only one or two locations and repetitive sequences. Before you
move from your desk, know how much of the story refers to pictures of
kids at a child-care centre and how much time it will take to get enough
B-roll (visual for illustration) to tell the story.

You also have to ask yourself if you will need two different sequences
from the same location and whether that can be shot. Whether you need
illustration and file tape. You need to also ask yourself what the best
visual you will be getting could be. If that will work for an establishing
shot and sequence. And what other sequences can you get?

 Interviews
Interviews are very important, because the most effective bites are from
eye witness accounts, someone responding to charges, persons affected
by actions in the story, and professional evaluations. Stephens (1986:
144) adds that reporter can state the facts, but unless they were present,
they cannot describe what it was like to watch the event develop. Eye
witnesses should be given the chance to do that on tape.

 Stand-ups
When the reporter appears on camera during an edited news package,
Keller and Hawkins (2002:131) say it is a stand-up. The power of stand-
up bridges and closes depends on not only the text but also the

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MAC 442 ADVANCED BROADCAST NEWS/PROGRAMME PRODUCTION

reporter’s position in the frame, the background activity, the reporter’s

movement and the camera movement. For the content of stand-up
bridges, look for a way to make a natural transition between points in
the story. For instance, in a story with two locations, you will want to do
the stand-up bridge at the beginning of the sequence of the second
location. Then decide if you want camera motion (pans or bits), lens
movement (zoom in or zoom back), or reporter activity (walk and talks,
arm motions, pointing). For any movement, there must be a reason to
draw the camera’s focus from one point to the other.

In some cases, you may want to bridge into a sound bite from an
interview that is already on tape. That means the last sentence of the
bridge must include the write up. You may have to dump the interview
and if so, you will have a back up. The most familiar use of the stand-up
is a last statement by the reporter and an outcue – when the reporter
identifies him/her self and the station at the end of the story: This is
Ekondu Obaje reporting for AIT news.

 Tracks
The narration written for most short or hard news packages is severely
condensed into a series of tracks. Each track covers a stretch from one
sound source to the next one or from the beginning of the package to the
first bite, from sound bite to sound bite, and from the last sound bite to
either the story’s end or the closing stand-up. Each track may repeat a
few words from the previous sound bite, then include new information
and the writeup to the next sound bite.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
There have been so many studies about the health effects of coffee
drinking that people tend to ignore them. Now there is a new one that
says coffer drinking is good for those who might have heart problems.
How do you check this out? What visuals do you need to cover this?

3.3 Types of packages

Television packages could fall under short and long packages.

3.3.1 Short Packages

Packages are very important in television production. That is why
Hewitt (1995: 174) describes them as the meat and potatoes of daily
television journalism. Depending on the story complexity, most
reporters do from one to three packages a day. The shorter packages
take from 45 seconds to two minutes (:45 to 2: 00) – generally involve
breaking news and deadline pressure; the longer features allow time to
think and create subtleties with audio and video; and longest
investigative pieces – cover stories and mini- documentaries – are
generally more work than you ever thought they would be.

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In the short packages, Hewitt says the video work is often subordinate to
the journalistic need. Producers and assignment editors, who may or
may not have been on the street reporting, regularly demand coverage of
stories for which there is no appealing visual element. Reporters often
must scramble for visuals to cover assignments on unexpected events,
budgets, zoning battles, or education stories, often spending time
searching for video for illustration” (B –roll) possibilities or using
stand-up, bridges and closers to cover a non-visual concept. Stand-up
refers to reporters on camera in the field. It could be live but is
principally a videotaped segment. Stand-ups are used mostly as bridges
and closers. A bridge on the other hand, is a very short (usually under
10minute) transition used in television news packages. Closer is the
reporter’s final segment of a package. It might be a track, a stand-up, or
a combination of track and stand-up.

Hard news usually falls under short packages. Hard news is the daily
coverage of crime, government, business, marches, speeches, the courts,
confrontations, education, and social activities, in expected and
unexpected events. Because many hard news stories, though new, repeat
familiar situations, they force the reporter to dig for information at the
event scene. Hard news packages are also handled under deadlines and
reporters tend to turn to familiar package structures for the backbone of
these reports. At the event, reporters and shooters cover themselves by
gathering old comfortable sequence building blocks: Lots of medium
shots (MSS) and close ups (CUs), cover short, stand-up closes and
bridges, and interviews. Back at the station, these parts allow the video
editors to make quick work out of hard news packages. The track scripts
for short packages are usually written before the pictures are cut; and
the visuals are edited to match the flow of the rise and fall of the
reporter’s voice.

Television reporter on breaking stories often has little time to ponder the
fine point of video storytelling. As mentioned earlier, they could
structure package and write the narration tracks in the car as they return
to the station.

3.3.2 Longer Packages

Longer packages might run anywhere from two minutes to seven
minutes. Generally they cover timeless topics from backgrounders to
special profiles, investigative reports, mini-documentaries or sidebars.
The longest ones have special names, such as segment reports, cover
stories, three-part team reports, and so. In contrast to the short, general –
assignment daily work, the planning construction, editing and writing of
the longer packages are quite different.

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MAC 442 ADVANCED BROADCAST NEWS/PROGRAMME PRODUCTION

 Research for longer packages

Research can be carried out for days and sometimes weeks. Interviews
can be used for research more detailed data can be pursued. Quite often
the original planning for B-roll and sequences changes many times. A
potential drawback of longer packages is the lack of an angle to the
story. Research may be too global. Too wide a theme makes it hard to
maintain interest.

 Shooting for longer packages

On long packages, more preparation is possible and the same crew
should work on all assignments. B-roll is more comprehensive. The
influence of lucky shots, often exploited in shorter packages, is not even
considered. Aesthetic values in shooting are higher and more
relationship shots are expected.

 Interviewing for longer packages

Interviewing for longer packages is more relaxed and informal and
requires less immediate goal-oriented answers than that for short
packages. Reporters are usually better prepared and can proceed in a
more dialogue-like format. There is the opportunity for better and longer
cutaways on all interviews.

 Writing for longer packages

The quality of writing should be much higher and more fluid than for
short packages. It is possible to write and rewrite tracks to support
polished and editing sequences. Writers and editors can preview rough
cuts and re-edit ad needed.

A common problem with longer pieces is that broadcast workers have

trouble completing a story. Producers or reporters do too much
gathering and too little planning and so can become over whelmed by
the material.

 Reporter stand-ups
Stand-ups are written after everything else is shot and more often used
to vary the visual elements of the story while establishing relationships
between angles and elements within the story.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
Explain the two types of packages known to you.

4.0 CONCLUSION

Television packages come in different lengths with different rules for

composing scripts. No matter the length of the package, the reporter is
often forced to find visuals to cover a journalist need. The beauty of any

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television production is in the beautiful package presented, since that

helps to bring out the reality of what is presented. How well the package
is packed shows how good a reporter is.

5.0 SUMMARY

This unit introduces you to television packages - how you can organise
your materials to have a good package. Packaging begins with good
organisation. You need to put together good pictures and good writing
to tell story. Packages could be short or long, depending on the demand
of the report. The regular hard news reports usually take short packages
while special profiles, investigative reports and the likes take longer
packages.

6.0 TUTOR–MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Write a two-page note on the best ways you can organise a short
package for television news.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Hewitt, J. (1995). Air Words, Writing for Broadcast News. (2nd ed.).
London: Mayfield Publishing Company.

Keller, T. & Hawkins, S. A. (2002). Television News – A Handbook for

Writing, Reporting, Shooting and Editing. Scottsdale, Arizona:
Holcomb Hathaway, publishers.

Stephens, M. (1986). Broadcast News. Fort Worth: Holt, Rinehart and

Winston, Inc.

White, T. (1996). Broadcast News Writing, Reporting, and Producing.

(2nd ed.). Boston: Focal Press.

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UNIT 2 TV WRITING TO STILLS

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Visual as Tools
3.2 Types of visuals
3.3 The Process of Building a Screen
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

To work on television news, a journalist must not only be a quick

researcher and a quick writer but also have mastered some elements of
screen design, documentary video frames and the interplay of words and
recorded video frames and images.

This unit deals with the use of still visuals on the television screen. TV
news writers often compose and reference static visuals and computer-
generated graphics that are added electronically to the visual portion of
the newscast. These visuals include maps, titles, data, quotes,
illustrations, or topic identifiers. We shall look at all these areas to
understand their make ups in this unit.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 explain how to use still visuals in television news

 identify the types of visuals open to TV operators
 explain the terminologies used in TV news production
 discuss the process of building a screen
 write scripts showing how still visuals could be used.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Visuals as Tools

Writers use words, but television news writers use words, visuals,
videotape, and the combination of words and visuals to tell stories.
Since visuals keep changing on the screen, a good understanding of

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screen design is important. There are certain rules for working with
visuals. According to Hewitt (1995: 136) they include:
i. Always reference the graphic. This means that the copy, in some
way, should explain the change in visuals. This is vitally
important in the switch from the news studio image to a full-
screen visual or videotape, or during sequence changes on the
videotape.
ii. Let the visuals tell some of the story. For this, the writer must
evaluate the visual in two ways. First, does the visual have such a
powerful impact, as in the case of an air crash, that the pictures
draw the viewer’s attention from the narration? Second, can the
visual provide simple story information that will not have to be
put in the copy, such as the size of a crowd at a parade?
iii. Explain rather than describe the graphic. The narration that
accompanies the graphic should not describe the television
screen but should talk about the situation or events the pictures
represent.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
Identify the rules for working with visuals

3.2 Types of Visuals

Still visuals on television screen could appear as:
- Partial screen graphics/visuals
- Full screen visuals.

 Partial screen graphics

Hewitt (1995:136) sees these graphics as the type that appears while the
newscaster’s face remains on the screen. The most common example is
the topic box, which appears in the corner of the screen. CGs-character
generated, which are numbers or words used for identification and
informational purposes, are also common.

Topic boxes are theme identifiers, usually placed in the corner of the
screen. They are constructed and inserted in many ways. Older systems
use slides and camera cards that were kept in files. These were placed
into the system live when the need arose. But these older systems had a
big drawback; the previous week’s work may be used again.

With the coming of digital TV however, many stations now use digital
store and computer-generated graphics techniques to compose topic
boxes. Pre production sessions can tie CG titles to theme pictures
already in an electronic slide file. This allows great flexibility in
changing or updating the topic boxes. These boxes are then compressed
and keyed over the anchor or newscasters, or the boxes appear on
monitors placed behind.

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An example might be the story of a terrorist attack at a particular

location, say Damaturu, the capital of Yobe State. When the artist and
the writer agree on the content, the pre-producer gets the assignment. A
map of the area is called up and frozen on the screen. The words
“TERRORIST ATTACK” are generated in the CG, and then keyed over
the map. The composite graphic is then saved on a still store page.
Later, in the newscast, the director calls for the page to be placed in the
screen corner by using a pre-set effect.

Fig. 1: TV Screen Showing Partial Screen Graphics

The topic box can also change, with the newscaster still on the screen.
This depends on the number of graphics needed for that story. The
writer may call for five different visuals for one story in order to pass
the information effectively.

 Full – screen visuals

A full screen visuals according to Hewitt (1995: 140) is any visual that
completely takes over the screen, causing the pictures of the newscaster
to disappear.

A full screen visual can be used in four ways:

i. as a CG to display facts
ii. as a pre-produced composite with a videotape freeze-frame to
display a quote
iii. as a graphic composed by an artist for illustration
iv. as a freeze-frame or still photograph.

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Using a CG to display facts

Generally, for this, a full-screen graphic with words and numbers may
be used to support the copy. It may be all electronically generated or a
composite with the words and numbers placed over a graphic. The
writer is responsible for selecting the information that goes on the
screen.

To design the screen using CG, here are some rules to help you:

 Use not more than five horizontal lines of copy. Otherwise, it

gets too crowded and hard to read.
 Try to limit the letter count across the screen to 15. This will
allow for a typeface that is large enough to be read easily.
 A screen should be able to stand alone. It should have a title that
is concise but understandable.
 Know the capabilities of the computer graphics machines. Most
can place bands of different coloured backgrounds in the screen.

The screen may look like this:

Police arrest two suspected
suicide bombers; discovers
bomb factories in Kogi.
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
Discuss the types of still visuals on television screen

3.3 The Process of Building a Screen

The process of building a screen is simple
Start with a blank screen as indicated here. Blank Screen
Always draw this, because
it allows you to sketch the idea.

First step is to add a title.

The title should stand out and should make sense if Cost of Living
read on the screen without the anchor’s story.

Next, you add the first line of

information. Remember, try to Cost of Living
keep the countdown to 15 numbers 1994----up 1%
or letters across the screen.

Finally, you add the continuing Cost of Living

line or lines. Five lines is usually 1994----up 1%
the maximum on a screen. 1995----up 7%

Fig. 2: Building CGs: Hewitt (1995:141)

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 Indicating CG position in the script

It is very important to make the script reflect exactly where you want
the full CG to go. Although newsroom styles differ, it is also beneficial
to write the information into the news copy block, giving the newscaster
a chance to understand where the audience’s attention lies. Here is an
example of a script with the graphics.
- O/C People’s Democratic Party’s candidate for the
Gubernatorial Election in Edo State has been
declared the winner in yesterday’s election.

Full CG (Full CG)

Edo Election
Ali won with two hundred and fifty thousand, five
PDP – 250, 554
hundred and Fifty Thousand, five hundred and fifty
ACN – 914
four votes while Action
ANPP - 516
Congress of Nigeria’s candidate, Achaka Micheal
followed with nine hundred and fourteen
votes……………..

Observers are calling it a landslide

- O/C (Live)
Ali’s victory is the first in 16-years for members of
People’s Democratic Party (PDP) in Edo State.
Fig. 3: Using a Full CG to Complement a Script

From the above, note that at the time the midsection of the story was
read, the full CG was on the screen. Notice how the director and anchor
both get clear information about where the CG goes.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
Explain how best you can build a screen.

4.0 CONCLUSION

Every television news production, at one point or the other uses still
visuals. All production cannot be packaged. That implies that the
consideration of the kind of visuals to use must be taken seriously.
Words that accompany visuals are not meant to describe what the
visuals are about, but to give explanation to what can be seen. Therefore
visual, even though ‘still’ must be able to tell stories independent of
words.

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5.0 SUMMARY

This unit helps us to know that television brings to us news, presenting

both words and visuals, therefore, we need to know how to combine the
words and visuals to tell stories. It also presents to us the types of still
visuals to be partial screen visuals and full screen visuals, meaning the
still visuals could appear on some part of the screen - beside, below or
across the newscaster or take full screen, with the camera off the
newscaster. Designing screens should be a collaborative effort with the
news artist. The news writer must direct what editorial material should
be on the screen and in what order it should go, and the artist will carry
out the design.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Pick a news story from a national newspaper, rewrite for

broadcast and design a graphic or graphics to present the
information given.
2. Discuss extensively the rules for working with visuals.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Hewitt, J. (1995). Air Words, Writing for Broadcast News. (2nd ed.).
BLondon: Mayfield Publishing Company.

Stephens, M. (1986). Broadcast News. Fort Worth: Holt, Rinehart and

Winston, Inc.

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UNIT 3 TV: WRITING THE VO AND VO/SOT

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Writing the VO
3.2 Kinds of Shots Best for VOs
3.3 Visual Sequences
3.4 Steps to the VO Story
3.5 Writing the VO/SOT
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Story with voice-over (VO) is mostly used in broadcast news. In the

VO, the newscaster reads the copy from the studio and videotape is used
for a portion of the story visuals. The VO/SOT – a combination of
voice-over and a sound bite is also a common story format for TV. Both
VO and VO/SOT demand that you practice in order to come out with a
good piece.

In this unit, we shall look at what they mean, how to write VO and
VO/SOT, look at the kind of shots which are best for VOs as well as the
different VO/SOT formats for television production.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 explain voice-over and sound on Tape in television production

 identify the difference between VO and SOT
 produce scripts using VO and VO/SOT
 explain all the instructions given to director and at what point
different visuals should be used
 explain the power pyramid of video use
 identify the kinds of shots best for voice-overs.

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3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Writing the VO

The VO or voice-over is defined by White (1996: 117) as the copy that

the anchor reads while video or other graphics are shown. The video can
either be silent or have a soundtrack that is kept low for natural effect, a
technique referred to as sound under or natural sound. In fact, Stephens
(1986: 252) feels the best television news videotape is the one shown
silent. He says the pictures themselves tell the story.

Ordinarily, the copy must complement the video. It should not duplicate
what is obvious to viewers. That means you have to avoid phrases such
as what you are seeing here unless the video is difficult to understand.

For the voice-over story, the camera person may shoot so many features
for some time, about 20 seconds to 30 seconds, depending on what he or
she wants to bring out. For instance, you want to do a voice-over of the
president’s visit to a plane crash scene, you may ask to shoot a long,
continuous pan of the site that lasts about 30 seconds. There is another
shot of the rescue team at the site for 20 seconds and a third shot of on-
lookers at the site. There could be another shot of the president and his
team expressing their feelings. The producer asks you for a 20-second
voice-over. What you need to do then is to lift an assortment of brief
shots from the video that can be strung together in some logical order
that will make sense when the narration is added.

Now that you have notes on the length of each scene, you must decide
how to edit the video. You may decide to use part of the long pan of the
plane crash scene first, takes eight seconds from that, then selects five
seconds of the rescue team, four seconds to cover the onlookers, and the
voiceover closes with three seconds of shot of the president and his
team.

Then you give instruction to the tape editor, and then return, to your
desk to type out the script from your notes.

Hewitt (1995: 150) advises that in writing the VO, you need to think of
it as a dual story. According to him, the VO should be imagined as two
towers constructed at the same time, one the narration from the studio
and the other the picture story that runs opposite it. Although the edited
videotape is inserted over the newscaster’s picture during the newscast,
both the narration and the visuals should be able to stand alone. In fact,
if it is well written, the narration should be credible even if the video
doesn’t run. In a like manner, the videotape, if shown without the

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narration, should make some sense and contain many of the elements of
the story.

In writing the VO, always remembers the special points of writing for
spoken news discussed under writing for radio and television newscast.
Remember too, the rules for visuals which include-always reference the
visual; let the visuals tell some of the story; explain rather than describe
the visual and then watch out for sensationalism.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Explain the process of writing the voice-over for news stories

3.2 Kinds of Shots Best for VOs

For voice-overs, not all kinds of pictures are necessary, finding the best
use of video sequences is the goat. Here are some suggestions for
selecting from raw material as presented by Hewitt (1995: 152):

 Use shots with people rather than empty shots-more often than
not, although broadcast stories generally are about people, you
have to show buildings, laboratories offices, parking lots, parks,
and so on. In these cases, it is better to have people in them than
a deserted landscape.
 Use action rather than still shots. In most cases, and where it
doesn’t distort the summary of a story, shots with action are
preferable to shots without action. If you are showing the front of
a company’s building, choose a shot with people going in and out
the front door rather than the same shot with people standing
still. This rule applies only when the selection of the shot does
not alter the impression a viewer may get about the amount of
activity during an event.
 Use close-ups rather than wide shots. The television screen is
small and people often sit a great distance from it. It is very hard
to see tiny detail. Select closeup shots when possible.
 Use simple rather than complex shots. It’s much easier to write
stories about shots that focus on one or two items, rather than
those jammed with information look for unified themes in shots.
 Use shots with restrained camera movement. Camera movement
is the use of pans (side-to-side), zooms (in-and-out), tilts (up-
and-down) racking focus (going in and out of focus), and
walking shots. Although a little camera movement in okay at
times, a sequence where five out of six shots have camera
movement is generally overdone and intrusive to the topic the
story is attempting to report.
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 Use shots with ambient sound. Sound is integral to every moment

of life. The sounds aid our learning process. Running silent video
cheats the viewers of the ambience that helps us gather
information from the videotape.
 Use shots that avoid generic visuals. Generic visuals refer to
videotape not shot for this story but that relates to the story in a
general and timeless way. Quite often file tape is used generically
and, in many cases, file tape requires extra explanation to orient
the viewers to what they are seeing.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
What kinds of shots are best for voice-over?

3.3 Visual Sequences

When you are planning a VO, Hewitt (1995: 153) advises that you have
to write it around the video sequences that make up the visual summary
of the event. According to him, a sequence is a series of related and
varied shots that tells the story of a single event, location, or time
period. In some circumstances, a sequence may be a single 20 seconds
shot with a lot of action or five carefully selected shots that last 10
seconds. Even VO stories with a tape TRT (Total Running Time) of 20
seconds might have three sequences within that short time period.

Sequences are the backbone of visual presentation and that is why it is

good to understand sequences’ hierarchy.

Below is a diagram designed to quickly show the hierarchy.

Most Effective

NAT SOT
Sequence

Narration-backed
Sequence

Generic Video

Wall paper

Good NAT SAT sequence

with confusing narration
Least Effective

Fig. 4: The Power Pyramid of Video Use. Hewitt (1995: 174)

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The strongest possible video is a NAT SOT sequence that completes the
story without narration.

More powerful is the narration-backed sequence, in which co-ordinated

video sequence shots (WSS, MSS, and CUS) are supported by the
narration.

Next is the use of generic video, random shots related to this individual
item but timeless. An example might be pictures of soda cans if there is
a scare about contamination soda cans.

The least effective video is called wallpaper, which uses random, non-
related but thematically similar shots. Also ineffective is using a strong
sequence that tells a different story than the narration opposite the
video.

Rules for sequences

From earlier discussion, you can see that sequences are the most sought
after field visuals. These sequences are usually constructed from shots
collected for that purpose. There are certain rules worth remembering
when editing sequence shots.

1. Begin with the best establishing shot (ES) you can find. Most
broadcast news sequences are short, about three or four shots,
and go by quickly. For that reason, choose your best video for
your sequence opener. This shot should either give perspective or
should immediately identify the topic for viewers. Relationship
shots, in which the shooter has placed two major elements of the
story are excellent as establishing shots.
2. Maintain continuity- most viewers can sense if your shots are out
of chronological order. If the story is about an event, it is easy to
follow the passage of time. The protesters gathered, they
conferred, they marched toward the police, the police watched,
the protesters pushed the police, the police pushed back, the
protesters retreated. If the shots were out of order, the story
would lack continuity. You need to watch out for continuity in
terms of location, time and action.
3. Alternate WSs and CUs to provide variety. These shots show the
placement of the camera. Not only should you alternate the wide,
medium, and close-up field of view, but you should also alternate
angles and camera heights, using shots from different
perspectives to complete a sequence. Reaction shots, showing
those who are watching are a must.
4. Vary shot length. A sequence that is a series of still three second
shots becomes very predictable. An exciting event can be made
dull by predictable shots.
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5. Insert reaction and point-of-view shots to help condense

sequences. A reaction shot is a CU of a face in the crowd, such as
a concerned parent watching the rescue of a child. After three
shots of someone at a podium, a POV (point-of-view) shot
reverses the direction to let the audience sample what the speaker
is seeing. These shots are vital to editing. Be certain that the
shooter provides these shots.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
Identify the rules you need to follow in visual sequences.

3.4 Steps to the VO Story

Like other kinds of writing for broadcast, writing the voice-over stories
has an order. The order, as suggested by Hewitt (1995:154) is outlined
below.

 Research story elements

First determine from the research what will be important in the story.
Establish this as if there were not going to be visuals. Be ready to
change if your supporting visuals dictate a change.

 Design the story

Consult with the producer about the TST (total story time) and
placement of the videotape within your story. Since the total story times
of VOs may run up to 1:00, it is important to see what the newscast
producer has planned for the length of the story. There are several
different video placements. Most VOs begin and end with at least five
seconds in the studio, with the video inserted in the story’s midsection.
Others begin in the studio and end in video. But the most difficult
format to write, called off the top, is the story that opens with video.

Below is a VO in the normal position, beginning and ending in the

studio.

- O/C (Live)
A few buildings are all that’s left
in……after a major Earthquake hit the farm
centre on Monday. Rescue crew are still
searching through fallen buildings and
stores.

VIDEO VO VO
Doctors at nearby…say the death toll is now
seven.

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Today officials appealed for

medicines and bandages ...saying the
supply at the town’s hospital is running
out.

TRT :10
- O/C (Live)
International relief supplies haven’t
reached the disaster area yet...because the
quake destroyed too many roads and
bridges.

The VO has much the same power as an interview bite. It can

dramatically alter both the lead angle and the flow of the narrative.
When writing a VO, a news writer must design the story after
considering how the VO is placed and how it carries the information.

 Review the videotape

The third step in writing a VO is to review the videotape. Here the
production paths diverge, depending on whether you are using an
already edited videotape or a raw field tape.

An already edited videotape might be from the file library, off the
network, or from a longer package. You might be lucky and find a well-
edited one, and that the sequences are the ones you need; or you may
find one that needs a slightly different angle, or needs shots that are not
there. In any case, you will have to write exactly to the length of the
shots.

 Write the story.

The fourth step in preparing a VO is to write the story. To begin with,
you must arrange your information so that you reference the video at the
point where the tape is first seen. Also, you must write the news copy to
match the exact reading speed of the newscaster, if you hope to have
words and pictures match in some places.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
What are the steps to writing the voice-over story?

3.5 Writing the VO/SOT

The VO/SOT, pronounced “VOH-SOT,” is a combination of a voice-
over segment with a sound bite. It is a heavily used and difficult-to-
write format for television news. The VO/SOT is tightly compressed
and allows little time for expansive writing. Often, the VO/SOT is
extended to include another VO segment and is then called
VO/SOT/VO.

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Producers look to VO/SOTs for many reasons. Say a reporter’s package

from an earlier newscast needs an update and the reporter cannot be
found. Your own reporter may have shot part of a package but did not
have time to get enough visuals or other interview. You have an
interview by your own reporter but the extra visuals must come from
file tape. You are drastically recutting a network piece and you cannot
use the reporter’s voicetrack. Sometimes your station photographers
shoot a story alone, without a reporter, and the story must be assembled.
The solution is the VO/SOT. The total story time for a VO/SOT might
run from 40 seconds to one minute and fifteen seconds.

Historically, the VO and the SOT were edited together onto one tape,
causing problems if the newscaster read too quickly or too slowly. This
problem was most severe if the VO was long - more than: 20 (20
seconds).

If two video source machines are available, it is easier to set up the VO

on one and the SOT on another. The SOT portion is then rolled when
the anchor/newscaster gets to it and is not dependent on paced reading
of the VO.

Let us look at the example of VO/SOT below:

- O/C The Federal Government says it has concluded arrangement
For the privatisation of five power plants including those in
Ugheli, Sapele, Geraky, Kainji and the Shiroro.

- VO (VO)
Briefing state House correspondents after meeting of the
National Council on Privatisation (NCP) chaired by Vice
President Namadi Sambo, a member of the council, Peterside
Atedo said eight companies……take place on September 25.

@: 10 – VTR SOT (SOT)

@ : 10 – CG Peterside Atedo

Member, NCP

TRT : 20 EC : “for Ughelli power…………..Financial bid opening.

- O/C The two bidders, he said attained the pass mark…….financial
Bid evaluation stage.

Source: Author’s Creation

The above example is a VO/SOT script with the videotape in the normal
position. The VO and the SOT are on separate cassette, and the SOT
cassette would not roll until the newscaster finished the VO copy block.
O/C – means the newscaster is on camera

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VO – stands for voice-over

@ : 10 – VTR represents the number of seconds the VTR should run.
@: 10 – CG – means character generated text should remain beneath the
face of the member of NCP for 10 seconds.
TRT: 20 – The Total Running Time for the tape.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
How do you write the VO/SOT stories?

4.0 CONCLUSION

Trying to put the voice-over and the sound on tape together could be a
difficult task, especially for beginners in television news production.
The key is to practice all the time, visualise anytime you have a story to
do. Think of how best your audience will enjoy what you present and
you will be good at it.

5.0 SUMMARY

It is hard to get everything right, especially when it comes to producing

news. The concept of a side-by-side narration and video story, each
standing on its own, as in the case of voice-over, is challenging. All you
need to do is to concentrate and master the process for the VO because
it is one of the most popular of formats used in television newscasts in
this country. The VO/SOT which is also a common format needs care
too, especially of video placement within the VO portion and the video
references necessary in the write up.

6.0 TUTOR–MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Write a VO/SOT script for the given situation that is :60 (60 seconds)
Total story Time (TST), including :10 (10 seconds) of on–camera at the
top, and a :05 (5 seconds) on-camera tag.

Situation
The Governor of Central Bank of Nigeria, Sanusi Lamido throws light
on why the banking watchdog intervened in four banks on Monday –
with specific reference to Spring Bank, Wema Bank, Bank PHB and
Unity Bank.

Responding to a question and answer session during a joint news

conference with the Minister of Finance, Mansur Murhtar, at the World
Bank/International Monetary Fund (IMF) meeting in Abuja, Sanusi
explained that the situation in spring Bank was very severe and
compounded by its acquisition by Bank PHB.
In his words, “the decision of Bank PHB to acquire Spring Bank with

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N62 billion was a governance issue in addition to other things that we

do not want to say now but which you will know later.”

The CBN on Friday sacked the Managing Directors of ETB, Bank PHB
and Spring Bank as well as the executive directors after they failed to
pass the just concluded special joint examination by the CBN and
NDIC.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Hewitt, J. (1995). Air Words, Writing for Broadcast News. (2nd ed.).
London: Mayfield Publishing Company.

Stephens, M. (1986). Broadcast News. Fort Worth: Holt, Rinehart and

Winston, Inc.

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UNIT 4 COPY EDITING AND PRODUCING

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Necessity of Copy Editing
3.2 The Copy Editor’s Job
3.3 Broadcast Copy Editing
3.4 Producing the Newscast – the Producer’s Job
3.5 Organising the Newscast
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading
1.0 INTRODUCTION

Editing is preparing for publication or public presentation. It can also

mean to assemble by cutting or re-arranging. Bad editing can mess up
good reporting. There is every tendency to emphasise the reportorial
function, since the reporter is the representation of the media
organisation the public sees. The role of the copy editor is an
anonymous one. He is not known to the public. But his work is as
important as that of a reporter. If the work is not edited, the report of
fact may not be well presented; therefore, the audience cannot see the
beauty of the report (to praise the reporter).

Westley (1953: 2) stresses that copy editing is basic to communication

in general. Wherever language is employed to communicate to a mass
audience, some sort of copy editing is essential. The basic skills in
newspaper editing are also valuable assets to the communications
technicians in the fields of radio, television, advertising, magazine,
public relations.

In all these areas, competence to improve the flow and meaningfulness

of language, to safeguard accuracy, and to present the finished product
in an attractive package is at a premium.

Editing for broadcast goes beyond just checking the copy for fairness,
accuracy and the likes. According to Zetttl (2000: 296), editing is also
necessary “to combine, trim, correct and build” broadcast materials.

This unit shall not only look at what the desk-editor does, but also look
at the thinking of producers on news and how they put their newscasts
together.
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2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 define editing
 explain the essence of editing
 edit copies for newscast
 explain the duties of the copy editor
 identify the duties of the producer
 plan a newscast properly.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 The Necessity of Copy Editing

All sorts of writing need editing - even when the pace is leisurely. In
fact, Westley (1953: 2) believes that a writer does not exist whose
work cannot be improved by the constructive vigilance of an editor who
is:

(1) well versed in what is being written about

(2) an expert in language, and
(3) a flexible and tolerant person capable of appreciating values in
the work of other.

But broadcast news has a special need for copy editors. Reporters are
usually under severe pressure to turn in the day’s news, so they are
bound to make mistakes, bound to need verification, and bound to need
help in organising their facts.

Editing, according to Baskette and Scissors (1977) cited in Odetoyinbo

(2001: 30) “… means reacting or bringing back, getting together,
collecting, arranging, composing, framing, translating, selecting or
adapting .…”

As said earlier, the job of the copy desk for newspaper is not so different
from that of radio or television. The desk is always involved in creative
and managerial function to see that the copies come out beautifully. The
necessity of copy editing revolves around the role of the copy editor in
improving the copy.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
Why is copy editing considered necessary in broadcast news
production?

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3.2 The Copy Editor’s Job

In many media organisations, the job of the editor is not taken as an

individual work. It is seen as a collective work of editors; therefore,
whatever decision taken is said to be from the desk. Based on this idea,
Westley (1953: 2) outlines some creative and managerial functions
performed by the desk for newspaper establishment. Here are some of
the points that are applicable to broadcast media:

a. The desk judges the news of the day and makes decisions about
how it shall be presented.
b. It assembles single stories and arranges them in order of
importance and prominence.
c. It is responsible for being prepared to meet emergencies, as such,
having plenty of “filler” and “time copy” at all times.
d. The desk checks copy against errors of fact and interpretation.
e. It guards the broadcast media organisation’s position in matters
of libel and other possible legal difficulty.
f. It guards public confidence in the station by assuring objectivity,
fair play, and good taste.
g. It improves the flow and correctness of language with a view to
clarifying the news and making it meaningful.

The individual copy editor has all of the following in mind as he or she
works on a story:
 He must eliminate errors of:
a. Spelling
b. Grammar
c. Sentence structure
d. Style
e. Taste
f. Fact
g. Organisation

 He must guard against:

a. Opinion elements
b. Verbosity, repetition, wearisome detail
c. Overlooked facts
d. Incongruities
e. Advertising in disguise
f. Libel
g. Lottery
h. Hoaxes
i. Old news
j. Ax grinding
k. Duplication.

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The best copy desks not only perform their own duties but exert a subtle
influence on the newsroom as a whole. It is sort of “quality in spite of
haste” influence that helps keep reporters on their toes. The copy desk,
in fact, can be one of the most powerful teaching influences in the
office. When there is time, seasoned editors often show reporters why
their copy was changed. Even where this sort of exchange is about the
fine points of his trade by watching closely the treatment his own copy
gets at the desk.

But it is obvious that this influence can be found only where genuine
editing is the desk’s chief concern. “Editing” which emphasises the hair-
splitting and allows the frivolous can have only a negative effect on the
morale of the newsroom.

Hewitt (1995: 188) explains “the editor’s jobs to include – examining

the story, looking for errors of fact, of law, and of style. Specifically, the
copy editor checks for accuracy, fairness, comprehensive coverage,
libel, slander, and invasion of privacy.” That means when the editor
picks a news story, he or she makes sure every information provided is
exactly as it should be – every date, every name and position. The
parties in the story are fairly treated and depth is given to the coverage
that no one would wonder how the event covered ended. Again, it
should be a story that would not drag the medium to the court.

 Accuracy
Accuracy is the first and the most important consideration in the editing
of any story. A story must be as accurate as possible, relative to the
information known at that time. There can be no compromise in this
area. Copy editors can check for accuracy by:

o Reviewing sources – any doubts about the quality of primary or

secondary sources must be conveyed to the audience.
o Questioning jargon – is any backgrounding needed?
o Reviewing adjectives -are the adjectives used properly, or do
they add a sensational slant?
o Identifying sound bites – Every actuality/sound bite must be
carefully referenced. Those with no write up and cold intros must
be reviewed.
o Checking visuals – Each must be evaluated as representative of
what occurred at the event.

That is a lot to check for. Given the complexity of many stories, it is a

difficult task to accomplish. But even simple stories carry the possibility
of error. Original source material must be checked.

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 Fairness
Fairness can be difficult to achieve at times because everyone has an
opinion, or two, on scripts like social disputes, who is getting what.
Scripts should be checked to see whether writers have made an effort to
obtain all sides of the story, and to clearly portray these without ridicule.
By being fair, you show your audience that you believe they have the
brains to form their own conclusions.

 Comprehensive coverage
Scope is the extent of coverage available to reporters and editors when
making decisions about what to include in a story and what to leave out.
Well researched material should provide enough information to enable
you to clearly decide which points in the story deserves coverage. To
check for comprehensive coverage, you ought to try answering these
questions:

o Have all the angles been covered?

o Do we know enough about the background of people or group
involved in this story to make judgement?
o Is this the first step in a cause-and-effect situation (for example,
industry layoffs/factory may move/biggest employer in town,
etc)?

 Libel, slander and invasion of privacy

Writers, reporters, and copy editor should be on the lookout for stories
that might injure someone with defamatory information. Although new
staff may not know the finer points of the law, it is important to know
when to start worrying about a phrase, a sentence, or an entire item. If
the story looks questionable, they should consult the news director or a
company lawyer.

Three concerns in defamation are libel, slander, and invasion of privacy.

Libel is false information, broadcast to a large audience that identifies
someone and injures their reputation, relationships, or occupation.
Usually, libel is written information; however, many countries accept
scripted broadcast material, even if it was spoken on the air, as libel.
The consequences of libel can be quite severe, and libel judgements
against small operations could put a radio or television station out of
business.

Slander is basically the same as libel, except that it is spoken. It is

considered to be impromptu speech, and carries a lesser weight in court
than libel.

Invasion of privacy involves a true story that identifies and harms. It

covers the areas of private space intrusion, false light, and the right to

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publicity. Generally, the category which is of concern to news writers is

the publication of private matters, most notably a criminal past. When
stories about someone’s past include material from unofficial sources,
you may run into trouble. To defend against invasion of privacy,
reporters have to prove the newsworthiness of the material.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
Briefly examine the duties of the copy editor.

3.3 Broadcast Copy Editing

As mentioned earlier, the job of the copy editor is to see that the news
story appears in the form that it would be easy for the news caster to
read and convey the right message to the audience. In order to correct
errors on the copy, certain well known symbols are used. Here is
example of an edited radio news script:

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SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Identify at least 10 symbols used for correcting news copies and explain
their use.

3.4 Producing the Newscast – The Producers’ Job

The success of radio and television news programme depends
significantly on the ability of the producers, the executive producer and
the line producer. The producers according to White (1996: 350)
determine what goes into the news – how many packages, how many
voice-overs and readers – and where they will go in the show. No two
producers would create exactly the same newscast, as no two writers or
reporters would write or report a story the same way. The formation of
stories begins during the different angles or picture coverage. After that,
the producer’s job is to evaluate the stories for content and length, stack
the stories into a newscast, coach and copyedit, and make certain that
everything gets finished and on.

According to Hewitt (1995: 200), there are five principal tasks a

producer undertakes:
(1) planning the newscast
(2) developing stories
(3) coaching and copy editing
(4) stacking the newscast, and
(5) making on-air decisions.

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1. Newscast planning
Planning the newscast demands that you take note of several steps that
should be taken as the coverage of stories begins:

 See that the major stories are well covered, expanded, and
updated. Get sidebar stories for these. Look for outside help in
visuals, tape trades, satellite service and network feeds, stringer
footage, wire stories, and so on. If you have newswriters, be sure,
they have the latest updates on availability of wire service
information.
 Check and prepare the HFR (hold for release) stories you have
ready. Make sure the lead-ins are written into script form, the
CGs are ordered, and timing is checked on the tapes. These
stories can be blocked into your newscast.
 Once a lead story is chosen, go all out on the coverage of this
story. Make certain that there are no holes in the journalistic and
mechanical coverage of it.
 Keep a running list of the lesser stories and check this throughout
the day to see if you have missed anything. Begin to pass out
writing assignments on the more important stories.
 Don’t kill any stories until you get near the newscast. It is always
better to work with options, however, do not commit writers to
marginal stories until you know you will need those stories.
 Don’t vacillate. Make decisions and then follow up on them. Say
yes or no. Take control of the newscast.

2. Developing stories
The way to develop stories is to look for extra visuals or side bar stories,
interviews, and reports to fill in the gaps. If you want to develop a story
on a forest fire, you follow the steps below:

 Contact someone to get visuals of fire. This will provide more

information to viewers.
 Get computer artists to make a map of the area.
 Have the assignment desk send a reporter to scene. Set up a live
report. It will work with a VO and map.
 Have a researcher check out past fire in the area. Pull file tape if
necessary.
 Have a reporter feed VO/SOT insert for a live shot.

3. Coaching writers
The producer’s first job while the story is in progress is to coach the
writer to produce a better story. The coaching is a method of assisting
reporters who might have hit a block while preparing the story. The
coaching takes little time, and is a matter of listening and asking
questions to stimulate the writer’s creative process. The intention is to
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help the writer identify the key problems with the story, ask questions
that will help the writer plan his or her own revisions, and motivate the
writer to make those changes. All this done, the writers point out,
without the producer being openly critical, taking over the story, or
making changes.

This type of coaching helps in two ways: it develops the staff’s

talents and allows the producer to think about other items without
having to rewrite every lead.

4. Stacking the newscast

Stacking is the process of choosing the story content, deciding on story
order and making sure everything fits the time you have for programme.
If it is a 30-minute commercial evening newscast with sports and
weather, you will have somewhere around 13minutes of news. That
goes by very fast. You will also have to plot commercial spots, teases,
and tosses.

In stacking the newscast, the producer must be able to judge a story’s

merit. Is the story based upon a station’s own research, material
provided to the station, the investigative team, another news agency’s
research? Is it our exclusive? Was a feature done by the best feature
reporter? Can we trust the outlying station’s reporter to do the job in the
live shot?

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Outline the principal tasks of the news producer.

3.5. Organising the Newscast

The organisation of a newscast as Stephens (1986: 203) argues must
meet some of the same standards as the organisation of a story.

First, the newscast needs a good lead story-a-story that gets attention
and discourages dial twisting. Then the newscast must be arranged so
that it flows as smoothly as possible from story to story. And finally, the
newscast benefits from a good close, perhaps a story with a twist that
leaves listeners thinking.

A sheet on which the order of stories is written down is called a

“lineup”. The lineup should include the story’s slug. Its length and
mention of any tape there is to go with it. The lineup gives the order of
stories. There are a number of guidelines for determining order:

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 News worthiness
Importance, interest, controversy, the unusual, timeless and proximity
are at work when it comes to ordering newscast. The newscast should
open with the most news worthy story first, and the station wants to
grab listeners’ attention with the most powerful.

In choosing the lead story, proximity often is the dominant

consideration. What happens around you has more impact than what
happens far.

Newsworthiness is the major criterion for selecting the lead story. For
the rest of the newscast it is one criterion. All other things being equal,
stories should be placed in order of their news value. Seldom are all
other things equal, however.

 Variety
When listeners stay tuned to a radio station for couple of hours, they
don’t want to hear the same stories repeated every hour in the same
order. When new stories are breaking, it is easy to freshen the lineup,
but even if there are no new items the newscast must be changed.
Preserving variety then, becomes another consideration in ordering a
newscast. Sometimes a moderately newsworthy story is moved down in
a newscast, or ignored completely, not because it is out of date, but
because if was just aired an hour ago.

 Geography
A newscast is a tour of events around the world. Newscast flows most
smoothly when geographical jumps are kept to a minimum. Normally,
this means doing national stories, international stories, state stories and
others in separate groups. If the newscast only included state news, this
may mean separating in-town and out-of-town news. All other things
being equal, this works well.

 Natural tie-ins
A newscast is an odd programme: items on many different subjects are
thrown together without a common theme to unify them. Of course this
lack of coherence is unavoidable since there are so many stories to
cover. But, when there is an opportunity to put two related stories
together and make the show a bit less disjointed, writers should seize it.

 Tape
A newscast should sound smooth. It also should sound live. A few
minutes of the newscaster reading copy without breaks can get dull. A
change of pace is needed. This means that in a newscast, there should be
the use of tapes. They could contain actualities or voicers. This will
keep the newscaster off the camera for sometime.

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 Blocks
When newscasts grow long, organising them gets complicated. Often
the newscast is broken down into different segments – “blocks” – that
make the task of ordering stories more manageable.

Blocks are usually separated by commercials or special features.

Because of this natural break between segments, they can be treated
separately without having to flow smoothly into each other. Each block
can be seen as having its own lead story, and may be even its own
concluding story.

Blocks may also restrict ordering options. The station may insist that the
show open with a block of national news, followed by a block of state
news, no matter what the news value of the stories.

Considering the zonal stations in Nigerian Television Authority (NTA),

most days, the network news is taken zone by zone after the national
news.

 Timing
The stories have to fit. A 5-minute newscast with a 1-minute
commercial leaves 4-minutes for news. With the time in seconds written
on the bottom of each story, to determine how many stories will fit, as a
writer, you have to add up your time, including tape.

The length of stories may influence their position in the newscast. There
may only be room for one 20-second story before the commercial; so a
30-second story, though it is more newsworthy, will have to be used
later. And that 40-second piece with an actuality may be too long to fit
in the newscast at all.

Timing is one rule for ordering newscasts that is often inflexible.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
Identify the guidelines for organising a newscast.

4.0 CONCLUSION

No one is above mistakes. That makes it necessary for every copy that
goes on air to be edited to check for errors in grammar, accuracy, and all
that needs to be checked before the audience gets the news. Care must
be taken in doing this, since the credibility of any station is determined
more by what comes out of that station. The producer too, must be
knowledgeable enough to know what to place as news and how to place
them in an order that will keep the audience glued to the station.

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5.0 SUMMARY

This unit took at look at what copy editing means, the need for copy
editing, the job of the copy editor as well as the job of the producer.
How a newscast is produced was also looked at.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Considering the elements in organising a newscast, pick some news

stories from a national daily and arrange a 15-minute newscast.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Hewitt, J. (1995). Air Words – Writing for Broadcast News. (2nd ed.).
London: Mayfield Publishing Company.

Odetoyinbo, A. (2001). Basic Broadcast Production Techniques.

Abeokuta: Nicolak Ventures.

Stephens, M. (1986). Broadcast News. Forth Worth: Holt, Rinehart and

Winston, Inc.

Westley, B. (1953). News Editing. Cambridge Massachusetts: Houghton

Mifflin Company.

White, T. (1996). Broadcast News Writing, Reporting, and Producing.

2nd ed.). Boston: Focal Press.

Zettl, H. (2000). Television Production Handbook. Australia:

Wadsworth Thomson Learning.

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UNIT 5 DELIVERING THE NEWS

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Broadcast Presentation
3.2 Principles of Presentation
3.3 The Newscaster
3.4 Essentials of Newscasters
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

No broadcast media would go through the stress of getting the news

stories prepared without putting them on air. Delivery is what they all
desire to have. How well the news is delivered goes a long way in
telling how good the news writers, producers, and directors are. It also
speaks loud about the credibility of such a station. It makes it very
important, therefore, that the newscaster learns what it takes to have a
good news presentation.

This unit will look at the requirements of the newscaster as it regards the
delivery of the news.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 identify who a newscaster is

 explain the news delivery process
 discuss the essentials of newscasters.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Broadcast Presentation

Presentation, according to Owuamalam (2007: 149) is the skilful act of
introducing a programme to an audience. It entails an artistic
conjecturing, which makes programmes palatable for consumption. It
uses explanation as its focus in assisting an artistic enquiry for the
audience. It provides the appetiser, which serves the tonic for the main

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dish of the programme, to be savoured with relish by the station’s

audience.

Akpan (2006: 177) believes that good presentation lies in the hands of
the script writer, and later in the hands of the producer, but the warmth,
enthusiasm and skill that a broadcast presenter puts into the programme
will make it a true success.

Presentation provides the audience with the vital information required to

adjust their listening or viewing desire. Presentation gives stations the
integrity they enjoy in attracting audience to their programmes in
broadcasting.

The implication is that presentation is like the paint, which adorns a

building. It is the first contact with the public. An assessment of the
quality and layout of the painting would make the structure remarkable
and inviting. It is only when interest is generated in the building that one
becomes inquisitive about what the inside looks like.

It means that the builder makes a considerable artistic effort, to ensure

that any first contact with the structure should be able to attract
attention, arouse aesthetic interest and propel a burning desire to see the
interior. The exterior must be inviting for anyone to contemplate seeing
the various sections inside.

Presentation in broadcasting is the garnish, which embellishes

programmes and makes them appetising to an audience. It entails an
outstanding decorational skill and knowledge of what makes things
beautiful. It requires moderation in the requisite characteristics of
persons involved in it in order not to draw the audience attention away
from the main issue, which is the programme. Presentation is to
broadcasting, what icing is to the cake. It is the end point of production,
yet, the first to be appreciated by all.

Presentation is an audience related activity, which serves the front office

duties. It welcomes listeners and viewers to a broadcast programme and
informs them on what is to be expected from it. It serves as a guide to
restless media wanderers, who move from one station to the other, by
flagging them down, to the content of any station’s programme. It helps
to build a reservoir of audience, which the station uses to its economic
advantage.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
What is broadcast presentation?

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3.2 Principles of Presentation

Owuamalam (2007: 151) again provides qualities which presenters are
expected to possess and exhibit if they must be believable and
acceptable by an audience. Some of the qualities are natural, like “good
looks” for television, whereas, some others are acquired through
experience, knowledge and qualification. It should be noted that
presentation deals with language and their meaning to a target audience,
as a communicative art. It means, therefore, that where interaction fails
between the presenter and an audience, effective communication is
hampered, to the detriment of the broadcast station.

The principles of presentation deal with those issues, which make

presenters believable and acceptable to an audience. They present an
evaluative template for assessing the performance and suitability of a
presenter, in a broadcast medium. They show what are needed to bestow
credibility to stations, from the performance of presenters. Principles,
therefore, are the characteristics, which a presenter must possess in
order to excel in job performance and contribute artistically, towards the
quality of programmes, presented to the public. The recommended
attributes according to Owuamalam (2007:151) include:

 Diction
The ability to pronounce words distinctly and clearly, determines to a
large extent, how the audience understands the information, which is to
be shared with the presenter. Tonal stresses must be accurately
emphasised at the relevant points, in order to state exactly, what the
presenter means. It should be noted, that clarity of meaning is the
essence of good diction.

Speaking well means just more than the production of beautiful words,
in an impressive manner; it requires the exhibition of great skill and
expressional capability in presenting issues succinctly, in the generation
of the same meaning, for both the source and the receiver. Good
phonetics, therefore, is the key to mutual understanding between the
presenter, as an artist and the audience as consumers.

It is pertinent to assert that rationalisation or tribal diction, in the

rendition of a foreign language, is prohibited in broadcasting. Each
language must be spoken according to its phonetic rules. Any deviation
may generate channel noise, inimical to the clarification of meaning.
Besides, ethnic biases are eliminated when a presenter represents the
language of expression and not a clannish or parochial interest.
Similarly, affections, as exaggerated speech mannerism in any specific
language, in order to impress rather than to express a thought or feeling,
should be avoided. Pronunciations heard as ‘noise-oriented’.

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Phonetics, often remind one of the “been-to” syndrome which non-

English people strive to exhibit, to show their superiority over listeners.
It is an imitative behaviours, which strives to differentiate the “home
boy” or “local champions” from the supposedly superior “been to”. This
is a sound or audio related classification, which separates the presenter
from the audience.

 Facial composure
An enticing and friendly looking person seems to be more acceptable to
an audience than a stern, wicked and ugly looking presenter. This could
be why some people believe that youthfulness is desirable in the choice
of a presenter. The presenter as a receptionist for broadcast stations’
programmes must be presentable and friendly. Ugande (2006: 93)
believes that proper make up can enhance the looks of the presenters.

 Mood and emotions

It is important to note that the presenter sets the mood for the
appreciation of any programme in broadcasting, through the information
provided and the manner of its delivery to an audience. The use of body
language aids in the articulation of meaning, especially when
accompanied by words. The sound produced by the presenter evokes
feelings, in relation to their meaning and tonal structures. It is therefore,
the responsibility of the presenter to ensure that the proper mood and
emotional feelings are aroused, in line with the programme objective.

 Eye contact
This is the basis of interaction in interpersonal communication.
Although the screen or the loudspeaker separates the presenter from the
audience, it is observed that effective eye contact between
communicants improve and enhance communication efficiency. The
ability of the presenter to make frequent eye contact with the camera
lens in television or a mental delivery of aura through the choice of
words in radio, can achieve the desired effect. It radiates confidence in
the presenter and provides unconstructive forum for verbal
communication.

It should be noted that interaction, as the most viable and efficient form
of communication, encourage mutual participation in friendly
environment. There is no hide and seek situation, where eye contact is
established. The strategy bestows source credibility, since identification
is imminent. It is always good to maintain eye contact because the
audience (viewers) could be irritated while watching someone talking
not to them but to someone on the floor. Akpan (2006: 177) advises
that, as a newscaster, you should try to forget the cameras. Concentrate
on who you are talking to. You do not have to be camera shy.

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 Competence
This attribute of a presenter is acquired through experience and
qualification. A newscaster, for instance, has to be knowledgeable in the
manner news is produced. It is from the knowledge that competence is
drawn, to guide audience properly, through the programme. Experience
shows how programmes are to be introduced and handled, in order to
guarantee audience satisfaction.

The presenter is, therefore, expected to know so much about the

technicalities of production and how equipment works. If for instance, a
multi-directional microphone is used instead of a uni-directional one, in
newscasting or continuity announcements, then the presenter should
know promptly, the source of unwanted sound, infiltrating into the
programme. He should be knowledgeable in the production language of
the various crew members, like the floor manager in particular, so that
compliance to technical directions, during productions, would be
understood and adhered to.

 Charisma
Presentation requires special endowment like captivating, charming and
fascinating character, which endears the talent to the audience. The
presenter should have a rousing personality that makes him or her
likeable, each time his or her voice is heard on radio or the face seen on
television. The possession of an impressionable personality bestows
dignity and attracts followership. This unique and unusual quality of the
presenter makes him or her easily a role model, who would be often
emulated by some other talents.

 Audience participation
This is an attribute which presents exhibit, in order to carry the audience
along, in their artistic effort at audience engineering. The presenter
adopts the concept of mental picturisation, by using appropriate
descriptive words, in explaining details about an event or a subject. In
such a way, the audience, far away from the location of activity, say, a
football match is able to follow the game very easily.

 Portray of station’s policy

The potentialities of adherence to the house style of a station, qualifies
one to become a good presenter. The approved presentation language
for programmes, the dress code, costume and make-up, as well as the
ability to use sophisticated gadgets, like the teleprompter in the place of
a sheet, are essential.

Decorum is expected from presenters, in order to achieve goodwill and

candour, from the station’s audience. The effective use of tack,
diplomacy and firmness, as a presentation style, enables broadcast

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stations to perform their statutory roles, without recourse to litigations

on slander or even misdemeanor.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
What are the principles of good presentation?

3.3 The Newscaster

Newscaster, the short for news broadcaster is a presenter of news
bulletin. The newscaster is also referred to as newsreader or anchor.
Stephens (1986: 296) describes them as the most visible and usually the
highest paid members of the news team. Newscasters according to
Owuamalam (2007: 157) present news as a broadcast programme. They
use appropriate language and performance skills to ensure exciting
presentations to the news hunger audience. As directors, they do not
deviate from any given script, produced as news. As performers, they
conform to the directions of the floor manager, who is in turn, instructed
by the technical director. They are very efficient in the use of effective
prompting devices.

The newscaster should be confident-looking and pronounce words,

distinctly with their appropriate tones and stresses, so as not to confuse
the audience.

Prior to the television era, radio news broadcasts often mixed news with
opinion and each presenter strive for a distinctive style. These presenters
were referred to as commentators. Today, commentary is generally
presented in a longer form talk show format. The term “newscaster”
came into common use to distinguish presenters of straight news
broadcasts from commentators.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
Who is a newscaster?

3.4 Essential of Newscasters

Apart from the qualities of presenters discussed earlier, a good
newscaster must possess the following essentials:

 Authority
This is a state of knowing what you are talking about and being able to
explain it convincingly and readily to somebody else. It means you have
to speak confidently for one to know you understand what you are
talking about.

 Credibility
Newscasters should be people who are believable. Those who are
knowledgeable about and comfortable with what they are doing. Media

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owners do not look for people who are spontaneous and charming, but
on the air they are wooden, with unnatural speech rhythms and awkward
inflection. They are looking for people who are very comfortable on the
newscaster’s chair.

Jeff Puffer, a voice coach for one of US’s major broadcast consulting
films as quoted by White (1996: 128) says that when he is instructing
anchors and reporters, he expects them “to show two qualities in their
reading: intelligence and genuine sensitivity.” He says he looks for
“emotion that is appropriate for the story, the person, and the occasion. I
want them to demonstrate that they know what they are reading and that
they are thoughtfully weighing the facts as they speak.” Puffer says, “I
always want them to say it with feeling, not artificially, but with
sensitivity and maturity.” The essence of this is to make the voice sound
spontaneous and conversational, like an ad-lib.

Sometimes it happens that the composer of the news script makes some
errors in the spelling or in the names of the proper nouns. In such cases,
if the newscaster is ignorant of basic facts and figures, he will not be
able to correct the information and wrong information will go on air.
From event to the broadcast, a news story passes through many hands
but the newscaster is the person who enters into the scene at the end and
holds the final presentation. It implies that manifold responsibility lies
with him/her. Knowledge is confidence and knowledge is credibility.

A newscaster must have an insight of national and international issues.

He must know the names of presidents of important countries, prime
ministers, capital cities, currencies, etc. He must know the names of
ministries, parastatals and those heading those offices as well as other
important government officials.

 Language
We talk about language in terms of grammar, pronunciation and accent.
As far as grammar is concerned, a newscaster must be well versed in the
rules and principles of the language he is reading news in. some
important areas regarding grammar to be concentrated by a newscaster
are: tenses; verbs; adjectives; structures; use of conditionals, causatives.
If the newscaster has a good command of the language, he or she would
be able to correct the copy even when the writer makes mistakes.

 Pronunciation
Whatever the language is, if the pronunciation of the speaker is bad it
gives bad impression and sometimes it changes the meaning of the word
as well. For instance, sentence (noun) means a set of words that carries a
subject and a verb; and conveys a message. Sen’tence (verb) means to
announce punishment. Rebel (noun) the person who fights against the
government of his country. Re’bel (verb) the act of fighting against the
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government of his country. A good and professional newscaster is

always curious about the pronunciation of any new word that comes to
his knowledge. In order to get over pronunciation problems, a
newscaster must have the knowledge of phonetics, vowel sounds,
consonant sounds, syllable, stresses, and always look up words in the
dictionary. Where he or she is confused, he or she should not feel shy to
ask people.

 Unbiased
A professional newscaster is the one who is unbiased at least when
he/she is reading out news bulletin. He or she must be able to hide his or
her feelings of hatred or liking for any one whose news he is reading
out.

 Punctuality
The newscaster does not have any reason to be late for newscast. Rain
or storm, a newscaster is in form. A newscaster should be in the studio
at least 30 minutes before the bulletin starts so that he may go through
the scripts well in advance.

 Voice
Voice is the main instrument used to convey emotion. For radio
newscasts, there are no images so the newscasters must make good use
of their voices. As far as the voice quality of a newscaster is concerned,
it must be good but not necessarily exceptionally good. It must be
comfortable, confident, clear, healthy, lively and microphone friendly.

When newscasters possess the above qualities, newscast would be

interesting.

 Breathing
According to AMARC (2004) breathing is the spoken word equivalent
of punctuation. Short breaths, for instance, represent commas. Longer
and deeper breaths should serve as periods or full stops. They serve to
mark the end of a phrase or the end of an idea. The guideline for reading
given by Hewitt (1995: 24) is that when a sentence is long, you can
break it down into simple and short ones by using comfortable breathing
pauses.

Stephens (1989: 15) adds that apart from comma and full stop, a dash
(--) and an ellipsis (…), are graphic cues for the newscaster to rest a beat
between words.

For example
The information minister – Emma Eche … says he doesn’t like the plan.

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SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
Identify 10 qualities of a newscaster.

4.0 CONCLUSION

The power of performance is great and that means attention ought to be

paid to newscaster’s delivery. News should be presented as it is written.
When emphasis is added to certain words, it can cause the listener to
focus on one part of the story but ignore a more crucial element. Body
language and facial expressions can communicate a lot. Care must be
taken when the newscaster expresses all these.

5.0 SUMMARY

This unit is designed to give you first hand information on how to

handle the delivery of news on radio and television. The unit opens with
an understanding of broadcast presentation; to the principles of
presentation, then who a newscaster is and the qualities a newscaster
ought to possess in order to come out with a good presentation.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Discuss the roles of a news writer, producer and newscaster in the

delivery of a newscast.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Akpan, C. S. (2006). The Pillars of Broadcasting. Nsukka: CSF and

Visual Impression.

AMARC (2004) “Radio Presentation” A Multimedia Training Kit

Available Online from http:llwww.itrainonline.org.

Owuamalam, E. (2007). Radio – TV Production. Owerri: Top Class

Agencies Ltd.

Stephens, M. (1986). Broadcast News. Forth Worth: Holt, Rinehart and

Winston, Inc.

Ugande, G. (2006). Broadcast Programme Writing and Production.

Makurdi: AsaGod Printers.

White, T. (1996). Broadcast News Writing, Reporting and Producing.

(2nd ed.). Boston: Focal Press.

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MODULE 3 OTHER BROADCAST PROGRAMMES

PRODUCTION

Programmes are the products of broadcast stations. All the messages of

broadcast stations are known as programmes. Ugande (2006: 15) agrees
that a programme is a message which the broadcast media offers to the
public to communicate ideas or feelings. Production of programmes is a
way a broadcast station can justify its reason for existence. According to
Owuamalam (2007: 196) a programme is a commodity that is enjoyed
and reacted to, by the primary audience of a station, who are exposed to
the product, through artistic presentations. They are packaged in a
specific form and format, to suit the channel of presentation and the
appreciation of the audience.

Programme production also requires a script. A script is the foundation

of the programme. The script gives direction as to how the programme
would be executed. Learning how to prepare the script in the manner
that it would be understood by all the personnel involved in programme
production is very important.

In this module, we shall take a critical look at the different types of

programmes for broadcast stations, script writing, planning programmes
and the different people behind programmes productions.

Unit 1 Classification of Broadcast Programmes

Unit 2 Script Writing
Unit 3 Broadcast Programme Management
Unit 4 People behind Programme Production

UNIT 1 CLASSIFICATION OF BROADCAST PROGRAMMES

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Importance of Programmes
3.2 Programme Types
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

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1.0 INTRODUCTION

Broadcast programmes are produced to achieve certain goals and appeal

to people of different classes, ages, aspirations, and background. A
programme that appeals to a young man may not appeal to an old man.
If programmes were produced in just one format for all, broadcast
stations would lose audience. Variety, they say, is the spice of life.
Broadcast media operators are fully aware of this and they present
programmes in different forms in order to win audience.

In this unit, we shall consider the aims and objectives of programme

types, classification of broadcast programmes and how each is
produced.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 define a programme
 identify the significance of programmes
 identify the programmes on radio and television
 explain the writing approaches of the programmes
 tell how the programmes are produced.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Importance of Programmes

Programmes generally are meant to provide the basic functions of mass
communication – information, entertainment and education. No matter
the reason for the production of any programme, it should benefit the
audience in any of the above mentioned ways.

According to Owuamalam (2007: 196–98), programmes enable the

audience to be translocated from their physical position in space, to
areas, far and different from their immediate environment. One does not
require a visa to travel to far away countries, to watch actions and
events, but only requires tuning to the television or radio, to an
appropriate station, like CNN, BBC, VOA or Radio China, for instance,
to be there, as an observer, of second-hand reality.

Programmes, therefore, play a liberating role by bringing out people

from their locations and allowing them free access to any part of the
world, as presented to them, on radio or television.

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Programmes mobilise human resources for the achievement of specific

interest. Such an interest could be national, like mobilising Nigerians,
through media campaigns, to support government’s effort towards
ensuring security of lives and properties by reporting activities of
terrorists.

A programme can be produced to mobilise a rural community to

complement government’s efforts in rural development. It could be
news programme, current affairs, or even drama. The essence is to show
how humans are grappling with the situations, in their environment. It
provides the motivating tonic which people need to confront their
situations and environment.

Programmes have socialisation qualities. They try to orientate and

indoctrinate new members of society, to conform to established norms
as applicable to their milieu. Cultural attitudes and beliefs are easily
transferred, from one generation to the other, through content, language,
and characterisation in programmes.

The dress codes for sexes, ages and economic class or the language of
expression and the lessons learnt from programme contents, try to
inculcate certain behavioural attitudes, which differentiates a cultural
entity, from the others. Programmes also aid cultural marketing. They
portray the artifacts and ways of life, of a specific human entity.

Various people attend to broadcast programmes for different reasons.

Their artistic needs may span from entertainment, through skill
acquisition, to aesthetic appreciation and information. Consequently,
programmes possess such qualities that try to satisfy audience needs.
For instance, some may wish to re-enforce their existing attitudes and
opinions, through the presented programmes.

Programmes are capable of assisting the social auditing of a specific

society. The level of development and growth of a society can be
assessed through broadcast programmes. For instance, a historical
documentary enables a chronological rendition of facts, supported with
evidence, to be presented to the audience. A review of such programme
may show the rate of growth and development within a period of time.

Nigeria at 52, as a documentary, enables one to assess how Nigeria has

progressed between 1960 and 2012. It enables the audience to take stock
of events, capable of aiding a comparison, to establish growth and
development. Films are good examples, where visual assessments can
be vividly made.

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Programmes have public awareness quality. Radio and television

commercials are examples. They create the intellectual climate which
according to Scramm (1964) as cited in Owuamalam (2007: 98)
“stimulate people to take another look at their own current practices and
future perspectives.” Programmes have the palliating quality, which
motivates people to feel and see the wonders of man in relation to his
environment.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
Discuss the importance of Programmes?

3.2 Programme Types

There are numerous programme types which the broadcast media offer
for the consumption of the audience. Uyo (1987: 29) has classified
broadcast programmes according to:

i. The function they perform ii. Their target audience

iii. Their format.

Under the functions, we look at programmes that inform, educate and

entertain, some programmes combine two or three functions – they
inform as well as educate and at other times, also entertain.

The second category which places programmes according to their target

audience considers the fact that broadcast programmes are usually
produced with a particular type of audience in mind. This does not
however, prevent other audience from listening to or viewing such
programmes. Here, we may consider religious programmes, children
programme, and the like.

The third category classifies programmes according to the format. This

refers to the shape, arrangement and style of broadcast performance or
message. Under this format, come the conventional or universal
broadcast programme types as presented by Uyo (1987:30). They
include:
 news
 interviews
 discussion
 magazine
 documentary
 feature
 special events
 drama
 sports
 musical

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 children’s
 women’s
 religious
 commercial.

There are other messages in the broadcast media, but they are not
considered universal. We have discussed the news programme
extensively in the first two models, so let us consider the other
programmes.

3.2.1 Interview Programme

As the name implies, an interview programmes, like any kind of
interview, takes the question and answer format. According to Ugande
(2006: 12), in the interview, the interviewer (reporter) takes on the
interviewee (one being questioned – respondent) and puts questions
before him or her to be answered for the benefit of the listening or
viewing audience. The journalistic interview is not an end in itself.
McLeish (1999: 39) believes the aim of interview is to provide, in the
interviewee’s own words, facts, reasons or opinions on a particular topic
so that the listener can form a conclusion as to the validity of what he or
she is saying. The interview is a window through which the journalist
enables the audience to be informed about issues and personalities by
the interviewee.

Ugande (2006:12) continues that the broadcast interview can take a

number of forms. In one form, the interviewer is alone questioning the
interviewee. In another, two or more reporter (interviewers) ask
questions in turns to which the interviewee provides answers. This is
known as forum or panel interview. In yet another, the reporter stations
on a busy street or in the market, sampling opinions of the people he
encounters concerning an issue or an event or even a personality. This is
known in the broadcast parlance as vox pop (from the Latin expression
vox populi vox dei, meaning, the voice of the people is the voice of
God). The phone – in programmes in which a guest answers to the
questions the audience members ask from the various places is also
another form of interview.

Three general types of classification can be seen in the journalistic

interview. These are:
 Opinion - primarily concerned with a strongly held personal
opinion on an issue or a subject usually topical and controversial.
 Information - its primary purpose is to inform the listener. It is
also called a content interview.
 Personality - persons interviewed for what has happened to them;
what they have been able to do; or the position they have held or
hold in the public eye.

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The interview is one of the talk programmes that must not be fully
scripted word for word. Instead, it is often outlined on rundown or on
routine sheets. A rundown sheet is a standard part of all programming
and consists of a detailed listing of every sequence in a given
programme, with the elapsed time for each item. A routine sheet is more
detailed than the rundown sheet and consists of as much of the dialogue
and action as can be prepared.

In all interviews, the interviewer must set up at least the opening and
closing continuity, including introductory material about the
interviewee. The writer must also ensure that in all interviews the proper
introduction are made and the background of the guest is clearly
presented.

3.2.2 Discussion Programmes

Discussion programme according to Hilliard (1972: 179) is oriented
towards the exchange of opinions and information and to some degree,
at arriving at solutions, actual or implied on important questions or
problems.

The purpose of the discussion programmes is to help clarify issues

which are likely to be confusing in the public mind. It is in a bid to
clarify issues that the discussion programmes concern itself with the
exchange of ideas, opinions and information and also seeks to bring
solutions to the problems or questions raised in the discussion. A
discussion usually has a beginning, middle and an end. In it the
discussants try to convince each other over the points they are making
concerning the issue raised for discussion.

The issues raised for discussion need not necessarily be very serious
issues. Any issue or problem which is directly relevant to the listener or
viewer can conveniently pass for discussion. The discussion problem
has many major types. Hilliard (1972:179 – 184) identifies them as:
 symposium
 panel
 group discussion
 debate.

In symposium, a series of articles are contributed by several persons on

a given subject. The panel is rather informal and unstructured. The
group discussion favours the objective, cooperative thinking and
research of all the participants. The debate is usually couched in
argumentative form.
The discussion programmes needs careful preparation for a successful
production. The general approach to producing a discussion programme
involves:

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1. Selecting the topic

2. Researching the topic
3. Selecting the participants
4. Coordinating the contributors
5. Broadcasting the programmes
6. Dealing with the response
7. Evaluating the possibility of the follow-up.

3.2.3 Magazine Programmes

A magazine, according to Frank Luther Moth, as quoted in Okunna
(1999: 560 is “a bound pamphlet issued more or less regularly and
containing a variety of reading matter.” The word magazine is derived
from the French word magasin which means storehouse. It contains a
lot of things like news, poems, essays, sketches, puzzles and so many
articles if interest. In the broadcast parlance, a magazine is a programme
format in which a continuous stream of different kinds of materials -
music, news, interviews, discussions, human interest features, sport,
special events, skits and a voluminously interspersed series of
commercials - is presented over a given, extended time period (Hilliard,
1972: 214).

Whether on radio or television, a magazine programme contains several

items which must be effectively linked by the presenter to ensure the
programme’s homogeneity. Each item of the magazine is allotted time
after which another segment takes over. To ensure effective linkage,
music or commercial is often used to bridge the segments. Sometimes
the presenter can bridge the segments by summarising the preceding
segments and telling us about the proceeding segment. A magazine
programme could be a news magazine, variety magazine or a target
audience magazine.

A magazine programme requires a partial script and may take either the
rundown or outline or even a show format depending on the medium.
One thing the writer needs necessarily do is to clearly delineate the time
length for each item. This will help during production. He must also
provide accurate background material for introduction of the differing
sections of the programmes. This means that the writer has the
obligation of providing good transition or link-continuity, which refers
to the narrator’s lines in a magazine.

Producing the magazine programmes is not so different from the

production of other programmes. It demands team work, with the
producer leading the team.

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3.2.4 Documentary Programmes

The word documentary is derived from the verb, document (to record)
and the noun document (record). In the broadcast parlance, a
documentary programme refers to a presentation prepared for radio,
television or motion picture which provides a complete record of a
place, person or subject of special significance (Ugande, 2006:17).
Documentary contains record of real events. Uyo (1987: 34) agrees with
this where he says:

The documentary contains not ideas or re-enactments of events or

experiences, but the real or actual thing. The documentary contains real
experiences, real people, and real situations or settings, even though
such actualities, as they are referred to, may be treated creatively by the
producer of the documentary through editing.

Similarly, Dunu in Ugande (2006:14) agrees that a “documentary is a

unified and sequential arrangement of events as they happened.”
Onabajo (1999:104) adds that “documentaries stem from documents.
This presupposes the fact that materials for a documentary have been
preserved in time past.” A documentary programme is wholly fact,
based on documentary evidence – written records, attributable sources,
contemporary interviews and the like. Its purpose is essentially to
inform, to present a story or situation with a total regard for honest,
balanced reporting.

Documentaries that aim primarily at informing and educating the

audience are more prone to the idea of faithful presentation of reality.

The documentary script is often fully scripted. At the initial stage of the
planning, an outline of how the script will look like can be drawn.
However, the final script is seen as a complete script just as we have in
news, drama and commercial scripts. Essentially, the documentary
contains the real words of real persons (or their writings, published and
unpublished, including letters if they are not living or cannot possibly be
reached and there is no record of their voices) and the sounds and
motion pictures (or photos, if films cannot be obtained) of the people
and the event. These materials, which sometimes appear unrelated must
be woven together by the writer in dramatic, cohesive whole and edited
in terms of a script. (Hilliard, 1972:130).

3.2.5 Feature Programmes

The feature programmes according to Uyo (1987: 34) is usually based
on the creativity or adroitness of the producer. It is often devised,
developed and executed by the producer. It is often based on ideas of
the producer, re-enactments of what has happened by actors, people
playing the parts of those originally involved in the events or

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experiences being enacted. It only deals with one subject and not many
at a time. This is what makes it different from the magazine programme
which deals with many subjects at a time. In producing the feature
programmes, the producer enjoys reasonable degree of freedom to
exercise his creativity, but care must be taken to ensure that what he
presents enlighten people and not mislead them.

3.2.6 Special Events

The special event is a programme which deals or covers an actual event
or happening that is part of everyday life. Happenings such as
dedication, awards, carnivals, fashion shows, political conventions,
coronation, swearing in ceremonies, weddings, parades, banquet, etc.
Special events are usually on-the-sport remote broadcast of a
newsworthy nature. The fact that they are remote broadcasts means that
special events ordinarily originate and are conducted outside of station
supervision.

3.2.7 Drama Programmes

The Drama Programmes are regular feature in radio and television
production. This is more so that they have high entertainment value.
Drama programmes are used by broadcast stations just as drama is used
in the theatre, that is, to teach morals and mould character in the young
and the adults alike. Because drama combines effectively the elements
of education and entertainment, it is usually said to play the edutainment
function (Ugande, 2006:19).

Drama can be a tragedy or a comedy. A tragic drama is usually serious

in nature involving the lead character or protagonist who end up sadly
as a result of not been able to accomplish his or her plan initially
hatched in the drama. A comic drama is less serious in nature. It is
meant to excite people or make them laugh.

According to Ugande (2006:97) drama on radio and television may take

any of the following forms:
 The single–play or independent drama: As the name implies,
an independent drama or single play contains a complete story
presented in one broadcast and disposed of at the end of each
schedule. It may last for one hour, for 30 minutes or 15 minutes.
In the independent drama, the story does not continue. It is
always new and complete at the end of every broadcast.

 The series: In the series, the same major or regular characters are
used in the subsequent broadcast. However, in each broadcast, a
different story is dramatised, a different theme is presented and
different lesson is taught. Examples are: “Jagua” and “The New
Masquerade”.

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 The serial: The serial is an ongoing story that continuous from

one broadcast to another. Each episode is open-ended, and the
story is picked up and continued in the next episode. Example of
serial are “Super Story” and “Hills and Valleys” on NTA and
AIT respectively.

In writing radio drama, care must be taken since radio is the blind man’s
theatre. Great emphasis must be placed on the voice of the actor and the
dialogue. It is the duty of the writer to select and weave sounds into
meaningful patterns to enable the listener to understand the action
taking place. The importance of dialogue is stressed in the fact that radio
audience cannot see the action taking place so they need more
explanation.

Through dialogue, Ugande (2006: 98) believes the listener should

identify the people in the drama and the places where the actions in the
drama are taking place. This means making the characters and their
roles very clear to the listener’s ears. It also means indicating change of
scenes through dialogue. Sometimes sound effects show the listener
where a particular scene is. However, sound effects may not do that at
all times, since many places have no background noise. This is when the
writer employs dialogue to indicate change of scene. It is possible to
make your actors tell the place. For example:

GAB: Where do you think he will be?

DAVID: He will be at his house now.

GAB: Let’s go there now, as quick as we can.

Come on (fading).
FX Knocking at the door, pause, door opens

ADEM: Hello, oh you are all welcome to my house.

Please get in and sit down. FX door closes

ADEM: Now, what can I do for you?

Used in this way, the dialogue can assist the listener to fathom a change
from one locale (place) to another. Writing television drama is not so
different from writing radio drama. Here, you need to visualise. You
need to be conversant with the medium and how to effectively utilise
the elements of sight and sound.
The process of producing drama for radio and television is the same.
First is script acquisition, then analyse the script, do the casting,
rehearse the play and the last stage is the actual performance.

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3.2.8 Sports
Owuamalam (2007: 204) sees sports as a class of programmes that helps
to teach physical health education to its audience. It brings the strive of
humans to conquer nature, like in mountaineering or to complete for
laurels, like in football, Hockey, Athletics and other. It may even show
how people endure stress, like in cycling and cross-country or marathon
races. It may present how people take unimaginable risk, like in skiing
and motor racing.

Sports provide an entertainment value, when the audience applauds

success, victory and performance. It may even rejoice and make merry
when a loved team wins a trophy.

Sports programmes production should take into cognisance, the nature

of the sport to be produced, its performers and audience. The rules of
the game to be produced, must be known and experience used in
determining victory or defeat. The nature of the sport explains whether
it is a field, track or an indoor activity. The implication is that the
producer becomes aware of the technical requirements, like lights and
sound in particular. It explains the limit of performance and provides a
visualisation of a possible aesthetic appreciation of the programmes.

3.2.9 Music Programmes

Music dominates most radio programming today. Some stations rely
primarily on music for programmes content. According to Owuamalam
(2007:205):

Music is a sound-oriented sensation, designed to excite the human

emotion. It is an organised sound. It is selected in tones, arranged in
scores and presented as a harmony that may be pleasing to the ear, like
melody. It may also be stressful to some, as in jazz music, with its
staccato and vibrant renditions.

Owuamalam (2007:205) further says “the organisation of the music

evokes feeling of excitement and pleasure, like in pop music, highlife,
Makosa and sentimental Reggae. It could arouse sadness, like in dirge at
funerals. It could even produce mixed feelings, like martial music at
military coup times. It may also produce anxiety, like in the screenplay
music in films, or folk music used at wrestling matches in some African
villages.”

Music can be used to fill presentation void, like when technical

malfunctioning of studio equipment or the unreadiness of a programme
to commence occurs. In that circumstance, music becomes filler.

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It becomes a bridge, when used to join the various segments of a

programme, in order to produce a smooth transition from one segment
to the other. In such a circumstance, theme music, revolving around the
programme’s idea, serves a great advantage in the intensification of the
intended experience. The choice of appropriate bridge music suggests
that the lyrics of the proposed music, or the tonal structure, must relate
to the presented programmes.

Signature tune, often referred to as “sig tune”, is used to identify a

station or a programme. They open stations and programmes and
sometimes, close them at specific scheduled time.

Music as a programme can be personality oriented; the production of a

specific artist can be reviewed for the enjoyment of the audience. It can
also be a mixed grill, in which case, various artists are presented in the
same programme, scheduled at a specific time. In both circumstances,
the music is played as recorded and produced by the artist, but merely
used as a programme for the enjoyment of listeners, in radio.

On television, a video version, showing the artists, her band, dancers

and sometimes, their audience, is presented for audience enjoyment.
Such a presentation would contain a profile of the artist, like the life and
times of Michael Jackson; the performance environment of Bright
Chimezie or Madonna. It may discuss their music and the background to
their compositions.

For a successful music programme production or the use of music as

sig-tune, as bridge or to fill presentation void, research is important. The
music must fit the programme objective or be appropriate.

3.2.10 Children Programmes

As the name implies, children programmes according to Ugande
(2006:21) are often specifically designed with juvenile listeners as the
target audience. Programmes on radio and television such as kiddies,
children’s variety programmes, some educational programmes are
children’s programmes. Sesame Square and Tales by Moon Light on
Nigerian Television Authority (NTA) are few examples of children’s
programmes. Children’s programmes are heavily embedded in the realm
of entertainment in their attempts to educate and inform children. The
idea is that when couched in entertainment, such programmes are better
able to attract and hold the wavering attention of the children. In terms
of classification, children’s programmes fall under the category of target
audience.
3.2.11 Women’s Programmes
Women’s programmes are broadcast programmes which fall under the
category of target audience classification just like the children’s
programmes. Here, women are the primary target audience. News and

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interviews which are of interest to women are the main features of such
programmes. In the programmes, women could be interviewed on such
things as cooking, fashion and decoration. Daytime programmes are
mainly directed at women since men rarely stay at home during these
hours. In some radio and television stations, women’s programmes are
scheduled in the evening so that working women can also enjoy them.

3.2.12 Religious Programmes

According to Owuamalam (2007: 212) religious programmes are
addressed to the spirituality of humans. They teach morals and use
rhetoric in their arguments, for morality and societal behaviour. They
use various production styles to address their audience. The preacher,
for instance, uses dramatic actions, plot and language, to deliver the
messages in the scripts, like in the Bible or Koran.

The use of music, like gospel music or the moral instructions that appeal
to the conscience of people are examples of how religious programmes
apply various production inputs, to excite its special audience. Ethics
and morality form the basis of religious programmes.

Salama (1978) in Ugande (2006: 22) identifies the following as

categories of religious programmes:
 Brief meditation
 Modified services
 Discussion on spiritual issues
 Religious film programmes
 Bible quizzes or telling stories.

3.2.13 Commercial Programmes

These are radio and television messages that advertise products, services
or ideas of an identified sponsor who has paid a fee for the time-slot.
Commercials use specific appeals to attract the attention of potential
consumers, arouse their interest and elicit consumption action from
them. Commercials rarely last for more than 60 seconds.

The writing of commercial may be undertaken by many people. In the

professional sense, the writing of ordinary copy is undertaken by
advertising agencies. Under this arrangement, the copywriter and art
director are in charge of preparing the copy which will still be subject to
scrutiny before production. Sometimes, however, the writer of
commercials may be employee of a local radio or television station, who
may turn out a series of commercials every week. He or she may write
for as many clients as can come his or her way.
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
Identify the major regular or conventional programmes on radio and
television.

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4.0 CONCLUSION

We cannot exhaust all we need to know about programmes on radio and

television. There is a lot to learn about them. The coming together of all
these programmes at different times within the broadcast day is what
brings out the beauty of broadcasting.

5.0 SUMMARY

This unit has been able to bring out the essence of programmes on radio
and television as well as provided the meaning of the programmes aired
on the broadcast stations. How they can be written and produced are
also discussed.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Select five programmes on radio and television; discuss extensively,

taking into consideration the writing technique and production process
for each of them.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Hilliard, R. L. (1972). Writing for Television and Radio. New York:

Hastings House Publishers.

Moemeka, A. A. (2000). Reporters Handbook: An Introduction to

Effective Journalism. Kearney: Morris Publishing.

Okunna, S. C. (1999). Introduction to Mass Communication. (2nd ed.).

Enugu: New Generation Books.

Onabajo, O. (2000). Fundamentals of Broadcast Journalism. Lagos:

Gabi Concept Ltd.

Owuamalam, E. (2007). Radio – TV Production. Owerri: Top Class

Agencies Ltd.

Ugande, G. (2006). Broadcast Programmes Writing and Production.

Makurdi: AsaGod Printers.

Uyo, O. (1987). Mass Media Messages in a Nutshell. New York:

Civiletes International.

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UNIT 2 SCRIPT WRITING

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Meaning and Importance of Script
3.2 Qualities of a Script Writer
3.3 Script Formats
3.4 Script Types
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

All the programmes produced on radio and television require scripts.

Whether the script is fully written or partially written, it serves as a
guide to a successful programmes production. This therefore,
underscores the importance of the script writer in broadcast programmes
production. The type of script used for different programmes is usually
determined by the nature of the programmes. Some programmes
naturally demand that the script is written fully while others would take
partial scripting. Knowledge of the nature of programmes would help
producers or script writers to know the type of script to prepare and the
format to use. This unit shall consider all these areas.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 tell what a script means

 explain the importance of script
 identify the qualities of a good script writer
 identify the types and formats of script
 write good scripts for radio and television programmes.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Meaning and importance of Script

Owuamalam (2007: 86) defines script as “the building block or the

foundation of programmes in radio, television and film.” It is a

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document, which shows how creative imagination is transferred from

thought to a written form. It translates inspired ideas and illusions, to
reality. It enables the replication of the same ideas, through the adoption
of stated approaches and procedures, in dealing with a preconceived plot
and meaning.

Zettl (2000: 434) agrees that the most important preproduction element
is the script. A good script, he says, tells you what the programmes is
about, who is in it, what is supposed to happen, and how the audience
shall see and hear the event. It also gives you specific clues as to the
necessary preproduction, production and post production activities.
Ugande (2007: 36) adds that a script serves as a basic guide to the
producer, the director, the performer as well as the presenter.

The following reasons which are provided by Bielak cited in Ugande (p.
36) show clearly why scripts are deemed necessary in broadcast
programmes production:

i. Scripts provide smooth, attention-getting beginning and an

effective wrap-up (or conclusion).
ii. Scripts provide accurate, precise timing.
iii. Scripts provide the technical staff with the information they need
to the right picture or sound and story at the right time.
iv. For drama, actors must follow the script of the play they are
portraying, particularly if they have to give exact word cues to
other performers. Such a situation will need a script to be
followed by the actor verbatim.
v. In the interest of national security and for fear of the law
(defamation), most broadcasters use prepared scripts, whenever
possible to ensure accuracy and correct documentation.
vi. Apart from the above reasons provided by Bielak, scripts are
needed in broadcast programmes production because good
extemporaneous speaking which is a desirable skill in
broadcasting is rather a rare skill without a script, it is doubtful if
many a broadcaster will undertake the task of broadcasting with
appreciable success.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
Why do we need scripts in broadcast programmes production?

3.2 Qualities of a Script Writer

The person, who articulates the ideas of a programme in a written form,
is known as the scriptwriter. He is, therefore, the architect in the
production chair of programmes in broadcasting.

A good script writer should according to Owuamalam (2007:90-93)

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exhibits the following characteristics:

1. He must provide the scope and limitations of production. The

script should be capable of directing the programmes producer,
on the expectations of a production, in respect of human and
material resources. The plot, characterisation, scenic descriptions
and language used in the script, can inform the producer on the
availability of resources or the requirements needed to actualise
the script, as a programme for broadcasting.
2. He must deal with an original idea in an interesting and
enthusiastic manner. The originality of the work bestows novelty,
which makes the script unique in its nature. It is the originally
that can arouse production interest, since the potentiality of
attracting audience attention and interest, is assured.
3. He must deal with the production idea in an educative manner
that can appeal to a specific target audience.
4. He should deal with a specific theme, in order to remain focused
in the treatment of an issue. He should be able to explore the sub-
themes in a creative manner, so as to show how various aspects
of the theme can be addressed, to enhance clarity of thoughts and
the facilitation of meaning. The chosen theme should be capable
of producing a vivid picture of the treated subject, to enable a
better appreciation of the actions, inherent in the creative work.
5. He should be able to deal with the plot in an entertaining manner.
Plots as the scheme of actions ought to be logically presented, in
order to enable the audience understand the lessons derivable
from the script, as presented.
6. He must understand the language of the production crew and the
target audience, in order to ensure effective communication. The
information must be informative and purposeful, in the quest for
the achievement of meaning. If he fails to communicate
efficiently with his consumers, the work is as good as dead.
7. He must identify the audience he is writing for. He should
ascertain their artistic needs and then, design his script, so that
the plot, characterisation and language of presentation will be
capable of satisfying the felt-need.
8. He should be competent to assert will precision, the programmes
class, to which his script fits into, in order to attract production
interest. An understanding of a stations programmes production
policy and classification of programmes types, will aid the script
to be considered, since it can fit into a specific schedule.
9. He should be experienced and knowledgeable in how the
broadcast medium operates. An insight into the language and
technicalities of production will enable the scriptwriter to copy-
fit his work into a specific time frame that can accommodate the
script. It means that brevity, conciseness and clarity should be

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applied to make scripts fit into programmes schedules, but

without sacrificing the quality content and its appreciation value.
10. He should be able to create believable characters, actions and
reactions with appropriate language, whether verbal or non-
verbal, in the chosen format of presentation. This requirement
enhances production credibility and facilitates programmes
acceptance.
11. He must show the relevance of the chosen plot to the society,
where it is to be appreciated. Art for art’s sake is not considered
from an audience perspective, since very limited audience may
be attracted, even from the anticipated target group. A script,
which helps to reconstruct society or advises it to take remedial
actions, vital to its development, is best appreciated.

The style of presentation, whether as drama, features, documentary or

even news, should show the interrelatedness of actions to a specific
need of society. The essences of themes, which deal with societal
problems, become vivid.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
What are the qualities of a script writer?

3.3 Script Format

The script format presents a comprehensive view of the nature of the
production. It tells the actions required of participants, as guide to
performance efficiency. The format is dependent on the nature of the
proposed programmes and the experience of the production crew.

The fundamental script formats according to Zettl (2000: 434) and

Owuamalam (2007: 94) should include:

 The fully scripted format

 The partial script format
 The rundown format
 The show format.

1. The fully scripted format

Zettl (2000:434) refers to the format as the complete script. It includes
every word that is to be spoken during a show as well as detailed audio
and video instructions. It does not allow any deviation. News,
commercials and drama use the fully scripted format.

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Example of a fully-scripted drama is as follows

EPISODE 1 TITLE: SUCCESS TRILLS

SCENE 1

CHINAZA IS SEEN ENTERING INTO A SNACK SHOP WITH HIS

DADDY, HE HOLDS THE DADDY’S HAND AS THEY WALK INTO
THE SHOP

DADDY – Bobobo, here is Mr. Biggs, one of the biggest snack shops in
Owerri. I have brought you here to enjoy yourself. Remember the promise I
made to you when you passed your second term examination in Madonna.

CHINAZA – Yes Daddy! You said first is a new bicycle. Second is an

evening at the Imo Concord Hotel and third is a trip to Mr. Biggs.

DADDY – Yes my boy: Here we are!

(they enter the shop, walk towards the counter and meet a female attendant).

HELEN: Sir, what do you want?

DADDY: Boy! Say all you want. Today is your day. HELEN: Why?

DADDY: Because my boy passed his second term examination. He was third
out of fifty-five pupils in primary three.

(they leave the shop after buying snacks).

Culled from Owuamalam (2007: 95) Radio – TV Production,
Owerri: Top Class Agencies Ltd.

The fully scripted drama contains every word of the dialogue and
descriptions of primary characters’ actions. It gives minimal
visualisation and sequencing instructions.

2. The partial script format

This is also known as a semi scripted show format. In general, the
opening and closing remarks are fully scripted, but the bulk of what
people say is only alluded to. Owuamalam (2007:96) adds that the
artiste is given an opportunity to ad-lib, as a means of contributing to
the production, within the frame of the script theme.

Product demonstrations, interviews on specific subjects and educational

programmes, take this format of presentation variety shows involving
various segments of different classes of entertainment, like music,
drama and dance, also follow the partial script format. An example is as
follows:

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TITLE: ARISE AND SHINE

VIDEO AUDIO
MS In today’s edition of “Arise and Shine” we shall Bring
to you the hilarious brothers, the soul singers, the
talking parrot and the global wizards. You are
welcome to the programmes and meet my audience….
[ANCHOR POINTS AT THE STUDIO AUDIENCE]

Pan on MS show audience clapping

CU we shall start with the soul singers in their song Titled

“upside down”… introducing to you, the beautiful
song singers…

MS Show a choral group performing

CU Next on the show is the Hilarious Brothers.

Hey! How come you are pot bellied?...

Show the two brothers

Because we are pregnant and our wives are their
Fathers…..Next time, you will see men in the Maternity
pass through the labour room.

Culled from Owuamalam (2000: 96)

The partial script shows the entire words delivered by the anchor. The
talents ad-lib from their experience but in line with the role they are
expected to play, so as to meet the purpose of the programmes.

3. The rundown format

The rundown format shows the outline of the entire show, from the
beginning to the final fade-out. It shows the order they are to appear and
indicates the accompanying dialogue in a fairly sketching manner
(Owuamalam, p. 97). A well-written run-down sheet or format indicates
each segment, the artiste and its approximate running time.

Rundown format can be used for some musical programmes, magazine

programmes, discussion programmes. Here is an example of a rundown
sheet for magazine programme.

Sequence Item Duration 15’ 00”

1 Signature tune - 0’15”
2 Opening announcement - 0’45”
3 Sports celebrity interview - 1’55”
4 Link announcement and/or music - 0’35”
5 Motor racing interview - 1’30”
6 Link announcement and/or music - 0’35”

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7 Talk on fishing - 2’30”

8 Link announcement and/or music - 0’35”
9 New inventions interview - 0’40”
10 Link announcement and/or music - 2’20”
11 Appeal for blood donors - 2’20”
12 Closing announcement - 0’45”
13 Signature tune - 0’15”
Source: Lee Miles. (1986). Cited in Ugande (2007: 131)

4. The show format

The show format, according to Zettl (2000:436) lists only the order of
particular show segments, such as “interview from Abuja”, “commercial
2”, “book review”. It also lists the major set areas in which the action
takes place, or other points of origination, as well as major clock and
running times for the segments.

A show format is frequently used in studio productions that have

established performance routines, such as a daily morning show, a panel
show, or a quiz show.

Here is an example of a show format.

PEOPLE, PLACES, POLITICS SHOW FORMAT

VTR DATE: 2/3 FACILITIES REQUEST: NTA STUDIO 2

AIR DATE: 2/17 RUNNING TIME: 25:30
DIRECTOR: OBAJE HOST: BAKO OPEN
VIDEO AUDIO
STANDARD OPENING/VTR SOT
EFFECTS #05 ANNOUNCER: The national Orientation
Agency presents “People, Places, Politics”
---a new perspective on global events.
KEY C.G. TOPIC TITLE Today’s topic is…
VTR #: PSAs 1 & 2
OPENING STUDIO SHOT ANGELA INTRODUCES GUESTS
KEY C.G NAMES OF GUESTS
CUs OF GUESTS GUESTS DISCUSS TOPICS
CU OF ANGELA CLOSES SHOW
VTR #: PSAs 3 & 4
CLOSE
KEY C.G. ADDRESS ANNOUNCER: To obtain a copy of today’s
Programmes, write to “people, places, politics,”
National Orientation Agency, Headquarter,
Abuja, E-mail: Noa@gov.org.
KEY C.G. NEEK WEEK Tune in next week when we present:
“Television and Democracy”.
THEME MUSIC UP AND OUT
Adapted from Zettl (2000: 440) Television Production Handbook. (7th
ed.)

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SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
Identify the different formats of script for radio and television
programmes.

3.4 Script Types

The script, as said earlier, is a guide, therefore it does not benefit only
one person, but the whole production team. Since so many personnel are
involved in the production of broadcast programmes, different types of
scripts are needed. Owuamalam (2007:100) identifies the types of
scripts to include: production script; director’s script; floor plan;
lighting design; and acting/presentation script.

 Production scripts
The production scripts emerge immediately after the production
meeting, involving the various unit heads, who converge to discuss the
programmes, its content, its requirements and budget. In the meeting,
participants are introduced to the director by the programme producer.
He also, presents the master script or story line, as a synopsis for the
programme production. It is from the master script that other types of
script can be produced.

A master script is a document, which describes the programme idea,

through a synopsis and a storyline. In the film industry, this is the
screen-script, containing the storyline as the screen play.

 Director’s script
The script directs the interpretative artistes, such as the Director, the
Technical Director and the cameraman, in the television. It also directs
such other artistes in the costume and make-up unit, to produce a list of
required furniture and set, as necessary for the programmes production.

The script shows the floor manager, what is required, so that an

appropriate floor plan can be designed for the programme production.
The director’s script shows the sequence of activities and actions, in
their expected order of presentation. It provides the logical order, which
bestows believability and acceptance to the programmes.

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Example of a director’s script

DOCUMENT: DIRECTOR’S SCRIPT
PROGRAMME “GETTING TO KNOW YOU”
DURATION 30 MINUTES
EVENTS ACTION

1 --------------------- ------- Opening credits and signature tune

2 ---------------------------- Three couple arrive the studio

3 ---------------------------- Couples seated and introduced

4 ---------------------------- Husbands leave the studio

5 ---------------------------- Three women left in the studio and

shown on the screen

6 ---------------------------- Question I asked by the Anchor

7 ---------------------------- Each woman answers the question.

Anchor records each answer

8 ---------------------------- Question II asked by the Anchor

9 ---------------------------- Each woman answers the question.

Anchor records each answer

10 -------------------------- The women leave the studio.

Culled from Owuamalam (2007: 102)

The director’s script modifies the master script as provided by the

producer, to suit the realities of the presentation.

 The technical script

This is the document produced by the various sections of the production
crew. It is interpretative in nature and presented in the language of those
who use it. It could be a sketch, like the floor manager’s floor plan.

The sketch, like the architectural design, shows what should be where,
in the production arena. It indicates the position of lights, cameras,
microphones, sets and furniture. It also shows the location of specific
equipment and machinery as well as the possible directional plots for
camera movement. The essence is to ensure the effective use of the
available space, in order to produce a programme that meets the desire
of the production script.

 The floor plan

The floor plan makes the artistes to understand their activity or action
areas, so that conflict in space utilisation in programme production is
eliminated.

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The floor usually is split into grids or small squares, like the Linoleum
or ceramic tiles, used in covering a standard room. The essence is to
measure accurately, the location and placement of equipment and
furniture on the performance arena, such as a studio. The floor plan
serves the same purpose of space utilisation for equipment, facilities and
talents, in radio.

 Shooting script
Directs camera action and explains the words to be spoken and the
sound to be heard, as either an effect or to be ad-libbed. The script,
therefore, has specific significant columns, such as the activity
sequence; camera takes and positions; action to be covered and the
sound to be heard.

 Camera Script
The shows the camera takes at any time. It also indicates the sequence
of shots, through shot numbers and stipulates, which camera is
involved.

An example of the camera script is as follows:

SHOT CAMERA VISUALISATION

NUMBER NUMBER

1 ------------------------------- 1 -------- CU on credit card stand

2 ------------------------------ 2 -------- Pan on LS, showing three sets of couples

entering the studio

3 ------------------------------ 3 -------- MS of couples seated with the

Anchor

4 ------------------------------ 2 -------- CU of each couple as introduced by the

Anchor

5 ------------------------------ 1 -------- Dolly in on MS, showing the three men

leaving the studio

6 ------------------------------ 2 -------- MS of women seated without their husbands

7 ------------------------------ 1 -------- CU of Anchor asking question one

8 ------------------------------ 2 -------- Pan of CU as each woman gives an answer

and Return to CU on
Anchor as he records their answer.
Culled from Owuamalam (2007: 108)

 The acting script – This shows the lines of dialogue or speech

that are required from each actor in the order the lines are
to be rendered. The script also contains the acting
instructions, within the expected lines for actors, ‘he laughs’,
‘she shouts’ and others.

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The essence is to ensure that words are matched with anticipated

actions, so that the expected dramatic effects on the audience would be
achieved. The Acting script, therefore, makes it easy for actors and
actresses to live the lives of others on stage, with the greatest imaginable
replication. The example of the fully-scripted drama under the script
formats discussed earlier can suffice here.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
Explain the types of scripts you know.

4.0 CONCLUSION

The script is considered to be the roadmap to artistic productions and

performances on radio, television, film and theatre. It serves as the
needed input plan, expected from each group of artistes, in the
production chain of programmes, in broadcasting. The programme
producer in broadcasting, is therefore, expected to use appropriate
language to put the production in the correct perspective. That means
the producer ought to be good in terms of the use of grammar to be able
to pass across the message effectively.

5.0 SUMMARY

This unit identifies script as the document which serves as guides to the
production of broadcast programmes. Script writing is an art that must
be learnt if you want to achieve success. The script could take different
formats – fully scripted, partial script, rundown or show format.
Considering the different personnel in the production of programmes,
there could be different types of scripts. The scripts are written in the
language and manner each performer would understand.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

i. Carefully examine the script formats and produce a programme

script for each.
ii. Why do we need scripts in broadcast production?

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Owuamalam, E. (2007). Radio – TV Production. Owerri: Top Class

Agencies Ltd.

Ugande, G. (2006). Broadcast Programmes Writing and Production.

Makurdi: AsaGod Printers.

Zettl, H. (2000). Television Production Handbook (7th ed.). Australia:

Wadsworth Thomson Learning.

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UNIT 3 BROADCAST PROGRAMMES MANAGEMENT

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 What is Management/Programme Management?
3.2 Programming
3.3 Programmes Promotion
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The business of programme production cannot be properly done if

management does not come in. Management is the process of putting in
place everything – human, time and resources for achievement of set
goals. Programme planning is very essential for successful delivery.
Since programming is an essential ingredient in attracting audience as
well as getting advertisers, it is very important that you understand what
it takes to manage programme production.

This unit, therefore, will look at the general overview of management,

how it relates to programme production. It will also consider
programming which explains how programmes are selected and placed
within the broadcast day. The importance of promotion will also be
stressed here.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 define management
 explain the importance of management in programme production
 discuss programming
 identify the strategies of programme scheduling
 know the importance of promotion in programming.

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3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 What is Management/Programme Management?

Management is a universal concept. It is a very popular and widely used

term. All organisations – business, political, social or cultural are
involved in management because it helps and directs the various efforts
towards a definite purpose.

According to Koontz (2012: 1) “Management is an art of getting things

done through and with the people in formally organised groups. It is an
art of creating an environment in which people can perform and
individuals can co-operate towards attainment of group goals.”
Management is an art of knowing what to do, when to do and see that it
is done in the best and cheapest way.

Management is a purposive activity. It is something that directs group

efforts towards the attainment of certain pre-determined goals. It is the
process of working with and through others to effectively achieve the
goals of the organisation, by efficiently using limited resources in the
changing world.

Management can be a process, just as broadcast programme production

is a process. As a process, management refers to a series of inter-related
function. It is the process by which management creates, operates and
directs purposive organisation through systematic, co-ordinate and co-
operated human efforts. Management is distinct process consisting of
planning, organising, actuating and controlling, performed to determine
and accomplish stated objective by the use of human beings and other
resources.

Management of broadcast programmes implies making the strengths of

people involved in the production productive and their weaknesses
irrelevant. People make things happen for an organisation. People
produce the programmes that justify the station’s existence. Since
management means working at the processes that go into producing a
particular programme, how people interact within these processes is
very important.

O’Donnell, Hausman and Benoit (1989:279) believe that the basic

process of management must start with a simple analysis of what it is
you want to accomplish:
1. Start with the product or service you want to provide.
2. Determine how to produce that product or service; then acquire
the necessary facilities and equipment to produce the product or
service.

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3. Look at the consumer and make adjustments designed to

maximise the appeal of your product to the customer.
4. Hire and manage people to perform the operations that will turn
out the product or service at the necessary level of quality to
satisfy consumers and to achieve the organisation’s goals.

Relating this to the production of programmes, the programmes

manager or producer must first consider the content of the programmes.
What ideas should be put together for the programmes? Determine how
to produce the programmes. What format to use, who should be invited
and how it should be handled. Then look at the audience needs and
interest. Finally, mobilise the people that would help to produce the
programmes.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
What is management and how does it relate to programme production?

3.2 Programming
Programming according to Eastland and Ferguson (2002:4) is the act of
choosing and scheduling programmes on a broadcast station, subscribe
channel or the web. To O’Donnell, Hausman and Benoit (1989:73) it is
the placement of elements with the broadcast day.

Eastman and Ferguson (2003:4) go on to say programming is an

outcome or a process. The process of selecting, scheduling, promoting
and evaluating. Programmes define the work of a programmer. The
essence of programming is to attract large audience for station’s
advertisers.

That is why O’Donnell, Hausman and Benoit (1989:73) describes it as

bait to attract audience. Audience is thus sold to advertisers. Or, it could
be said that programming is a resource used in the production process.
Radio and Television stations generate their product (audience) by
efficient use of the resource (programming). Once the audience is
produced, it is distributed to consumers (advertisers) by means of a
distribution channel, which is also known as the broadcast channel-the
frequencies assigned to the station for broadcast. Audience research is
used to let the advertisers know that a certain quantity of product has
been delivered.

Programming is very key in the management of broadcast programmes.

The primary goal of programming is to maximise the size of an
audience targeted by advertisers. The only way to accomplish this goal
is to satisfy the needs and wants of that audience.

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A step-by-step procedure for the process of programming goes like this:

First, choose programmes that seem to meet the needs and wants of an
audience; second, organise those programmes into a coherent schedule
flow from one programme into the next; third, market the programme to
the appropriate audience; finally, evaluate the results and make
necessary adjustments. This is the basic recipe for cooking the perfect
programme schedule.

At this basic level, programming represents individual programmes that

people choose. Eastman and Ferguson (p.5) liken audience programmes
choice to choosing food. TV Guide or any document that contains the
list of programmes in a station is your menu. The channels are the
restaurants. The shows or programmes are the food.

When people think about food, a seemingly endless combination of

choices is available, but foods all come from a few groups; meat, grains,
vegetables, dairy and fruit. Similarly, programmes originate in a few
types or genres. The prime examples are dramas, news, talk, music,
reality, sports and movies.

Quality or Quantity or Convenience – which does one want? If people

want good food without much wait, they can expect to pay more. If they
want fast food at a low cost, they can expect lower quality. It is the same
with programming. Programme producers can deliver high quality if
audiences are willing to wait for those special events or if they are
willing to bear the cost.

Eating food requires no special skills, neither does the consumption of

media programming. Unlike books, where reading skills are required,
consuming radio and television requires no intelligence at all.

Programming is very unique because it has ease of delivery and there is

no direct cost to the consumer for the most popular programmes.

The process of programming demand that you:

 choose programmes that seem to meet the needs and wants of an
audience
 organise those programmes into a coherent schedule flow from
one programme into the next
 market the programmes to the appropriate audience
 evaluate the results and make necessary adjustments.

3.2.1 Programmes Schedule

Ugande (2006:6) states that a programme schedule shows the
programme that a broadcast station intends to broadcast for a period of
time. Usually broadcast programmes are scheduled on a quarterly basis.

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The schedule shows a daily run-down of programmes in a week

(Monday-Sunday) for three or four months. The schedule is different
from the nation’s running order in that it is not so detailed to include a
minute by minute airing of the nation’s commercials. However the
schedule indicates time, type and duration of the programmes to be
broadcast.

Nwanwene (1995:30) provides the following as some of the benefits

derived from programme scheduling.

 It is used by the station to inform its viewers and or listeners of

types of programmes to expect for a particular period.
 It informs and possibly attract advertiser to place
their advertisement to run at selected programmes airtime.
 It helps the broadcast media not to panic or run into trouble when
there is a sudden withdrawal of sponsorship of commercial
programmes. This is due to the fact that the broadcast station will
always have something to rely on in times like this.

3.2.2 Programme Scheduling Strategies

Faced with a competitive situation in which broadcast stations find
themselves, the need for some strategies in holding their existing
audience and attracting potential audience become paramount. Ugande
(2006:6) provides the following strategies broadcast stations embark
upon in scheduling their programmes:
 Blocking – here, the station uses techniques of scheduling several
programmes, which appeal to the audience back–to-back for two,
three or four hours. As soon as one finishes, another begins. This
has the advantage of giving the audience to the station for a large
number of hours at the expense of other stations.
 Countering – as the name implies, to counter means to bring the
opposite of a thing either said or done. Counter programming
refers to a strategy in which a station schedules a programme
which is entirely different from that scheduled by competing
stations. For example, why station A schedules a children
programmes, station B may counter it by scheduling an adults
programmes at the same time.
 Stripping – in the broadcast parlance, stripping refers to
scheduling a programme to run for a particular time each day,
except for Saturdays and Sundays (weekends). NTA, has
scheduled its major news programmes between 9:00pm and
 10:00pm daily (up to 10:30pm on Wednesdays). This helps the
audience to form a habit of tuning in at particular times of the
weekday
 Checker boarding – this is the direct opposite of stripping. Under
checker boarding, different programmes are aired in the same

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period from Monday to Friday.

 Leading in – under this strategy, a day part (usually stations
divide broadcast day into parts) beginning programmes are made
particularly attractive with all the necessary attention getting
devices such that the audience are led to the beginning
programmes and the other programmes of the part of the day
without necessarily caring to tune into other competing stations.
 Leading out – just as in the lead-in strategy where a starting
programme is made to attract the audience so as to hold their
attention, so is the ending programme of the day part made to
retain the interest of the audience in a particular station. Even
after the part of the day’s programme has ended, the lead-out
strategy seeks to remind us that in scheduling programmes, the
ending is as vital as the beginning. It is only when the audience
still remembers a programme even after it has been long
produced that they will eagerly look forward to yet another from
the same station.
 Head-to-head – in this strategy, the same audience which are
seriously being sought by a competing station, is also being
sought by the scheduling station. For example, if station A
schedules a programme, like drama for children, station B may
wish to schedule music which is most likely to attract or even
win over the children from station A. In another way, the same
programme type can be scheduled by competing stations. For
example, if NTA decides to broadcast news at 7:00pm, AIT
could do the same at that time.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
Explain the different broadcast programme scheduling strategies.

3.3 Programmes Promotion

A promo, short for promotion is used on radio or television to promote a
programme airing on the station. Eastman and Ferguson (2002:3) agree
that promotion is essential to interest viewers (or listeners) in new
programmes and new episodes of continuing programmes, and to retain
audiences by making them feel satisfied with the programmes array. In
addition, millions are spent in paid advertising of programmes in guides,
in other media, and in cooperative marketing endeavours with some
stores and by co-sponsoring concerts and sporting events to attract
audiences to television and radio programmes. Promotion is one path
through the labyrinth leading to high ratings and thus high revenue.

It is true that the best programme without promotion has no audience. If

the audiences do not know what day, what time, and what channel a
programme is on, the old viewers or listeners who miss the show will
have a profound impact on the ratings; if new viewers or listeners do not
see or hear many exciting promos enticing them to watch or listen to a

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station’s shows, that will also have a profound impact on the ratings.
Promotion serves both informational and enticement functions. Some
characteristics that impact the effectiveness of on-air spots- such as the
location of promotional spots within a programme, the position of those
spots within breaks, the distance between the promotion and the
promoted programmes, and the familiarity of the programmes to
viewers or listeners.

Eastman and Ferguson (p.38) reveal that competition for audiences

makes it necessary for programmes to continually produce effective
promotional materials. Promotional spots advertise particular episodes
of a series, special shows, movies, newscasts, or programming.

These promos can be tested before they are aired to find out whether
they communicate what was intended. Promo evaluation can include
online audience samples, group and theatre testing, emphasising such
measures as memorability, credibility, and persuasibility.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
Explain the importance of promotion in programming.

4.0 CONCLUSION

No programmes can succeed when proper care is not taken to ensure

effective production. The programme manager has a lot to do; first is the
planning. Then execution and seeing that the programme is interesting
to people that would want to listen to or watch other editions.
Programmes producers must understand the objectives of the
programmes they are producing know the similar programmes produced
by other stations, understand programming as well in order to win and
maintain the audience broadcast stations earnestly seek.

5.0 SUMMARY

This unit has been able to discuss management in relation to

programmes production. It sees management as a process of bringing
together everything needed to have a successful programme. The right
people must be contacted; the right materials must be put in place as
well. All the equipment necessary for production must be in good shape.
In this unit, programming is also considered as the key element to
meeting audience expectations and satisfying them. For the audience to
know about the programmes in any broadcast station, promotion is
essential.

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6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. What is the importance of programmes?

2. Identify and explain all the programme scheduling strategies.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Eastman, S. T. & Ferguson, D. A. (2002). Broadcast/Cable/Web

Programming, Strategies and Practices. Belmont: Wadsworth
Thomson Learning.

Nwanwene, A. (1995). Radio Production Techniques: An Introductory

Approach. Enugu: Africa-Link Book.

O’Donnel, L. B., Hausman, C. & Benoit, P. (1989). Radio Station

Operations. Belmont: Wadsworth Publishing Company

Ugande, G. B. (2006). Broadcast Programmes Writing and Production.

Makurdi: AsaGod Printers.

Koontz, H. (2012). “Principles of Management: A Study Guide.”

Retrieved on the 12th of September, 2012 from www.amazon.
com

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UNIT 4 PEOPLE BEHIND PRODUCTION

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Producer
3.2 Director
3.3 Presenter
3.4 Cameraman
3.5 Floor Manager
3.6 Audio Mixer Operator
3.7 Vision Mixer Operator
3.8 Graphic Artist
3.9 Set Designer
3.10 Production Editor
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor–Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Broadcast programmes production is usually a team work. So many

people are involved; depending on the type of programmes each
performing a highly specific function. That is why, even if the producer,
for instance, has the knowledge of editing and setting the study ready
for production, he may not be able to do that effectively because of the
demands of his assignments as a producer.

In news production too, you may go out as a reporter to chase news

story with your camcorder, but when you bring the video tape back to
the station, it is the rest of the news department that gets your story on
the air. Someone decides just where in the newscast your story should
be placed; others edit your videotape; put it on the videotape recorder
for playback at a specific time during the newscasts, and ensure that the
final video and audio signals reach the transmitter.

In some stations, so many jobs may be performed by one person

because they do not have the resources to hire many personnel. In most
cases, the jobs are haphazardly done.

For a proper functioning of broadcast stations, the duties of the

personnel must be separated and persons recruited to handle them well.

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This unit therefore, will look at the roles several personnel play in the
production of programmes.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 identify the various personnel working in radio and TV stations

 differentiate technical and non technical personnel
 explain the functions of all the personnel
 identify the position the personnel occupy in the stations
 mention the qualification each of the personnel must possess.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 The Producer

Ugande (2006: 55) says the producer is the person in charge of a

programme and is indeed responsible for it. Many people may be
involved in a programme and many ideas could be expressed. However,
every bit of the programmes is the final responsibility of the producer.
This explains in part, why the producer has to have a higher
commitment to the programmes than the other production personnel.

Owuamalam (2007:169) sees the producer as a creative artist. He or she

conceives programme ideas that may be interesting to the audience. He
or she, therefore, gets the artistic inputs, to satisfy the artistic needs of
the audience. He or she can either create the programme plot or
commissions someone else to execute the creation mimetic experience,
when it is required by the audience.

Owuamalam (2007:170) adds that the producer is the intermediary

between the script and its interpretation, as a creative performance. He
or she generates the programme script as a scriptwriter or he or she gets
a professional to produce a script that matches the programme idea and
the station’s objectives. The producer ensures that the essence of the
process message is actualised, so that the purpose for establishing the
station can be realised. The producer is very much concerned about the
structure, impact and benefits accruing from a broadcast programmes.

The producer is a shrewd official in a broadcast station. He or she

considers cost implication of the required resources to be utilised in a
programme production. He addresses expenditure, based on a cost-
benefit analysis. He understands the tasks to be performed, as a guide to
budgeting and the realisation of process massage, for the achievement of
the programmes objective.

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The producer exhibits an astonishing administrative acumen, as an

efficient co-coordinator of all aspects of the programmes production. He
or she also ensures that time and spaces are provided for the produced
broadcast programme, in the station’s programmes schedule, for
presentation to the audience. For instance, the producer, if not the
director, acquires all the relevant human and material resources, needed
for a programme to be produced.

The producer is an efficient businessman, who strives to use the best

approach, to ensure that the minimal utilisation of available resources
can generate profit to the broadcast station. It is the producer that
attracts sponsorship to programmes, through proposals and sales
promotion strategies. He or she also uses advertising to woo financial
patronage to the programmes.

The producer’s creativity enables the staff to determine the form, which
the programme is to take. He or she also directs the presentation format,
so as to stimulate the interest of the greatest number of an audience, to
the programmes.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
Who is a producer?

3.2 The Director

The director is in charge of directing talent and technical operations. In
his words, Ugande (2006: 7) sees “the director as the chief coordinator
of the production elements. The efforts of all personnel in a television
station finally culminate in the director’s performance material and idea
on the air and making it available to the audience.” This is why it is
often said that the director’s primary responsibility is to the television
audience.

According to Owuamalam (207:163): The primary role of the director is

to understand the message and focus of each script chosen by the
producer, for production. He or she therefore, involves his performance
skills initially to script analysis. This could be why it is believed that the
director is a student, because he is engaged with studying the story, as
the subject; its characterisation, and atmosphere of occurrence in order
to ascertain the crux of the script writer’s vision.

It is at the research stage that the director articulates his directorial style,
which aids the interpretation of the production script. Knowledge of
dramatic literature exposes directors to a world of experience and skills’
development. It provides the director with the opportunity to
understand, compare and assess the various motivations, encountered in
performance actions. The knowledge, therefore, enables the director to

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exhibit an outstanding judgment, in determining the interpretation of

meaning that would best clarify experiences and intensify consumption
desire, for any audience.

The director is in constant search of strategies, to determine audience

preferences, as tonics for performance appreciation. He takes interest in
scenic composition, as an extension of reality; imaginary, as a
replication of subjects; themes and structure, as determinants of
presentation styles. The use of attention getting devices, evident in
motion, facial expressions and sound, are essential.

Primarily, the director works with the cast recruited to perform as

artistes and talents, in the broadcast medium. These non-technical
personnel, or above the-line staff, are cast into roles and rehearsal to
train and become proficient in their contributions to the productions.
The director assists the actors and actresses to adjust to their assigned
roles, through performance instructions and directions.

The director also supervises the performance of the technical crew or

below – the- line staff (camera operators, audio and lighting people,
videotape operator, videotape editors, and CG operators), in the
realisation of the process message of the script.

For instance, he or she ensures that the key light is properly adjusted by
the lighting officer, to focus the facial details of talents; the flood light-
up the performance environment while the back light separates the
subject from the background scenery and eliminates shadows that can
affect meaning.

He or she ensures that the audio console is properly utilised by the

sound engineer to regulate the sound input of production. He or she uses
the various monitors to assess camera shots produced by cameramen.
He also sees how a montage of images, as provided by the technical
director, can produce the anticipated visual impression, desired by the
production.

The director ensures that the final product of a programme conforms to

the script idea and the process message, which define production.

The director writes the shooting script. He/she executes his own orders
as instructions to performers, in the sequence, visualised by him. He
plans productions from economic and aesthetic, perspective. The
shooting script therefore organises thoughts creativity, in a reasonable
and economic sense.

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Also, the director can alter production script directions, without recourse
to the script writer. The realities of production may encourage such an
alteration; he/she can allow an old man stand, while advising his son,
instead of a sitting position. Whereas standing may show urgency and
seriousness, sitting may present a relaxed mood of interaction, as may
be stated in the script.

It is the director’s interpretation of the action, in relation to the

production objective that determines what the audience finally gets to
appreciate. In any circumstance, the message of ‘advise’, as indicated in
the script, must not be lost in directing the said production.

It is important to note that the director is a super spectator, because he

sees in a script, what the ordinary eye may be ignorant about. He or she
visualises the entire production in the mental realm and watches how
artists execute specific assignments, towards the achievement at the
artistic goal of the production. He or she is the first audience of a
performance who sees and reacts to actions of the performers, in a
manner, typical to those of the programme’s target audience he is,
therefore, a critic of his own ingenuity.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
What are the duties of the director?

3.3 The Presenter

There are various types of presenters in a typical broadcast station. They
perform a guidance role, as pathfinders and public relations persons,
through the establishment of a rapport, between a station and its
audience. The presentation needs of specific programmes define their
roles and identify their types. Owuamalam (2007:156-159) identify
them as:
 continuity announcers
 news casters
 commentators
 disc jockeys
 anchors
 narrators
 instructors
 quiz master
 master of ceremony.

3.3.1 Continuity Announcers

They serve as routine announcers in a broadcast station. Their duties
begin with the introduction of the station’s running order for any
broadcast day, at the opening of the station and the intermittent

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interjection of broadcast time, through copious information about what

is to be expected, in each programmes. They introduce programmes
people and situations in broadcasting.

3.3.2 News casters

They are also news readers. They present news as a broadcast
programme. They use appropriate language and performance skills to
ensure exciting presentations to the news hunger audience.

3.3.3 Commentators
They are presenters who handle live programmes, at specific events. It
can be sports, like athletics and football or ceremonies and festivities.
Commentators are wordsmiths. Their creative craftsmanship, in the
establishment of mental images or the clarification of visual ones,
through the use of complementary words that describe actions, is
astonishing.

3.3.4 Disc Jockeys

These are presenters of musical programmes of various classes and
forms. They play musical discs at stations, for the entertainment of the
station’s audience. They are entertainers, whose wits serve as their
greatest asset, in the presentation of artistes and their works.

3.3.5 Anchors
These are presenters who are sometimes known as moderators. They
direct the flow of contributions from talents and personalities in
discussion, interviews and talk shows, they understand each
programme’s objectives and use same, to motivate and direct
participation. Anchors are knowledgeable in the subject they handle and
are swift in reasoning, in order to share knowledge with the participants
in their programmes.

3.3.6 Narrators
These are presenters who give account of a series of events, in a
sequential and orderly manner. They provide the information, which
explains situations in a graphic and interesting manner. Presenters of
documentaries take the audience through the process message in a
persuasive and compelling manner. Short story presenters do a similar
thing by re-enacting and re-experiencing a tale, as their own renditions.

3.3.7 Instructors
There are presenters whose major assignment is to explain processes for
the realisation of a specific goal. It could be how to apply fertiliser to
crops for greater yield. It could also be, the teaching of a specific skill or
subject, in order to enhance the efficiency of its audience, in those
particular areas of knowledge. The instructor as a presenter, provide the

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audience a unique opportunity to understand the reason behind any

action, in the acquisition of skills and knowledge.

3.3.8 The Quiz Master

The quiz master is a producer who assists the audience in sourcing the
riddles of life, through the broadening of the knowledge horizon of the
audience. The primary audience of a quiz master is the studio-based
participants, who represent the wider human society. The presenter of
Who Wants to be a Millionaire, of the NTA is a good example.

3.3.9 Master of Ceremony

This is an announcer that co-ordinates social events on the electronic
medium. A master of ceremony announces the list of dignitaries in an
event. He presents artists to perform at specific points or stages of an
event. He serves as a guide, through the programmes of events. He
announces adjustments to a programme schedule in an event. He
therefore, directs public attention to what is to be expected.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
Identify the different personnel that bear the name “presenter”.

3.4 Cameraman
A television camera, according to Millerson (1978) as cited in
Odetoyinbo (2001:18) is “simply an electronic device that continuously
produces pictures of the scene in front of its lens”. This can be played
back later on video machine. In other words, the pictures require no
further processing like in filming.

A cameraman or camera operator is a professional operator of a film or

video camera. The cameraman is responsible for physically operating
the camera and maintaining composition and camera angles in any
production. Odetoyinbo says the television cameraman ought to possess
the following qualities:
 He must be skillful
 He must have a good sense of shot/picture judgement and
combination (s)
 He must be painstaking
 He must always be alert and confident.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
What qualities must a cameraman possess?

3.5 Floor Manager

The floor manager, as seen by Zettl (2000:392) is the link between the
director and the performer. In other words, he or she is the link between
the control room and all studio activities. The floor manager can tell you

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whether your delivery is too slow or too fast, how much time you have
left, and whether you are speaking loudly enough or holding an object
correctly for the close up camera. In other words, the floor manger
provides time cues, directional cues, and audio cues.

Television floor manager ensures that sets, props and technical

equipment are safe, ready for use and in the right position to filming.

The work of the floor manager is mainly studio-based, but may also
include outside broadcast, depending on the production.

The typical work activities of the floor manager include:

 checking that equipment, e.g. microphones and ear piece are
working before the show
 seating the audience (if in attendance)
 referring to floor plans;
 assisting guests on the show
 relaying, instructions from the control room to the studio floor
using a talkback system
 keeping the director and producer informed of action off-camera
 assisting in the planning and preparation of productions
 overseeing the work of other departments such as sound, lighting
and props
 rehearsing line shows
 giving cues and time counts to presenters, actors or guests
 organising runners to make the best use of studio time
 looking ahead in the programme schedule to anticipate any
changes to the set or to see what props are required later in the
show
 dealing with any technical problem
 controlling the studio and halting production if necessary.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
Identify the duties of the floor manager.

3.6 Audio Mixer Operator

Radio transmits only audio or sound while televisions transmit audio-
visual. The audio mixer is needed in both radio and television.

The audio mixer operator, according to Odetoyinbo (2001:24) controls

the audio console during both recording and transmission of
programmes. He or she necessarily must not be an engineering staff. In
some stations, they are not engineering staff, but belong to production
services.

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During recordings, the audio mixer operator sits at the audio console
and listens to the director’s command. He or she has been trained to be
aware of the metre combinations/devices on the console as regards the
level of the sound. He or she, from time to time, corrects the sound level
on the console during recordings/transmission of programmes.

The audio mixer operator must have a good sense of sound

combinations in terms of bass, alto and so on. He or she must be aware
and able to judge the right rhythmical level of the sound that the viewers
must enjoy at home. He/she is a professional in the field. In radio
broadcast, the studio manager may be in charge of sound.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Who is an audio mixer operator?

3.7 Vision–Mixer Operator

The operator of vision mixer is only present in TV stations. A vision
mixer (also called video switcher or production switcher) is a device
used to select several different video sources and in some cases, mix
video sources together to create special effects. This is similar to what a
mixing console does for audio.

Like the operator of the audio-mixer. The operator of vision mixer also
sits by the vision console and listens to the director’s command during
recording. He has the mastery too, at all types of shots. Such as long
shots (LS), medium shots (MS) and so on. He has the ability to think
along and visualise with the director during recordings. He must be
skillful with his job. He must be a master of the vision console.

However, in some TV stations, the director does the directing and mixes
the shots during recordings. The two (vision mixer operator and
transmission director) are separated during programme transmission.
The main job of the vision mixer operator is to listen to the command of
the director and punch on air various forms of shots and any other
effects deemed fit, such as wipe, mix, fade in or out and so on.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
Who is a vision mixer operator?

3.8 Set Designer

This according to Odetoyinbo (2001: 20) is a designation that is also
referred to as “scenic designer” or “art director”. He is usually pre-
occupied with set design and construction in television production. The
producer/director is always in contact with the designer. The various
scenes or stages are planned along at the pre-production stage. There

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must be a smooth language communication between the designer and

the producer as regards the production under plan.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
What role does the set designer play in programme production?

3.9 Graphic Artist

A graphic artist is a professional with the graphic design and graphic
arts industry who assembles together images, typography of motion
pictures to create a piece of design. Some people are born artist while
others acquire the skills. To qualify as graphic artist for television
production, you must possess these qualities, as provided by Odetoyinbo
(p.21):
 be painstaking
 ability to visualise ideas easily
 good sense of pictorial judgment
 talented and ready to be abreast of day to day to television
graphic styles/techniques
 creative, and
 a good sense of beauty and finesse.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
What qualities must a graphic artist possess for television production?

3.10 Production Editor

The production editor puts final finesse into such productions that have
‘roughs’ which are at times referred to as “rushes”. The VCR editor,
unlike the news editor, makes use of the editing console in linking and
making meaningful result out of the rushes of a production.

The production editor always has the director and or the producer beside
him or her when editing. He or she also uses the editing script to guide
him or her. The editor puts the various shots and cut-every shots into
meaningful visuals/sound thereby bringing about the real message the
producer/director wants. The editor also knows the uses of the various
types of shots. In fact, he/she must painstakingly complement the
various shots, sound and effects with the message the programme is out
to convey.

The work of the production editor at the post production stage is very
invaluable. In fact, he or she is the anchor person of the post-production
stage. The editor must have the sense of visualisation like the producer
and the director of TV programmes (Odetoyinbo, 2001: 6).
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
Identify the role of the production editor in programme production.

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4.0 CONCLUSION

Radio and television programme production cannot be done without

people. Even with the most sophisticated equipment and computer,
human beings are still important. The equipment cannot make ethical
and aesthetic judgement for us; it cannot tell us exactly which part of the
event to select and how to present it for optimal communication.
Therefore, production personnel are highly regarded in every broadcast
production.

5.0 SUMMARY

The production personnel are primarily concerned with the non-

technical elements of production, such as script writing and directing.
While the technical production personnel are primarily concerned with
the operation and maintenance of the equipment. All these work
together to give every production a unique and beautiful touch for the
enjoyment of the audience. Care must be taken that the roles each of the
personnel ought to play are played effectively. Regardless of the
specific functions of the technical and non-technical personnel, they all
have to interact as a team.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Visit a radio and a television station and:

 take a look at their audio mixer and vision mixer respectively

 identify the features in each
 explain how they function
 discuss the roles of the operators.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Odetoyinbo, A. (2001). Basic Broadcast Production Techniques.

Abeokuta: NICOLAK Ventures.

Owuamalam, E. (2007). Radio-TV Production. Owerri: Top Class

Agencies Ltd.

Ugande, G. (2006). Broadcast Programmes Writing and Production.

Makurdi: AsaGod Printers.

Zettl, H. (2000). Television Production Handbook. (7th ed.). Australia:

Wadsworth Thomson Learning.

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MODULE 4 PRODUCTION PROPER

In the most basic terms, production means the use of studio equipment
to combine both audio and audio/visual signals to have a finished
product. The physical act of production involves recording with
microphones, taking shots with cameras, use of tape-recording and
playback equipment, routing and mixing of audio and visual signals
through broadcast console and a whole lot.

But the real thrust of production transcend physical actions. Production

in modern radio and television involves creating a special and evocative
effect – a finished product and communicates a feeling and a message.

That is why this module explains the basics of production. It takes a

look at the production procedure, goes through the stages of
development, looks at the elements of production and how these
elements work together to produce appealing programmes.

Unit 1 Production Procedure Unit 2 Stages of Production

Unit 3 Elements of Production
Unit 4 Shooting Techniques/Camera Movement
Unit 5 Television Lighting

UNIT I PRODUCTION PROCEDURE

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Investigating an Idea
3.2 Producing the Show
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Every programme produced on radio or television starts with an idea.

Another edition of a particular programme would not be the same as the
first, because a different message is meant to be passed. Therefore each
programme produced is unique. In spite of the unique nature of radio
and television programmes, there are certain procedures that need
necessarily be followed. Production procedures according to Ugande

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(2006:62) are the steps involved in converting ideas into a series of

audio-visual elements.

It could also be the conversation of ideas into audio. The procedure

considered in this unit, however, is more tilted towards television
production.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 explain the art of producing broadcast programmes

 identify the steps to take in production
 identify the various personnel involved in any production
 know when to schedule programmes for target audience
 prepare budget to cover the production of any programmes.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Investigating the Idea

In producing a programme, it is important that a producer investigate
the idea for what he intends to pass across to the audience. The
programme needs to be narrowed down to manageable proportion.
Investigation period is the time the validity of the idea conceived by the
producer is determined. At this time, several questions need to be
answered by the producer to enable him or her determine such validity.
Questions likely to crop up, as recognised by Zettl (1968:408-9) are:

 Does the idea seem particularly exciting? If so, why? If not, why
not?
 What are the potentials of this idea? Is the idea per se sound
enough to justify further investigation?
 If the idea were developed into a television show, what, if
anything, would the viewer gain by it?
 Why should you like to present this idea? What are your
objectives?
 If you develop this idea into a television show, what obvious
production problems must you consider?

You should note that not every idea that can be put into radio or
television programme production. Some ideas may come out successful,
with good aural and visual impact, but others may not. When beautiful
and logical ideas are presented, the audience feels happy, because such a
programme would have been able to meet their desire for information,
education and entertainment needs they seek from mass communication.

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Any idea that does not have substance will result in the production of
uninteresting programmes which will make your audience to tune to
other stations whenever your programme is on air.

Your ability to answer the question guide provided by Zettl will help
you bring out a successful production of the idea.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
What questions should you bear in mind when investigating an idea?

3.2 Producing the show

In producing the show, so many things come to play. Zettl (1968:409-
13) identifies them as:

 material
 cost
 script
 talent
 technical facilities
 commercial
 material clearances
 production coordination and rehearsal schedules
 publicity and promotion

3.2.1 Material
The materials of production to be determined by the producer include:

i. Audience - What type of audience do you want to reach – men,

women, family, teenagers, students, children?
ii. Time - What time would be ideal for your target audience? –
morning, noon, afternoon, late afternoon, evening, weekend?
What are your extreme time limits? What compromises are you
prepared to make?
iii. Selection of material – You need to always put emphasis on good
content of material. Does the proposed material convey your
original idea? Has your material good literary content? Good
visual content? Will the chosen material be interesting to your
audience?
iv. Research – Availability of material must be considered. Do you
have the time for necessary research? If not, do you have skilled
people to do the job? Have you explored all possible research
facilities, such as libraries, museums, art galleries, schools,
newspaper, chambers of commerce and other civic and state
institutions, professional organisations, and film libraries? Give
some thought to what properties and other visual material the

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show will require.

v. Method of presentation – What is the intended style of the
presentation? What type and number of performers and actors
do you need? Ask yourself whether the proposed method of
presentation will hinder or aid the original idea. Try to make the
presentation as exciting as possible, yet try to keep it as simple as
possible. In most cases you will find that effectiveness and
simplicity go hand–in-hand. What is the proposed length of your
show? If you can express an idea quite thoroughly in 15 minutes,
don’t try to expand the show into a ninety minute. Where does
your show originate? Studio? Remote? Are you familiar with the
technical potentials and limitations of the peculiar studio or
remote location?
vi. Production conference – Call your first production conference as
soon as possible. The following people should be called into the
first conference producer, assistant producer, director, associate
director, art director, technical director, and floor manager.
Frequent production conferences with production and technical
people are very important and, in the end, save time. Don’t attend
the conference unprepared, thinking that everything will work
out all right. It won’t. Be specific about all production problems.

3.2.2 Cost
Under this, the producer needs to know the available budget. Who pays
whom and how much money is required for the payment. Salama
(1978:64) advises that producer should make a tentative budget.
According to him, there are two separate budgets – above–the-line and
below–the–line budgets. Above-the-line deals with non-technical
personnel like writers, producers, directors, talent, art director,
announcer or presenter, etc. while the technical facilities like studio
cameras, scenery, graphic material and properties are listed below–the-
line. As soon as he gets the go-ahead, he should select his above–the–
line personnel, especially a director who is sufficiently sensitive to the
programme topic, unless the producer is also the director, in which case
he will handle the programme personally. He has to select proper talent
for the programme.

3.2.3 Script
In most cases, the producer writes the script. If someone else writes the
script, as a producer, you need to be discriminating in the choice of the
writer. You should note that the quality of the writer is not determined
by the amount of money he requires. Make sure he understands fully
every detail of your proposed show. If your writer disagrees with your
original idea (without coming up with a better one) don’t use him. The
script he will produce may be technically good, but will probably lack
inspiration and enthusiasm.

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3.2.4 Talent
In most instances, you will have the talent in mind when you write the
script. However, if you have to cast the talent, consult the director of the
show. In general, you can always rely on professional television talent,
but don’t be afraid to give newcomers a chance; at least in the audition
these newcomers may surprise you with excellent, inspiring
performances.

3.2.5 Technical Facilities

Part of the production procedure that must not be skipped is checking
that technical facilities are ready for use.

 The sets need to be designed for the television camera and not
the studio audience. That is to say, the sets should never
dominate the show. Scenery is strictly a supporting element.
 Graphic materials - All graphic materials, such as slides, studio
cards, telops, credit crawls, maps, charts, and mounted pictures,
are usually ordered in connected with the set plan. Watch for
unity of style in all visual (and audio) material.
 Properties, make-up, and wardrobe – make sure that dressing and
make-up rooms are available for rehearsal and show times, or
that you provide adequate make-up and wardrobe facilities.
 Cameras- the director will decide on the number of cameras,
special camera pedestals, lens complements, and special effects
items.
 Audio – the director also decides on necessary audio equipment.
 The number and type of microphones and their placement for
desired radius and flexibility; music, live and recorded; and
special audio effects.
 Lighting – the lighting engineer will care of normal studio
lighting.
 Special production facilities and effect- you must inform the
engineering department of any special requests for video and
audio tape facilities, telephone beeper hookups, special films, etc.
the director will take care of special effects, mechanical and /or
electronic.

3.2.6 Commercial
You need to know if your show is sponsored. If it is, how will the
commercials be presented – live, film, or video tape? Check with the
sales department and advertising agency on the what, when, and how of
the commercials presented. Double-check on each commercial item.
Even a ten-second spot announcement involves large sums of money.
Make sure the commercial properties are delivered in time.

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3.2.7 Material Clearances

You need proper clearances for recordings as well as the performance of
written music. You need to make sure your script does not violet any
possible copyrights. If you are incorporating a copyright material, be
sure to get proper clearances from authors, publishers, literary agents,
photo agencies, etc. you also have to be sure that before you go into
rehearsal, the material is well suited for radio or television presentation.
Sometimes a script reads well but may become objectionable when
presented in a certain manner. Your programme has to be in good taste.
It has to comply with the stipulation of National Broadcasting
Commission’s code.

3.2.8 Production Coordination and Rehearsal Schedules

The production procedure also recognises script distribution. Your script
must be properly distributed to all persons concerned; copies must go to
master control, announcer, art director, technical director, lighting
engineer, floor manager, floor man, associate director, assistant
producer, all talent, and the director. You also need to make facilities
request contain all you need for the production and make sure that the
facilities requests reach the various departments before each
department’s deadline. You also have to ensure that the director
schedules rehearsals as early as possible. Indicate the type of

3.2.9 Publicity and Promotion

The function of the Publicity and Promotion Department is to minimise
the gap between the potential and the actual audience. In other words,
publicity and promotion are designed to inform all radio and television
sets owners of upcoming programmes and to stimulate them to time in
these programmes. The higher the number of actual listeners or viewers
in relation to set owners, the higher the rating figure will be. Although
the quality and success of your show are not necessarily expressed by
high ratings, it is still desirable to reach as many listeners or viewers in
your desired audience as possible. Be sure, therefore, to inform your
publicity and promotion people of exact data concerning your show.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
Identify the materials you need in producing a show.

4.0 CONCLUSION

Successful production is the joy of every producer. The audience are

also satisfied when the programmes meet their needs. For any
programme to be successful, production procedure must be followed.

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5.0 SUMMARY

The producer is the organiser of broadcast shows. He creates show ideas

and prepares the necessary material for on-the-air production. The
producer, then, must be concerned with the investigation of the validity
of an idea for broadcast presentation and with production procedures.
These procedures include, in general, the following steps: materials;
cost; script; talent; technical facilities; commercials; material clearances;
rehearsal schedules; and publicity and promotion procedures.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. What production procedure would you have to consider in the

production of a half-hour television show, featuring the latest
fashion?
2. At what time would you air programmes for children? Give
reasons for your timing.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Salama, G. (1978). Television in a Developing Country. Jos:

Government Printer.

Ugande, G.B. (2006). Broadcast Programmes Writing and Production.

Makurdi: AsaGod Printers.

Zettl, H. (1968). Television Production Handbook. (2nd ed.). Australia:

Wadsworth Thompson Learning.

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UNIT 2 STAGES OF PRODUCTION

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Pre-Production Stage
3.2 Production Stage
3.3 Post Production Stage
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Programme production can be likened to the production of meal for

some guest. First, you begin by deciding on the meal to prepare, then
you get the key ingredients to be mixed at the right time and in the right
quantity. Once the meal is prepared, you present the food items you
have prepared in different utensils, ready to be served on the dining
table.

Programme production also follows those stages- the stage of arranging

for the preparation, actual preparation, and presentation.

In this unit, you will learn the three stages of programme production –
pre-production, production and post production.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 classify the three stages of programme production

 explain the production process
 explain the job of the producer at the different stages of
production.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Pre-Production
This stage includes everything you do before entering the studio or
reaching the shooting location. It involves idea generation, research,
scripting, discussions with all the crew members and talents (actors)

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arranging equipment, video/audio tapes, properties, costumes, sets

designing or location hunting and booking of editing shifts.

The first thing to know about any and every production is what you
want the programme to look like, just like you need to know what you
want to cook. This is the pre production stage. You need a clear idea of
what you want to make. Only then will you be able to make a good
programme, understandable by the audience. Once the idea is clear, the
next stage is how to get from the idea to the television image or for
radio sound. To translate an idea on screen effectively you need a good
and detailed script.

In all, it involves planning everything in advance. Owuamalam

(2007:115) agrees that every pre-production begins with planning.
Planning he says, commences as soon as the programme objective is
established. For instance, the introduction of organic fertiliser to rural
farmers can excite the Ministry of Agriculture or the world Food and
Agriculture Organisation (FAO), as an idea for improving food
production. Consequently, a programme production plan is determined
to ascertain how best to get the message across to the farmers. Such
questions like, what class of farmers are to be reached - subsistence or
plantation agriculture farmers? Where do they live and work? What
language do they understand? What time can they be reached for
maximum result? All answers to the questions direct the plans for
efficient programme production.

The radio makes it possible for the message to be translated and

presented in the language and even dialect, of the intended target
audience. The instructional approach to education can then be adapted
to suit the presentation of the messages, concerning fertiliser and their
applications.

Owuamalam (2007:116) describes planning as the process for the

selection of strategies and methods for achieving a stated objective. It
involves the analysis of the target audience to be reached, in order to
ascertain how best to reach them. It facilitates the setting of budgets and
the provision of monitoring measures, determined to ensure task
accomplishment. It involves the development of programme format and
the presentation of messages in specific forms, to suit the intended
target.

Planning enables the co-ordination of men, material and time, in the

most appropriate manner, in order to achieve any anticipated result. It
provides templates or gauges, for evaluating performance. It involves
the determination of what is to be done, how it can be done, when to do
it and whose responsibility it should be, to do it. It is the key to success,

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since it rationalises reasons for any action undertaken to achieve an

objective.

Owuamalam (2007:116) further says that the programme planning

begins with the identification of the objective. The objective may be
comprehensive or broad based, to accommodate the mission or purpose
of the broadcast station. Programme planning also involves the
classification of production objectives as they affect the interest of a
broadcast station.

Programme planning identifies alternative ways of achieving the

objective or contributing to their achievement. For instance, what
approaches exist for showing government’s performance in road
construction and rehabilitation in a state? Programme planner could
conceive a documentary approach, through which a comprehensive
review of road networks, before and during the tenure of a regime,
could be appreciated. The planner could use a discussion programme, to
talk to the audience, through the views of other citizens, participating in
the programme.

Programme planning also evaluates cost and the benefit accruing with
each programme format. Just as we discussed in the previous unit under
the production procedure, determining the cost of production is very
important. It is good for the producer to know what the programme will
cost before venturing into it. If the available fund for the programme is
small, the format of a particular programme could be changed to take
few personnel and materials.

At the pre-production stage, script selection is crucial. The choice of an

appropriate script for a specific target audience is the function of the
producer. The script must provide in its content, those attributes which
meet the satisfaction of the audience.

Casting is done during the pre-production stage. Owuamalam

(2007:129) sees casting as the choice of persons capable of performing
specific roles in a believable and acceptable manner in broadcasting. It
is the placement of persons for identification roles in the realisation of
broadcast objectives, based on well-defined qualities and characteristics.
The talents or cast could be chosen by trying out on certain roles as
shown on the script or by making them pass through an audition.

As part of the preparation for the actual programme production, there is

need for a production conference. All the persons participating in the
production are invited. The essence of the meeting is to explain the
purpose and content of a performance. The desired process message of
the production is articulated and explained, so that every participant can

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visualised how his or her contribution would assist the realisation of the
production objective. Then production schedule, showing the activities
that should take place, in order to realise the production of a programme
is made known. Rehearsals are also scheduled. The director then takes
over from the producer. The stage is now set for the actual production.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
How is the pre production stage handled?

3.2 Production
At this stage, it is expected that all plans have been finalised.
Odetoyinbo (2001:63) says, “it is the stage that the producer/director as
the case may be, confirms what is on the screen with what has been
lingering in his or her mind long ago before all meetings, paper work,
bookings, negotiations and so on.”

Owuamalam (2007:137) also says it is the stage where the recording of

the programme is made. The recording takes place, either in the studio
or as a remote, in the field. It can also take place, partly in the studio and
party in the field, depending on the stipulation. In which ever case, the
programme producer is expected to ensure that the equipment and
facilities needed for the performance are booked and secured for use as
may be required. The staff and personnel involved in the production are
also expected to be assembled at the locations, where their services are
required, in readiness for the recording. They are to play the roles
rehearsed and corrected earlier, in the pre-production stage.

The programme producer supervises the last run through, to ensure that
nothing is left to chance. The floor manager ensures that all the
equipment and property, expected to be used, are placed at the proper
position, in the studio. The lighting officer checks the lights and their
positioning; the sound officer checks the microphones and their
locations; the cameraman check the functioning of the camera; the
vision and sound mixers, ensure that the switchboard and consoles are
functional and ready for the production.

The art director ensures that the scenic designs and locations of
performance enhance the believability of the production experience. The
technical director ensures that the camera control unit and sound inputs
are properly functional. Any equipment or facility found inadequate or
non-functional is immediately addressed, so that the programme
production can commence as planned.

During recordings, the producer, who may also serve as the director,
stays in the equipment room with the technical Director, to watch the
inputs from monitors and listen to sound from the loudspeaker, designed

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for the purpose. He ensures that the pictures and sound obtained match
the visualisation of the production script and should be capable of
producing the process message, of the programme. Any mistake in
performance is promptly corrected, through breaks in recording and
adjustments in the presentation, as may be necessary.

Re-takes are ordered, so that amends in the shooting of images, pictures

or adjustments in sound levels and effects, can be made. It is the re-
takes that enable corrections to be effective during editing. They also
provide options, which assist the producer to choose the appropriate
audio-visual components that match the programmes idea, as capable of
producing the exact process message.

The producer must be conversant with the languages or jargons of the

cameramen, like with the framing and production of the fundamental
units of picture frames, such as CU, MS, LS and their various
derivatives. He should understand the technical directors, in takes and
camera movements, like dolly, pan, tilt and the others. He should know
the meaning of any used transitional device, like cut, fade, dissolve and
wipe, as well as their variations.

The producer is also expected to be abreast with the floor manger’s

cues, like hand cues or body language. The prompting devices, available
for use in a production, like crib cards, idiot sheets or Teleprompters
must be identified and understood, in order to ascertain their relevance
to the performance.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
Mention the requirement of the production stage.

3.3 Post Production

According to Owuamalam (p.139-140), programme production
terminates with the completion of the storyline or programme plot, in a
recorded tape either for radio or television. The recorded tape is
obtained and reviewed with an editor, to identify the wanted and
unwanted portions. Any section of the tape that requires embellishment
like the addition of special effects, is identified. The appropriate effect
obtained and included is added through the insert editing process, so
that the storyline is not distorted in any obstructive manner.

The editing process ensures that errors are eliminated, progressions, and
sequencing, follow a logical and believable approach; programme
duration and characteristics, fit the expectations of the channel of
presentation, like radio or television, and that the programme length,
matches the slot allocated to it, in the station’s programme schedule.
The edited tape, originating from the master tape obtained during

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recording, is dubbed and duplicated to serve the stations requirements.

They are appropriately logged and distributed as expected, for use and
transmission.

The transmission of the recorded programme marks the end of the

production processes of the broadcast programmes. It is the
responsibility of the producer to ensure that the tape is scheduled for
transmission and actually use, as provided- presentation, monitoring and
certification, signify the end of programme production.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
What activities take place in the post production stage?

4.0 CONCLUSION

Programme production is not done haphazardly. It must be properly

planned. The process has to be followed logically to ensure success of
the programme. Otherwise, the programme will not meet the taste of the
audience it is meant to satisfy.

5.0 SUMMARY

This unit chronologically presents how broadcast programmes are

produced, right from idea generation to presentation of the programmes
on radio and television stations for the audience. Thus, three stages of
production were considered – pre-production, production and post
production.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Identify and explain the features of each of the stages of production and
the duties of the producer at each stage.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Odetoyinbo, A. (2001). Basic Broadcast Production Techniques.

Abeokuta: Nicolak Ventures.

Owuamalam, E. (2007). Radio – TV Production. Owerri: Top Class

Agencies Ltd.

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UNIT 3 ELEMENTS OF BROADCAST PRODUCTION

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Radio Production Elements
3.2 Television Production Elements
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In radio and television programme production, certain elements are

needed, which characterise these media. They are the primary, technical
and production potentials that are required in broadcast production. You
need to be aware of them and how they are used. Some of the elements
that are utilised in radio can also be used in television, but for the
purpose of this unit, we will classify them into radio elements and
television elements, based on how relevant they are to each of the
media.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 identify the elements of radio production

 identify the elements of television production
 mention the characteristics of the elements
 explain how they function and their relevance in programme
production.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Elements of Radio Production

Reese, Gross and Gross (2006:185) observe that radio production
centres on sound, but you must stimulate the listener’s imagination to
truly get them to listen to your message. Since the listeners or audience
cannot see what you are saying, your production should be able to create
a picture of what is going on. To accomplish this you need to
understand the following basic elements of radio production:

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 the radio studio

 microphone use
 music
 sound effects (or natural sound)
 silence/dramatic pause.

3.1.1 The Radio Studio

If you go to most radio production studios, they are built with a U-
shaped layout or some variation of it because this allows the operator to
reach all the equipment control surfaces, and puts the operator
immediately in front of the audio console. With the use of remote
start/stop switches for any equipment that is out of arm’s reach of the
operator, all equipment manipulation can occur at the audio console
once everything has been set up and cued.

Akpan (2006:109) notes that the size of the radio studio and its acoustic
treatment may affect programme production. If a studio is not properly
equipped acoustically, the possibility of achieving the sensitivity of
sound planned for the production will be slim. That is why Ijwo and Ogi
(2011:31) say the radio must have acoustic board that helps to prevent
sound outside the studio from coming in to interrupt radio production.
Acoustic boards like insulation material that help amplify the quality of
sounds produced in the studio to come out well and aid the microphone
to pick it up well. It is also necessary to use split units air conditioners
in the studio, because in a closed environment where there are no
windows for ventilation, they are usually sound proofs.

In constructing the radio production room, consideration should be

given to the height, width, and length dimension. Cubic construction
should be avoided when possible. Consideration of the materials to use
is also important. Doors should be heavy-duty and highly sealed; ceiling
and flooring should use special sound treatment materials. The purpose
of any sound proofing material is to help give the studio a dead sound.
Sound proofing absorbs and controls excess reverb and echo and help
produce a softer sound (Reese, Gross and Gross, 2006:6).

A radio studio has two categories:

On air studio
This is a live studio i.e. programmes are produced live and sent directly
to the transmitters for immediate reception by the audience e.g. news,
discussion, etc. There is usually a light in the studio entrance to show
that production is going on in the studio.

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Recording studio
This studio is usually used for recording programmes that would be
aired at a later time

3.1.2 Microphone Use

The microphone is an equipment that has a special place in radio
broadcasting. It is the first element in the audio chain. It is the piece of
equipment that changes the announcer’s voice into an electrical signal
that can then be mixed with other sound sources and sent to a recorder
or broadcast over the air.

Because the purpose of the microphone is to change sound energy into

electrical energy, it is called a transducer, which is a device that
converts one form of energy into another. O’Donnell, Hausman and
Benoit (1989:123) describe the process of changing sound into a form in
which it may be transmitted as transduction.

Transduction, according to them, involves two basic steps; first, the

sound is converted (encoded), in this case, into an electrical pattern.
Second, the electrical signal travels through a channel that allows the
encoded sound to get from the point of transmission to the point of
reception.

The element of a microphone, for example, moves in response to

vibrations of air produced by sound energy. The movement of the
microphone (mic) element through a magnetic field produces an
electrical pattern that corresponds to the original sound wave.

The electricity pattern produced by the microphone corresponds to the

pattern of the original sound. In the form of electricity, a signal is
conducted along a cable to a broadcast transmitter. There it is
transduced again into a pattern of electromagnetic energy. These ratio
waves are produced by rapidly alternating electrical current generated
by the transmitter. The encoded sound wave travels into the atmosphere,
where it then can be detected by radio receives.

You need to know that certain production require more than one kind of
microphones. The number of microphones required is dependent on the
sophistication of the programme and what the producer intends to
achieve.

Reese, Gross and Gross (2006:63) note that there is no one correct
microphone to use in radio production work, but specific types of
microphones will work better than others in certain situations. For
example, a microphone that is perfect for voice-over work in the studio
may not work well for recording a sound effect in the field.

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Microphones are usually described by the two key specifications - their

electrical operation and their pickup pattern. Categorised by their
internal, sound-generating element, there are two types of microphones
commonly used in radio: the dynamic microphone and the condenser
microphone.

There are five basic microphone positions that must be considered in

radio production. These, according to Ugande (2006:45) and Akpan
(2006:108) include: on mike, off mike, fading on, fading off and behind
obstruction.

First, on mike-here, the performer speaks from a position right at the

microphone. This makes the listener believe that the performer is in the
same physical setting with him or her.

The second is the off mike position – in this position, the performer
speaks from some distance away from the microphone. Here the listener
is made to believe that the performer or speaker is some distance away
from him or her.

The third is fading on – in this position, the performer moves to the

microphone. In the listener’s imagination (feeling), the performer is
moving towards the physical center of the action.

The fourth is the fading off – here, the performer moves away from the
microphone while delivering his or her lines in the scene of action.

Finally, the fifth is behind obstruction – in this aspect, the performer’s

voice sounds as if there is an obstruction between him or her. This is the
feeling the listener would have. It is important for the writer to indicate
whether the performer is behind a door, outside a window or whatever is
capable of causing the obstruction.

Apart from microphone positions, special microphones are utilised to

create different impressions. These include (1) filter mike which creates
the impression that voice is coming over a telephone (2) echo chamber
which creates echo sound.

3.1.3 Music
Music plays an important role in radio production. For that reason, radio
writer are expected to be conversant with its uses. Akpan (2006:111)
notes that there cannot be a radio programme without music. This is
because music is an integral part of radio programming. According to
Akpan (2006:111) music can be used in radio production for
background, as content, for sound effect and signature tune.

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Background
It serves as an aid to programmes as it has effect on the audience though
the listener may not realise it. It is advisable for a producer not to use
well-known music as background for a programme as this may distract
the audience from listening to the dialogue of the programme.

Content
Music serves as programme content just as we have news programmes
discussion programmes, we also have music programmes.

Sound effect
Some musicals are used to heighten sound effects in programmes. This
is because some sound effects cannot be incorporate into a programme
without music.

Signature tune or theme music is often used as a cue for a programme or

programme identification. The signature is usually used at the beginning
of a programme and at the end to close the programme.

Besides these four usage identified by Akpan, music can serve as time
filler and as bridge or interlude between two programmes or within a
programme to separate the segments.

3.1.4 Sound Effects

Sound effects are seen by O’Donnel, Hausman and Benoit (1989.190)
as the “scenery and physical actions” of radio. They are used by a
producer when there is a legitimate need for a message – reinforcing
device or to inject a needed bit of drama into a scene. That is, it helps to
visualised action taking place. For example, the sound of a telephone
ringing or door opening creates an instant mental image.

Reese, Gross and Gross (2006:185) identify two kinds of sound effects
– atmosphere or stingers. Atmosphere sounds are employed to create a
natural environment, such as using seagull cries and crashing waves to
set the scene at the ocean shore. Sound effects stingers are individuals,
short, sharp sounds designed to capture immediate attention, such as
glass crashing, a gunshot, or an alarm going off.

Series of sound effects could be recorded in CD’s for use or a producer

may record natural sound live as part of the overall production. You
need to always remember that whatever sound effect you choose to use,
the audience should instantly recognise it.
Ugande (2006:47-48) recognises the following as uses of sound effect:

Establishing a setting or locale

Sound effect can help establish a locale by making the listener identify
the place or location of the scene.

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Establishing time
Through sound effects, the time of the day or night can be ascertained.
The crowing of the cock may indicate the coming of dawn to the
listener.

Signifying entrances and exists

The sound of footsteps fading off and the opening and closing of a door
gives indication of what is happening.

Establishing mood
Sound effects can be used to indicate one’s sadness or joy. For example,
the emotion of a character in a drama who is worried can be heightened
by placing him in the midst of sounds indicating worrisomeness and
displeasure.

Serving as transition
Sound effects, like music, can help serve as transition between
programmes segments or between changes of time and place in a
dramatic programmes.

Helps in placing emphasis

Programmes that consist of question and answers or programmes that
take a particular format that may require emphasis, sound effects could
be used to signify either the correctness or failure of an answer in a quiz.

3.1.5 Silence or Dramatic Pause

Silence can also be a useful dramatic element. If you want to highlight a
specific point, you can pause for a while, then say it. Though when it is
longer than necessary it could be perceived as dead air and that can
create a problem rather than the effect you are trying to achieve.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
Identify all the elements needed for radio programme production.

3.2 Television Production Elements

Television system consists of equipment and people who operate those
equipment for the production of specific programmes. A system is a
collection of elements that work together to achieve a specific purpose.
Each of the elements is dependent upon the proper workings of all the
others, and none of the individual elements can do the job alone. The
production elements you can find for television include:
i. the studio/control room ii. camera
iii. lighting iv. audio
v. videotape recording
vi. the switcher
vii. post-production editing viii. special effects.

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3.2.1 The Studio/Control Room

The studio is the centre where most television production takes place.
This makes it a very important element. According to Zettl (2000:17), a
well designed studio provides for the proper environment and
coordination of all major production elements.

If you visit most television studio, you will discover that they are
rectangular with varying amounts of floor space. The advent of the
zoom lens has drastically reduced the need for actual movement of the
camera (the zoom lens can make a scene look closer or further away
without camera movement), but room size still greatly affects
production complexity and flexibility.

The studio floor must be even and level so that cameras can travel
smoothly and freely. It should also be hard enough to withstand the
moving about of heavy equipment, scenery, and set properties.

Ceiling height is also a design factor of a television studio. If the ceiling

is too low, the lights will be too close to the ceiling, which prevents for
good lighting control and makes it difficult for heat to dissipate. Also,
low lights and the boom microphone will encroach into the scene, as
well as make it uncomfortably hot. Higher ceiling can accommodate
even tall scenery. The minimum height for studio ceiling should be 12
feet.

Like the radio studio, television studio ceiling and walls also need to be
treated with acoustic material to prevent sound from bouncing
indiscriminately around the studio. Air–conditioning is also essential
since the studios have no windows.

Major installation in television studio that facilitates the production

process include intercommunication system or intercom that allows all
production and engineering personnel actively engaged in the
production of a show to be in constant voice contact with one another;
studio monitors – high quality television sets that display the video feed
from the programme switcher; programme speaker that feed in to the
studio the programme sound or any other sound; wall outlet for camera
and microphone cable, intercom, etc. and lighting dimmers and
parchboard or pachbay connects the individual instruments to the
various dimmers.

Another element of production close to the studio is the control room.

This is where all the production activities are coordinated. The control
rooms have distinct controlling areas: the programmes control, the
image control (switcher), the audio control; and sometimes the lighting
and camera controls.

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3.2.2 Cameras
The camera is the most obvious production element. It comes in all sizes
and configurations. Some cameras can be easily carried and operated by
one person, where as others are so heavy that they need two people to
lift them comfortably onto a camera mount. The camera mount enables
the operators to move a heavy camera/lens/teleprompter assemble on the
studio floor with relative ease. Since the camera is very important in
television production, the writer needs to pay attention to camera shots
and movement. Shot and movement will be discussed in details in the
next unit.

3.2.3 Lighting
Light is important to the camera just as it is to us, humans. The camera
cannot see without a certain amount of light. What we see through the
camera is also what light is able to reflect. Manipulating the light falling
on the objects influences the way we receive them on the screen. Such
manipulation, Zettl (2000:10) calls lighting.

Lighting has three broad purposes:

 to provide the television camera with adequate illumination for
technically acceptable picture
 to tell us what the object shown on the screen actually looks like,
where they are in relation to one another and to their immediate
 environment, and when the event is taking place in terms of time
 of day or season, and
 to establish the general mood of the event.

The choice of lighting instruments and techniques influence programme

production a lot.

3.2.4 Audio
Audio alone is not so stressed in television as it is in radio. But
television cannot do without audio. No matter how much a performer
tries to communicate message through facial expression graphic and
videotape, it does not equal what audio does. Television audio not only
communicate precise information, but also contribute greatly to the
mood and atmosphere of a scene.
The various audio production elements are microphone, ENG/EFP
(electronic news gathering/electronic field production) sound control
equipment and studio sound control equipment (audio console).

3.2.5 Videotape Recorder

Videotape recorder is the instrument on which production is recorded
for subsequence playback even though some television programmes are
live telecast; most of them are recorded on videotape or computer disc
before they are aired. Even live football broadcast include plenty of
prerecorded material. Videotape can be used for recording as well as
distribution of recorded materials.

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The videotape recorder could be analog or digital, but they work on the
same principle: they record video and audio signals on a single strip of
plastic videotape and later convert them back into signals that can be
seen as picture and herd as sound on a television receiver. Most
videotape recorders (VTRs) use various sized videotape cassettes,
similar to the ones use in your home VCR (video-cassette recorder) or
camcorder. Professional videotape recorders are similar to a home
machine, except that they have more operational control and more
sophisticated electronics that ensure higher quality of pictures and sound
(zettl, 2000:14).

3.2.6 The Switcher

The switcher works the way the push buttons on a car radio works. Just
as you can select certain radio stations, with the switcher you can also
select various video sources, such as camera, videotape, and titles or
other special effect and join them through a great variety of transitions
while the event is in progress. In effect, the switcher allows you to do
instantaneous editing.

The production switcher which is also known as vision mixer has

several rows of button and other control for selecting or mixing various
video inputs and creating transition and special effect, it then sends the
selected video to the lines-out. The switcher “output ’’ is what goes on
air or is recorded on videotape.

3.2.7 Post Production Editing

Post production editing entails putting the bits and piece of prerecorded
material into a new, more telling sequence that is, you select from the
original videotape or digitally recorded materials those scene that seem
most pertinent and copy them onto another videotape in a specific order.
The editing could be linear or non-linear. The linear editing system
normally requires two source VTRs that contain the original materials
that you recorded with your camera or cameras, and the record, VTR,
which produces the final edit master tape. In non-linear editing you
transfer all the videotapes to a computer disk and then edit the video and
audio portions pretty much as you would with a word processing
programmes. The computer is highly required in both linear and non-
linear editing.

3.2.8 Special Effects

Special effects can be as simple as adding a title over a background
scene, done with a character Generator (C.G) or inserting the well-
known box over the newscaster’s shoulder. Or they can be as elaborate
as the gradual transformation of a face into a series of intensely
coloured, mosaic-like screen patterns. Modern digital graphics
generators and other special effects equipment, along with the effects
capability of switchers allow for the creation of a great variety of effects
with ease and reliability.

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SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
Identify all the elements needed for television production.

4.0 CONCLUSION

Broadcast production is interesting when all elements work together

smoothly and with the skilled and prudent use of the equipment by
production personnel. For effective in production, all the elements must
be properly arranged a way that they complement the functioning of one
another.

5.0 SUMMARY

This unit discusses the various production elements for radio and
television. Some of the elements found under radio are also present for
television production. The studios for both radio and television are very
important since most production takes place there, and the studios house
most of the equipment for production. The characteristics of all the
elements and how they function have also been discussed in this unit.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Taking into constitution all the elements for radio production,

present how the studio should be prepared for a newscast.
2. Discuss the post production editing in television in details.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Akpan, C.S. (2006). The Pillars of Broadcasting. Nsukka: CSF and

Visual Impression.

Ijwo, A. & Ogi, J (2011). Radio and Television Production. Makurdi:

Selfers.

O’Donnell L.J.; Hausman, C. & Benoit, P. (1989). Radio Station

Operations. Belmont: Wadsworth Publishing Company.

Reese, D.E; Gross, L.S. & Gross, B. (2006). Radio Production Work
Text, Studio and Equipment. (6th ed.). Boston: Focal Press.

Ugande, G.B. (2006). Broadcast Programmes Writing and Production.

Makurdi: Asa God Printers.

Zettl, H. (2000). Television Production Handbook. Australia:

Wadsworth Thomson Learning.

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UNIT 4 SHOOTING TECHNIQUES/CAMERA MOVEMENT

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Parts of Camera
3.2 Types of Television Camera
3.3 Basic Camera Movement
3.4 Camera Movement/Shots
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Television camera is the most obvious and most important element or

equipment of production. Other production equipment and techniques
are greatly influenced by the camera’s technical and performance
characteristics. Operating the camera is becoming easier by the day with
the introduction of new–easy–to-operate types that demand that you
only press the right buttons to produce the desired optical image. That
means that you do not have to be a skilled electronic engineer to be able
to handle a camera.

In this unit, we shall look at how television camera works by identifying

the parts, types, the basic mounting techniques and the movement for
effective production.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 define the television camera

 identify the parts of camera
 identify the types of camera
 explain the basic camera movement
 identify the basic camera operation techniques
 discuss camera movement.

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3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Parts of Camera

The television camera consists of three main parts, which help to define
it. They include: the lens, the camera itself and the viewfinder.

The Lens
The lens selects a certain field of view and produces a small optical
image of it. According to Zettl (2000:66) the lens determine what the
camera can see. One type of lens can provide a wide vista even though
you may be relatively close to the scene; another type may provide a
close view of an object that is quite far from the camera. Different types
of lenses also determine the basic visual perspective-whether you see an
object as distorted or whether you perceive more or less distance
between objects than they appear in reality is.

The camera itself

The camera have imaging or pickup device that converts the optical
image as delivered by the lens into electrical signals that are converted
by a television set into visible screen .specifically, the light that is
reflected off object is gathered by a lens and focused on the imaging
device. The imaging device is the principal element that tranduces
(convert) the light into electric energy – the video (picture) signal .that
signal is then amplified and processed so that it can be reconverted into
visible screen images.

The viewfinder
This shows a small video image of what the lens is seeing. Some
cameras have a small fold-out screen that does not require you to look.

3.2 Type of Television Camera

Cameras can be classified by their electronic makeup and how they are
used. Cameras that are grouped by their electronic makeup are either
analogue or digital. Cameras classified by their function are for studio
or Electronic News Gathering/Electronic Field Production (ENG/EFP)
use.

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Let us look at cameras classified by their electronic makeup first.

Analogue and digital cameras

According to Zettl (2000:46), all cameras, analogue or digital, large or
small, start out with analogue video signal. The light that is transported
through the lens to the beam splitterue and from there to the imaging
device remains analog throughout. Even after the translation of the three
RGB (red, green, blue-the three dots that are grouped together) light
beams by the CCD (charge coupled device – the CCD contains
hundreds of thousands of image – sensing elements called pixels, a
word made up of pix, for picture, and else for elements), that are
arranged in horizontal and vertical rows), the resulting video signals are
still analogue; but from there, analogue and digital part company.

In the analogue camera, the video signal remains analogue throughout

the processing inside the camera and during the recording, assuming
that the VTR is also analogue. In the digital camera, however, the
analogue RGB video signals are digitalised and processed right after
leaving the CCDs.

Digital signals are much more robust than analogue once, which means
that they are less prone to distortion; they are more automatically high-
definition.

Let us discuss the various types based on the functions they perform as
presented by Zettl (2000:47-49).

i. Studio camera
The term studio camera is generally used to describe high-quality
cameras, including high definition television (HDTV) cameras, which
are so heavy they cannot be maneuvered properly without the aid of a
pedestal or some other type of camera mount. Studio cameras are used
for various studio productions, such as news, interviews, and panel
shows, for daily serial dramas, situation comedies, or instructional
shows that require high-quality video. Studio cameras can also be used
outside the studio, at concert and convention halls, football and baseball
stadia, tennis courts, or medical facilities.

Studio cameras cannot function completely on its own. It functions only

as a part of a camera chain. That is to say, the camera is usually
connected by cable to an electrical outlet, and this cable connects the
camera to a chain of equipment necessary to produce pictures. The
major parts of such a camera chain are (1) the actual camera, called the
camera head because it is at the head of the chain; (2) the camera
control unit, or CCU; (3) the sync generator that provides the
synchronisation pulses to keep the scanning of the various pieces of

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television equipment in steps; and (4) he power supply.

ii. ENG/EFP cameras and camcorders

The cameras for ENG/EFP (electronic news gathering/electronic field
production) are portable, which means that they are usually carried by a
camera operator or put on a simple tripod. They are also self-contained
and hold the whole camera chain in the small camera head, with their
built-in control equipment. ENG/EFP cameras and camcorders are
designed to Produce high-quality pictures (video signals) that can be
recorded on a separate VTR (video tape recorder), a small VTR that is
docked with the camera, or a built-in VTR. When the camera is docked
with a VTR or with a built-in VTR, it forms a camcorder.

The ENG /EFP camera has more buttons and switches than a studio
camera or a home camcorder; mainly because the video control
functions, the VTR operation and the audio control functions must be
manage by the camera operator. Fortunately you can switch many of
these control functions to an automatic mode, much as you can when
running a consumer camcorder. These automatic control features make
it possible to produce acceptable pictures even in drastically changing
condition without having to readjust the camera.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

What are the major difference between studio cameras and ENG/EFP
cameras?

3.3 Basic Camera Mounting

Camera mounts refer to the equipment that are used to support cameras
during the shooting. Some cameras are designed to be carried with your
hands or on your shoulder, but whenever possible, a mounting device
should be used. This will reduce fatigue and prevent unnecessary and
distracting camera motion. It also makes for smoother moves.
The basic camera mounts identified by Zettl (2000:88) include: the
handheld and shoulder mounted camera; the monopod and tripod; and
the studio pedestal.

 The handheld and shoulder mounted camera

The arm or shoulder is the most flexible camera mount. With arm or
shoulder, you can lift and lower the camera , tilt it up or down, swing it
around, cant it (tilt it sideways), and walk or run with it. This makes it
possible for you to operate the camera for long time without getting
fatigued. Secondly, camera support prevents unmotivated camera
motion-swinging and weaving it back and forth like a firefighter using a
fire hose to put out an especially nasty fire.

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Here is a structure of a handheld cam era:

Fig. 2: A Handheld Camera Mount

 The monopod and tripod

The monopod is a single pole, or a single ‘pod’ onto which you can
mount a camera. When using monopod, you still need to balance the
camera on the single pole as you would on your shoulder, but at least
you are relieved of the camera’s weight. Some monopod supports have
a fold-out extension with which, by stepping on it, you steady the single
pole sufficiently so that you can work the camera with both hands.

The advantage of such a camera support is that it is easy to carry and

can be set up in less than a minute. Such monopods are by no means
perfect, but they offer a welcome relief during a long shoot.

The tripod on the other hand has three collapsible legs that can be
individually extended so that the camera is level, even on an irregular
surface such as a step driveway, bleachers, or stairs. The tips of the legs
are equipped with spikes and rubber cups that keep the tripod from
slipping. Most tripods can be adjusted to specific camera height (usually
from about 16 to 60 inches) and have built-in spreader that prevents the
tripod legs from spreading and collapsing under a heavy load.

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A tripod looks like what you have below:

Fig. 3: A Tripod

 The studio pedestal

With a studio pedestal, you can smoothly move a camera in all direction
(assuming there is a smooth floor) and elevate and lower the camera
while on the air. These up and down movements add important
dimension to the art of television photography. Not only can you adjust
the camera to a comfortable working height, but you can also change the
eye level from which you look at an event. For example, if you are in
danger of over shooting the set, you can always pedestal up (raise the
camera) and look down on the scene. Or you can pedestal down (lower
the camera) and look up at the scene, such as at the lead singer of a rock
group. Some of the pedestals used counter weights to balance the weight
of the camera in its up and down movement; others use pneumatic
pressure, or both weight and pneumatic pressure.

Regardless of the specific balancing mechanism, all studio pedestals

have similar operating features. You can steer the pedestal smoothly in
any direction with a large horizontal steering ring or steering wheel.

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Here is an example:

Fig. 4: A Studio Pedestal

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
Bring out the main features of each of the camera mounting devices you
know?

3.4 Camera Movement/Shots

According to Ugande (2006:51), the camera can move in two major
ways: it can move its head and it can move its entire mount. The major
camera movements are pan, tilt, pedestal, dolly, truck, crane, arc, and
zoom. These movements are briefly explained below:

 Pan – This refers to moving the camera horizontally from left to

right or right to left while the dolly or pedestal remains
stationary. We therefore, have pan right and pan left.
 Tilt – This refers to moving the camera vertically on its axis
 (without moving its mount). Thus we have tilt up and tilt down.
 Pedestal – Raising or lowering the camera by moving the camera
pedestal up and down.
 Dolly – This requires moving the camera on its mount. To dolly
in means moving the camera close to the object or subject. To
dolly out means moving the camera away from the subject or
object.
 Truck - This refers to moving the camera laterally or parallel to
the action or object by means of a mobile camera mount.

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 Crane or boom - Moving the whole camera up and down on a

camera boom.
 Arc – A slightly curved dolly or tract movement with a mobile
camera mount is what we refer to as arc.
 Zoom – This has to do with the lens which can either be moved
in or out. To zoom out means moving the lens out and taking the
subject further. To zoom in means moving the lens in and
bringing the subject closer. While zooming, the camera remains
stationary, only the lens moves in or out as desired by pressing a
button.

The following are the major camera shots as Salama (1978:94) isolates
them:

 Close up (CU) – a shot taking in head and shoulders only.

 Extreme close up (ECU) – A shot close to the face, taking only
the head.
 Breast shot (BS) - A shot taking in only the chest, shoulder and
head.
 Long shot (LS) – A shot taking in the whole person or object.
 Wide – shot (WS) – A shot taking in everything possible without
over shooting the curtains.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
i. What are the two major ways the camera can move?
ii. What is the difference between a dolly and a truck?

4.0 CONCLUSION

Quality television production depends so much on how well the camera

functions. This means that the camera operator must understand the
function of the camera, know the different parts and how they interact to
create video signals. The television camera basically has two
characteristic: the electronic characteristics end the operational
characteristics. Knowledge of these characteristics will help the operator
to handle them properly for effective production.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, we discussed the television camera as the most important

single production element. All other production elements are geared to
the physical and electronic characteristic of the camera. The television is
made up of three basic parts- the camera itself, lens, and the view finder.
Television cameras can be classified by their electronic makeup or by
the function they perform. When classified by electronic makeup, we
have the analogue and digital camera; but when classified based on the

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function they perform, we have cameras for studio use and cameras for
ENG/EFP use.

During production, the cameras are usually put on different camera

mount which include the arm or shoulder; the monopod and tripod; and
the studio pedestal. The various camera movements include: pan, tilt,
dolly, truck, arc, crane, pedestal and zoom.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

With the aid of diagrams, describe the different camera mounting

devices you know?

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Salama, G. (1978). Television in a Developing Country. Jos:

Government Printer.

Ugande, G. (2006). Broadcast Programmes Writing and Production.

Makurdi: AsaGod Printers.

Zettl, H. (2000). Television Production Handbook. Australia:

Wadsworth Thomson Learning.

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UNIT 5 TELEVISION LIGHTING

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Basic Lighting Objectives
3.2 Qualities of Light
3.3 Sources of Light
3.4 Studio Lighting Instruments
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Lighting means the control of light and shadows. Thus, Zettl (2000:126)
puts it that lighting means to control light for three principal reasons: to
provide the television camera with adequate illumination so that it can
see well, that is, produces technically acceptable pictures; to help the
viewers recognise what things and people look like and where they are
in relations to one another and to their immediate environment; and to
establish a general feeling and mood of the event.

Lighting influences television production greatly, that is why in this

unit, we shall learn the basic objectives of lighting techniques, know the
sources of light, lighting instruments and techniques as well as how to
balance intensity for effective production.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 explain what lighting means

 explain the qualities of light
 identify the objectives of lighting
 highlight the sources of light
 explain the lighting instruments for television production
 explain lighting techniques
 balance light intensities.

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3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Basic Lighting Objectives

If you understand the way television studio looks, you will understand
the necessity of lighting. The television studio has a large amount of
floor space and high ceiling that can accommodate all kinds of scenery.
Also, in order to prevent outside noise from coming in, the television
studio is equipped with acoustic materials and sound-proof doors that
are always closed when production is on. With this, the studio is always
dark even when it is day time. This makes lighting important. The
obvious purpose of television lighting is to illuminate what the camera
sees. If you want the camera to see well, you need to provide for it, a
certain amount of light. The following are six basic objectives of
television lighting as seen by Wurtzel and Acker (1989:116):

 To fulfill the technical requirements of the system. The lighting

must provide a sufficient level of illumination for the camera’s
pickup tube to reproduce the photographed image faithfully.
 To provide a three-dimensional perspective. The television
screen is two-dimensional. Depth must be provided through the
use of camera angles, performer blocking, set design, and the
careful use of lighting. Our perception of depth can be enhanced
by the proper use of light to emphasise texture, shape and form.
 To direct attention to important elements in the scene. The use of
light and shadow can reveal and conceal important elements in a
scene. The director uses light to guide the viewer’s attention
within a scene.
 To establish the mood of a scene. Lighting can provide the
viewer with a sense of a scene’s emotional mood. Dark, shadowy
lighting conveys a feeling of mystery, tension, or drama. Brightly
lit scenes impart a sense of happiness, gaiety, or fantasy.
 To fix the time of the action. The angle at which light hits a set
and casts shadows, its colour, and the overall level
of illumination and contrast within a scene all contribute to the
feel of morning, noon, evening, or night. The season in which the
programme occurs also can be represented through lighting.
 To contribute to the overall aesthetic composition of a shot. The
way actors move into and out of pools of light, the facial features
of an actress softened or accentuated through light control, and
the way a well-designed set is complemented by the creative use
of light all contribute to the television aesthetic.

Of course, not all six objectives are called for in every production
situation. The design of the lighting ultimately must serve the
programme director’s concept of the show. Lighting that is inconsistent

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with the programme’s overall objectives can confuse the viewer and
weaken the production.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
What are the objectives of television lighting?

3.2 Qualities of Light

The basic qualities of light are hard or soft lights. According to
Nwanwene (2002: 50), the hard light, like direct sunlight on a clear day,
is made up of parallel rays that produce clean, hard shadows that neatly
outline the shapes of objects. The soft or diffused light of a hazy or
overcast day is less directional. It emanates from all parts of the sky at
once. If it casts shadows at all, they are dull and indistinct.

Hard light can be produced artificially with lensed or focused lamps that
emit a clearly directed beam. The spotlights used to single out a
performer on stage are extremely hard. Soft light is usually made by
bouncing lamp light on a white or silvery surface that is often scoop
shaped. Soft light creates a broad and even glow, and not a beam light.
Because hard light casts distinct shadows, it is used to delineate areas of
different colour or tonal value but when used alone it tends to be harsh.
Most film makers use hard lights on male actors to bring out rugged
facial features. Hard light can be produced with relatively compact
lighting fixtures.

Soft light is relatively gentle and leads to smooth out features and
textures. Traditionally, female actors are lit with soft light to disguise
any facial wrinkles or imperfections. Soft lighting has become
increasingly popular in fiction film making and television commercials
because it is sometimes claimed that it looks more natural.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
What are the qualities of light?

3.3 Sources of Light

The basic television lighting set-up consists of three main light sources.
They are (1) key light, (2) back light, and (3) fill light.

Key light
The key light as seen by Zettl (2000:161) and Ijwo and Ogi (2011:41) is
the principal source of illumination and it reveals the basic features of
an object or person. To achieve this, the key light must produce some
shadows. Because during the day we see the principal light source-the
sun, coming from above, the key light is normally placed above and to
the right or left front side of the object, from the camera’s point of view.

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Back light
Adding illumination from behind helps separate the subject from the
background. Ijwo and Ogi (2011:41) say the back light kills the shadow
created by the key light. Besides providing spatial definition, the back
light adds sparkle and professional polish. In general, try to position the
back light as directly behind the subject (opposite the camera) as
possible; there is no inherent virtue in placing it somewhat to one side
or other. A more critical problem is controlling the vertical angle at
which the back light strikes the subject. If it is positioned directly above
the person, or somewhere in that neighbourhood, the back light becomes
an undesirable top light .Instead of revealing for instance, contour of a
person to make her stand out from the background and giving the hair
sparkle, the light simply brightens the top of her head, causing dense
shadows below her eyes and chins. On the other hand, if the back light
is positioned too low it shines into the camera.

Fill light
This is a generally diffused light to reduced shadow or contrast range. A
highly diffused floodlight or reflected light is generally used as fill. The
fill light reduces the intensity of both the key and the back light. The
more fill light you use, the slower the falloff becomes. (Falloff means
the speed or degree to which a light picture portion turns into shadow
area). When the intensity of the fill light approaches or even matches
that of the key light, the shadows, and with them the falloff, are virtually
eliminated. This gives the subject a flat look - shadows no longer help
define shape and texture.

This is how to use the three main sources of light on a subject.

B a c k l ig h t
( s p o t) B

F
K
Fill light (flood) Key light
Fig. 5: Position of Key, Back and Fill Lights

With the three main light sources in the triangle position, you have
established the basic photographic television lighting. But you are not
done yet. You must now fine-tune the lighting arrangement. Take a

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good hard look at the lighted object, or if possible the studio monitor to
see whether the scene needs some other adjustment for optical lighting.
Are there any undesirable shadows, or shadows that distort rather than
reveal the object? How is the light balance? Does the fill light wash out
all the necessary shadows? Or are the shadows still too dense? Is the
key/fill combination too strong for the back light?

Besides the three main sources of light, other sources of light include:

Background or set light

You use the background light to illuminate the background (wall,
cyclorama) of the set or positions of the set that are not a direct part of
the principal performance area. In order to keep the shadows of the
background on the same side as those of the person or object in front of
it, the background light must strike the background from the same
direction as the key light (Zettl, 2000:163).

Side light
The side light is usually placed directly to the side of the object, it can
function as key or fill lights. When used as a key, it produces fast
falloff, leaving half of the face in dense shadow. When used as a fill, it
lightens up the whole shadow side of the face. When used as key and fill
on opposite sides, the sides of the face are bright, with the front of the
face remaining shadowed. If properly done, such an effect can be quite
dramatic.

Kicker light
The kicker light is used to strike the subject from behind and on the
opposite side of the camera from the key light (that is, the fill light side).
Its main purpose is to highlight the contour of the subject at a place
where key-light fall off is the densest and where the dense shadow of
the subject opposite the key-lighted side tends to merge with the dark
background. Kicker lights are especially useful for creating the illusion
of moonlight.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
Identify all the sources of light for television production?

3.4 Studio Lighting Instruments

According to Zettl (2000:128), all studio lighting is accomplished with a
variety of spotlights and floodlights. These instruments, technically
called luminaries, are designed to operate from the studio ceiling or
from floor stands.

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Let us consider the two main instruments:

Spotlight
Spotlight produce directional well-defined light whose beam can be
adjusted from a sharp light beam like the one from a focused flashlight
or car headlight to a softer beam that is still highly directional but that
lights up a larger area. All spotlights have a lens that helps sharpens the
beam. Most studio lighting use two basic types of spotlights: the Fresnel
spotlight and the ellipsoidal spotlight.

The Fresnel spotlight is relatively light weight and flexible and has a
high output. Its light beam can be made narrow or wide by a spot-
focusing device. The spot can be adjusted to a “flood” beam position,
which gives off a rather widespread light beam; or it can be “spotted”,
or focused to a sharp, clearly defined beam. The ellipsoidal spotlight on
the other hand, produces a sharp, highly defined beam even when in a
flood position. The ellipsoidal beam is still sharper than the focused
beam of a Fresnel spot. Ellipsoidal spots are generally used when
specific, precise lighting tasks are necessary. For example, if you want
to create pools of light reflecting off the studio floor, the ellipsoidal spot
is the instrument to use.

Floodlight
Floodlights are designed to produce great amount of highly diffused
light. They are often used as principal sources of light (key lights) in
situations where shadows are to be kept to a minimum, such as news,
sets and product displays, to slow down falloff (reduce contrast between
light and shadow areas), and to provide base light .With some
floodlights, as with some spotlights, you can adjust the spread of the
beam so that undue spill into other set areas can be minimised.

There are five basic types of flood lights: (1) the scoop, (2) the soft light
and broad, (3) the fluorescent floodlight bank, (4) the incandescent
floodlight bank, and (5) the strip, or eye light.

The scoop produces fairly directional but diffused light beam; soft lights
are used for even, extremely diffused lighting. The fluorescent
floodlight bank is principally used on big remotes, either to illuminate
fairly large areas over a considerable distance or to act as a day light
booster to make the harsh shadows more transparent for the camera. The
strip or cyc light is commonly used to achieve even illumination of large
set areas such as cyc (cyclorama) or some other uninterrupted
background area.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
What are the functions of studio lighting instruments?

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4.0 CONCLUSION

Lighting, like other elements of television production is very essential.

When the studio is dark, the camera cannot pick what it should pick.
Every television studio, no matter how small it is, should have a good
combination of light sources and instruments to enhance quality
production.

5.0 SUMMARY

The essence of television lighting is to illuminate the studio or the scene

of event for production. Thus, the basic objectives of lighting are: to
provide enough basic light; to limit the contrast between highlight and
shadow; to indicate form and dimensions; to create an illusion of reality
and non reality ;and to indicate mood. There are three main sources of
light or what can be referred to as photographic principles, or triangle
lighting- which include key, back, and fill lights. Additional lighting
sources include side light and kicker light. The major studio lighting
instruments used are the spot light and flood lights.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Prepare a lighting plan for a dance show and explain the significance of
the lighting instruments used?

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Ijwo, A. & Ogi, J (2011). Radio and Television Production. Makurdi:

Selfers.

Nwanwene, A. T. (2002). Film Production: an Introductory Approach.

Makurdi: Starix Books.

Wurtzel, A. & Acker, S. (1989). Television Production. (3rd ed.). New

York: McGraw-Hill Publishing Company.

Zettl, H. (2000). Television Production Handbook. Australia:

Wadsworth Thomson Learning.

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MODULE 5 DIGITAL BROADCAST PRODUCTION

Digitisation explains a shift from the use of analogue equipment to

digital equipment in broadcast production. This shift has brought a lot of
benefits. It has improved the way production is done in the broadcast
industry and has increased the demand for broadcast products, since the
audience receive better signals.

In this module, we shall learn what digital broadcasting means, the

benefits of digital broadcasting, how it differs from analogue
broadcasting as well as the different technologies used for both audio
and video production.

Unit 1 Understanding Broadcast Digitisation

Unit 2 Digital Radio Production
Unit 3 Digital Television Production

UNIT 1 UNDERSTANDING BROADCAST DIGITISATION

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 What is/why Digital?
3.2 Difference between Analogue and Digital Broadcasting
3.3 The Process of Digitisation
3.4 Benefits of Digitisation
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor–Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The world of broadcasting is gradually going digital. Some radio and

television stations in Nigeria already use digital equipment for their
broadcast. Not long from now, all stations are expected to go digital for
improved production.

Digital broadcasting has so many advantages over analogue

broadcasting. A good look at the operations of both systems would
reveal the need for digital broadcasting.

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This unit will help us understand what digital broadcasting means, its
premise, the process of digitalisation as well as the benefits of using
digital equipment in broadcasting.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 define digitisation
 explain digital broadcasting
 give the rationale for digital broadcasting
 provide the importance of digital broadcasting
 explain the process of digitisation
 outline the differences between analogue and digital broadcasting

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 What is/why Digital?
Digital broadcasting system is a telecommunication system of sending
and receiving information by means of digital signals. This information
can be sounds, moving pictures or data.

Digital broadcasting can also be seen as the practice of using digital data
rather than analogue wave forms to carry broadcast over television
channels or assigned radio frequency bands.

Before digital broadcasting systems emerged, information was

broadcast using analogue signal. Analogue signal is signal that is
continuous both in time and amplitude. Analogue signal can be used to
convey information by making variations of its properties. This
variation is equivalent or analogous to information it conveys. For
example, electrical analogue signal is used to convey information by
varying the voltage or frequency of the signal. By this property, small
fluctuations in analogue signal are meaningful. Any small difference in
the signal means different information.

In contrast to analogue signal, digital signal is discrete in time. The

values of the signal are noted at fixed intervals rather than continuously.
In addition to that, the value, instead of being measured to the exact
value, is approximated to certain precision. This will allow the value to
be represented by limited number of digits. In other words, digital
signal’s values are quantised (divided).

The major reason for switching to digital broadcasting is because it will

free up valuable portions of the broadcast spectrum, which can then be
used for other purposes and for public and safety services. Again,

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television stations for instance can improve their services with enhanced
closed captioning, better pictures and sound, and offer several channels
of programming at the same time. Other reasons are found in the
benefits of digital broadcasting that we shall discuss later.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
What is digital broadcasting?

3.2 The Difference between Analogue and Digital Signal

Processing
Zettl (2000: 30) provides a metaphor for understanding the differences
between analogue and digital broadcasting. He says the analogue signal
is very much like a ramp (an upward bend in a stair rail) that leads
continuously from one elevation to another. It matters little whether you
use small or big steps – the ramp gradually and inevitably leads to the
desired elevation. Technically, in the digital process, the analogue signal
is continuously sampled. The samples are then quantised (assigned a
concrete value) and grouped into O’s and I’s. These are illustrated
below:

Fig. 1a Analogue Signal Fig. 1b Digital Signal

Analogue signal can be represented by The digital signal can be
a ramp that leads continuously to a represented by a staircase that
certain height leads to a certain height in discrete steps

To carry on our ramp metaphor, in the digital domain, you would have
to use steps to get to the same elevation. This is much more an either/or
proposition. The elevation has now been quantised (divided) into a
number of discrete units – the steps. More technically, the analogue
system processes and records a signal that fluctuates exactly like the
original signal (the way you moved up or down the ramp). Digital
processing however, changes the ramp into concrete values. The process
is known as digitisation.

It is important to state that digital signal is superior to analogue signal in

that digital can be easily manipulated. In digital systems, the value or
the shape of digital signal doesn’t directly represent the information it
conveys. It only represents codes which later have to be translated to

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acquire the real information. For example, the value “100” means ‘A’
while the value “1001” means ‘B’. This code can be easily changed
according to needs. For example, in order to reduce the size of
transmission, the code can be shortened. The value “00” means “A”
while the value “001” means “B”. using this kind of digital signal’s
property, information in digital form can be easily compressed, edited,
superimposed, scrambled and de-scrambled (for security purpose), etc.

Analogue signal on the other hand, represents the information by its

value/shape. Modifying the value of the signal is equivalent to
modifying the information the signal conveys. So unless information
change is expected (which is purposively done in some application),
analogue signal is expected not to change in value/shape.

Digital signal takes up less bandwidth compared to analogue signal to

convey the same information and even more. Because digital signal can
be compressed easily, given the same bandwidth needed to deliver one
analogue channel, several digital channels can be delivered
simultaneously.

Digital signal is much more resistant to noise than analogue signal. As

signal copied or transmitted over long distance, random variation/noise
(caused by weather, other signals, etc.) will interfere and get into the
signal. This interference will cause changes in signal value/shape.

In digital signal, all values are quantised. There is no possibility that the
signal will have value between the quantification levels. When the
signal degrade after noise interference, slight variations on value, as
long as they are small compared to the quantification range, do not
matter since they are ignored when the signal is received.

Analogue signal however, can be easily restored from noise

interference. In analogue signal, even the slightly different values
represent different information. Once a value is altered by noise, it is
difficult to restore the original value. When the signal degraded after
noise interference, the quality of information it conveys will also
degrade.

Because of the indirect relation between signal value and information it

conveys, digital broadcasting system is more complex than analogue
broadcasting system. The system has to have encoder to encode
information on transmitter side. But the rapid drop in cost and the rapid
expansion of power of digital devices (such as processor, flash memory,
etc.) has made the implementation of digital broadcasting system very
feasible.

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SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Explain the difference between analogue and digital signal processing.

3.3 The Process of Digitisation

You need to know that what we have as digital signal is actually an
analogue signal converted using binary number. Zettl (2000:30) says
digitising an analogue signal is a four-step process: (1) anti-aliasing (2)
sampling (3) quantising and (4) coding.

 Anti-aliasing. In this step, extreme frequencies of the analogue

signal that are unnecessary for its proper sampling are filtered
out.
 Sampling. At sampling stage, the number of points along the
ramp (analogue signal) that are selected for building the steps
(digital values). The higher the sampling rate, the more the steps
chosen and the more they will look like the original ramp
(analogue signal). Obviously, a high sampling rate (many smaller
steps) is preferred over a low one (several large steps).
 Quantising. At the quantising digitisation stage, we are actually
building the steps and checking how high or low each step is
relative to a scale – the quantising levels. The height of each step
is measured. An 8-bit quantising has a maximum number of 256
steps (28).
 Coding. This process changes the quantisation numbers of each
step to binary numbers consisting of O’s and 1’s.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
Identify all the steps in the digitisation process.

3.4 The Benefits of Digitisation

 The benefits of digital signals outweigh those of analogue and
that is why the switch to digital signal for broadcast production is
necessary. Some of the benefits include:
 Digital signals produce high quality. Digital television for
instance, “promises extremely sharp and crisp pictures that not
only show a great amount of fine detail but also improved
 colour” (Zettl 2000:32). In TV, Wurtzer and Acker (1989) also
note that digital images can be processed without a loss in picture
quality from one generation to another, a frame can be built,
 move to storage and then inter overlayed on another constructed
 image. For radio, the sound is also sharper than analogue.
Multiple generational copies of original recording on tapes can
be achieved without any loss of quality.

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 A digital signal can carry more information than an analogue

signal. So, more sound and video options can travel to your radio
and television sets. A digital television signal for instance, can
offer multiple programming choices (called multicasting) as well
as interactive capabilities. For example, a station can broadcast a
transmission in high definition for those High Definition
television (HDTV) users out there, or using the same bandwidth,
can transmit up to three different shows on one digital channel.
 Digitising enables us to store and retrieve an enormous amount
of audio and video information within a relatively small memory
area.
 Digital signals are cleaner and more easily manipulated than
analogue signals.
 Digital signal is computer compatible. That is to say that the
signals can be transferred directly to the computer without the
 need for digitisation. Since compatibility is especially important
 for creating special effects and computer-generated images for
television.
 In contrast to an extremely wide, irreducible analogue
bandwidth, digital signals can be compressed in various ways so
 that they can travel on the available highway without causing
gridlock and also fit into a reasonably sized storage area such as
 a video tape cartridge or hard disk.
 Digital information can also be compressed without loosing
anything. Compression is the temporary rearrangement or
elimination of redundant information for easier storage and
signal transmission.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
What are the benefits of digital broadcasting?

4.0 CONCLUSION

Digital broadcasting offers so many benefits over analogue

broadcasting. That is why most countries are striving to switch to digital
production. Our country Nigeria is not an exception. We are gradually
moving towards full digital broadcasting as well.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, we discussed digital broadcasting as the telecommunication

system of sending and receiving information by means of digital
signals. The switch to digital system has provided so much space or
allowed for valuable portions of the broadcast spectrum for other uses.
The digital signal differs from the analogue in several ways. Digital
signal produces cleaner pictures and sound. It is more resistant to noise,

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among others. The process of digitising include, anti aliasing, sampling,

quantising and coding. Digital signal offers so many benefits ranging
from quality to computer compatibility and flexibility, signal transport
and compression.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Bring out the characteristics of analogue and digital signals, provide

clear differences between the two. Not less than three pages.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Wurtzel, A. & Acker, S. (1989). Television Production. (3rd ed.). New

York: McGraw-Hill Publishing Company.

Zettl, H. (2000). Television Production Handbook. (7th ed.). Australia:

Wadsworth Thomson Learning.

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UNIT 2 DIGITAL RADIO PRODUCTION

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Overview of Digital Technology
3.2 Digital Studio Equipment
3.3 Impact of Digital Radio Production Technology
3.4 General Aesthetic Effects in Radio Production
3.5 Digital Audio Editing
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Digital technology continues to replace conventional technology in

various applications around the radio production studio. For some years
now, digital audio technology has gained dominance over analogue
technology because of the many advantages digital has over analogue.
Now, computer screens sit where turntable once did in control rooms.
Other analogue mainstays, such as reel-to-reel tape recorders and cart
machine are also found in fewer and fewer production facilities.

This unit gives us an overview of digital radio technology, some of the

studio equipment that are increasing the choice of available formats to
work with and, in many cases, bringing on the demise of older analogue
equipment. This unit will also consider the impact of digital audio
technology, aesthetic effects, and digital editing.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 explain digital audio production

 identify some digital studio equipment that have replaced
analogue equipment
 discuss the impact of digital radio production
 identify the aesthetic effect of digital radio production
 discuss how digital audio editing is done.

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3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Overview of Digital Radio Technology

According to Dunaway (200:30), in radio, digital technology has two
primary references: digital broadcasting (transmission) and digital
production (processing/editing). In both, sound is quantised which
renders tone into a stream of digits, ‘0s’ and ‘1’s, which are stored as
‘words’ in a sound file.

Digital Transmission, or Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB), concerns

how these sound files are transmitted across the air weave, in CD-
quality sound; at which point their reception (and storage for latter
retransmission) can be control and triggered automatically.

Digital signal processing and editing, referred to as ‘digital radio’

throughout, turns sound into a radio programme, via work on a hard
disk. The same overall process of programme making applies: recording
and culling interviews for the most vivid and telling beats; designing a
script; gathering sound (archival and live) and mixing these elements
down into programmes ready for broadcast.

Digital radio programme making involves several steps. First, the

programme elements are loaded up into the computer’s short-term
memory. Then these elements, which appear as blocks or weave-forms,
are slotted into approximate locations within the programme.

The blocks of sound are referred to as ‘regions’, and their start and end
points can be rolled forward or back, as desired. The mouse is use to
mark portion of a region. The regions are trimmed to exact lengths;
fades are added to smooth transitions in and out ambient sounds; they
are layered with other effect and music; and finally they are mixed
down into two channels and loaded out for broadcast and storage.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
Discuss the digital radio programme making process.

3.2 Digital Studio Equipment

The digital studio equipment we shall look at here are the ones playing
prominent role in digital playback and recording in many production
studios today. They include:
 the CD player
 the CD recorder
 the MD recorder/player
 compact flash and other digital recorders.

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The CD Player
The compact disc (CD) player, according to Reese, Gross and Gross
(2006: 87) was the first piece of digital equipment to be embraced in
radio production and broadcast work, and today the CD Player is one of
the main sources for playing back prerecorded material. Because CDs
are often aired one right after the other, there are usually at least two CD
players in each production room or on-air studio. This way, one can be
cued while the other is playing on the air or recording.

The use of disc technology as opposed to audiotape for

recording/playback and sound production offers a number of advantages
over tape. Resse, Gross and Gross (p.88) say the CD player offers the
superior sound quality of any piece of digital equipment - greater
frequency response, better signal-to-noise ratio, improved dynamic
range, and almost no distortion-when compared to analogue
component. In addition there is no physical contact between the players
and actual CD, so little wear or degradation takes place.

The CD format also offers the convenience of random access to the

materials stored on the disc. On like tape based formats that require
winding through the tape to move from one point to another, CD players
can instantly move from one track to another track anywhere on the disc
in a second or two. Wurtzel and Acker (1989:235) add that
instantaneous location of specific points on a sound track also allows
you to store hundreds of different sounds, musical instruments and
dialogue cues on one disc. The ability to quickly find the needed audio
saves time and soothes everyone’s nerves.

The CD Recorder
When we use a microphone to pick up a sound we are transforming
acoustical sound vibrations into electrical energy. In effect, what we are
creating is a series of electronic waveforms that represent the original
sound’s frequency and intensity in electronic terms. The conversion of
acoustical vibrations into a corresponding electronic signal is called an
analogue process because we are creating an electronic “analogue” of
the original sound (Wurtzel and Acker, 1989:231).

In a digital system, the original electronic waveforms produced by a

microphone are converted, or digitised, into a computer-usable numeric
code that represent the original sound. These computer-usable numbers
are then stored on recording tape or computer disc. Because only
numbers are recorded on the tape and not the complex waveform itself
recorded with analogue recorders, noise and distortion are virtually
eliminated. Further, we can process and manipulate the digital signal
and produce multiple-generation copies of the original recording
without any loss of quality.

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The MD Recorder
Minidisc (MD) recorders and players are of different styles and
applications. They were originally developed by Sony as a digital
replacement for the cassette, the minidisc can be handheld, table top, or
rack-mounted system and has become a replacement for the audio cart
in some broadcast studios. Employing a small disc, the MD can still
hold up to 80 minute of music because of a data compression scheme.
The minidisc is not actually CD quality, but still an extremely high-
quality audio medium. The MD also features a “shock absorber” system
that uses a memory buffer to store music that can continue to play for a
few seconds if the player mistracks, until the pickup can return to its
correct position.
Compact Flash and other Digital Recorders
Over the years, broadcast audio manufacturers have developed
numerous other digital recorders designed to replace the old analogue
cart machines, instead of an analogue audio cart, MD, CD, or DVD as
the recording or storage medium, these machines have used 2-MB
computer floppy disc, 100-MB zip disc, or gigabyte- capacity magneto-
optical disc. Depending on the configuration, recording time could
range from about a minute to many hours.

The digital recorder that now enjoys a prominent place in audio

production work is the solid-state recorder that records on a compact
flash or PCMCIA (Personal Computer Memory Card International
Association) card. Portable, rack-mount, and mixer/recorder workstation
units are now in use in audio production work.

Some production recorders combine an internal hard disc drive and a

removable storage drive. In addition to providing multi-track capability
and normal transport controls, these recorders often feature a large LCD
(liquid crystal display) screen, for file manipulation and editing, and a
jog wheel for scrubbing and marking edit points.

Hard drives offer the greatest amount of storage space, extremely quick
access time, and low maintenance. However, if a hard drive device
“crashes”, a huge amount of audio can be lost, which can disrupt a
production or on-air studio.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
What are the equipment playing prominent roles in digital radio
production?

3.3 Impact of Digital Radio Technology

The impact of digital radio production technology might best be
grounded in the new medium’s aesthetic, on what is heard.

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The ear hears and interprets meaning differently than the eye. Hearing is
inherently a more spatial process than seeing; for the indirect reflections
of sound condition what we hear, characterising each sound by its
soundscape. The voice itself is an extraordinarily rich and compact
signifier, carrying education, class, gender and age (and even ethnicity
and race).

Aesthetics here has to do with the beauty created by the production of

sound. In radio and audio productions, digital technology is having its
greatest effect in recording; processing; and editing; and mixing. In each
of these production phases, basic aesthetic decision in radio is being
reworked.

Here the fundamental stages of production remain subtly inflected;

layering track, checking start and stops, volume, fading in and out, of
ambient sound, assigning tracks left and right. If the process of
production remains largely the same, its aesthetic elements are
repositioned.

The following are the procedures that bring out the impact of digital
radio technology:

 Recording
We have seen that recording directly to a hard disc allows an
unprecedented rejection of background noise and an extraordinarily
tight audio focus. Whether digital sound is recorded directly to the
computer, or transferred from a DAT (Digital Audio Tape) recorder, the
change in signal-to-noise ratio is one of quality as well as quantity.

In studio recording, this means that breaths and mouth noise picked up
by the microphone are more prominent; though they are paradoxically
more eliminated because of the precision of the edits (Dunaway,
2000:36).

 Processing
Dunaway goes on to saying that, once sound is digitalised, basic
relationships of the analogue recording process are disengaged-
relationship between time and pitch. In analogue, if a recording was
sped up by 5 percent, the voice or instruments sounded correspondingly
more trebly; add 25 percent, and speakers resembled singing
chipmunks. In the digital domain, time (speed) and pitch vary
independently.

This disconnection of pitch and tape speed also allows a sound to be

extended at will, a tool handy to the radio producer needing a train
whistle to last seven seconds, rather than the five originally recorded. In

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practice, such audio wizardry is hard to realise – it can take hours to

minutes by rewriting a sequence of sound in the computer to stretch it,
and the process is subject to audio artifacting (generating false tone).

 Editing
In analogue, measuring was done by rocking the tape simultaneously
holding the left and right reels, and guiding them slowly across the
heads. After rocking the reels to find beginning and end points at the
record head (the spot where the magnetisation of the tape takes place), a
yellow edit-pencil would mark the spot where the cut would fall-more
or less exactly, depending on dexterity, patience, and experience.
Today, one makes an edit on a computer monitor and moves those
portion of sound selected (or deselected) from right to left. With
digitisation, the language of editing has changed. We no longer hear
instructions like ‘cut tape’, ‘join’, etc.
 Mixing
One of the greatest changes to the job of programme producer working
in the digital domain is in mixing the final programme. Formerly this
was the most nerve-wracking part of assembling radio, particularly in
multi-track genres such as drama or documentary.

In a multi-track analogue format, production elements are assigned to

exact location on a master tape recorder after being edited and
processed. These discrete tracks were then mixed down, with sound
overlaid in a dense tapestry which typically includes a narrator or
presenter, actuality (interviews or prerecorded). Thus, at any given point
between three and ten tracks run parallel on the tape, as some sounds are
foregrounded and others backgrounded. In final form, the programme is
mixed down to a monaural or stereo form the tracks waded into and
manipulated on the hard disc, before downloading it from the computer
onto digital audio tape for storing or broadcast.

In analogue, the mixing process is done in real time that is, while the
tape is rolling at speed. This involve raising and lowering the volume of
the various tracks as they roll by, to create the fade-ups and fade-downs
in the right spot, working from an annotated script. When a cue was
missed you had to start over again, a most wearing process for the mix
engineer.

In digital production, the producer sets levels individually for each

track; these are checked against a benchmark level, and the fade are
written to the drive before the programme is downloaded. The need to
roll off the programme in a single go is eliminated. Sample mixes,
varying the volume of effects, can be auditioned directly on the disc
before downloading. And once mixed, the programme-if stored so as to
keep the track discrete, can be remixed and new track superimposed.

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SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
Identify all the areas digital radio technology have impacted audio
programme production?

3.4 General Aesthetics Effects in Radio Production

Digital technology has brought about several changes in radio’s
aesthetics as it concerns programme making. Some of the changes as
noted by Dunaway (2000:40) are:

 the increased mobility of production units

 the nonlinearity of the digital programme
 the analogue shadow, or how patterns from the earlier method
influence production in a newer technology.

Let us look at them one after the other:

Firstly, the increased mobility of production unit refers to the new ways
to move about bits and sequence of sound; the new precision with which
they are moved; and how these new choices fragment the programme
making process.

In the digital domain, all sound has been transferred into digit; and as
digits, sound is infinitely rearrangeable. A half-breath lasting an eighth
of a sound can be popped out of one word and inserted into another to
add a pause. This sound can be made into an upbreath, leading the
listeners to a sense of expectation of what will follow, or a down breath,
which will close a thought.

Secondly, the nonlinearity of the digital programme means that the

programme maker has more tricks in enhancing or facilitating
comprehension. Ambient sound, for example, which can serve as an
audio cue to the reestablishment of a locale, can be stretched or
duplicated without any compromise in sound quality. The listener rarely
notices the return of the ambience until it is upon him.

Lastly, what we see as ‘analogue shadow’ here refers to the way the
former era of technology imposes itself on the new. It has been the
frame of reference for virtually all radio producers for some years now.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

What are the general aesthetic effects you need to know in radio
production?

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3.5 Digital Audio Editing

Audio editing is a day-to-day part of radio production work and it is one
of the most important skills you need to know as a production person.
You may ask why do we need to edit audio in the first place? The
answers are relatively obvious. For example, rarely will you produce
the vocal track for a commercial exactly the way you want it on the first
track. While you could record the script over and over until you get it
perfect, editing gives you the ability to eliminate mistakes. Now you can
just record a few takes and its more likely you will get part of it great on
one take, part of it great on another, and so on. The best recording will
probably be bits and pieces from various takes that you edit to take out
errors and bag segment and keep only the exact words and phrases you
want.

In addition to eliminating mistake, editing allows you to decrease the

length of production work. Radio requires exact times for commercial
news stories and other programmes, and editing can keep your work to
the exact length required. You can either manually edit out excessive
pauses in a vocal track or, in some instances, utilised digital audio
editing software to automatically “ time compress” a vocal segment to
the exact length you need.

Audio editing also gives you the freedom to record out of sequence. For
example, you might be putting together a commercial that uses the
testimonial of several customers that you have recorded. It is probably
that the one you want to use first in your commercial may not have been
recorded first. Editing allows you to easily rearrange the order or, again,
just use a portion of what you originally taped in the final production.
Digital audio editing is presently the most common form of editing.

Digital audio editing refers to any system that uses computer software to
manipulate audio with either a PC computer or proprietary editing
equipment (Reese, Gross and Gross, 2006:106).

Editing normally begins after you have recorded some audio into
whichever type of system you are using. You might have also been able
to import a previously recorded audio file, or some programmes may
allow you to directly “rip” audio from a CD into a file.

To edit what you have recorded, all you need to do is to click on edit
point just to the left of the wave form display area of the screen for that
particular word and then drag the mouse to the right, stopping just
before the waveform for the next word.

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SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
How is digital audio editing done?

4.0 CONCLUSION

Digital audio technology has brought a lot of benefits in radio

programme production. So much work load has been reduced for
different personnel working in radio stations. What many people were
doing manually, consuming so much time can now be done in a second
by just pressing the right button.

5.0 SUMMARY

This unit has been able to take an overview of the digital radio
production, identified some digital studio equipment that are playing
prominent roles in recording and playback. Some of them include CD
player, CD recorders, MD recorder, compact flash and other digital
recorders. The unit also explained the impact of digital radio technology
which is evident in the aesthetics produced in the recording, processing,
editing and mixing of programmes. Digital editing helps you to
eliminate mistakes easily without touching the quality of the record as
well as do many other things like reducing the length of production
work and the freedom to record out of sequence.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

With the aid of diagrams, show the different digital radio studio
equipment you know and explain how they function?

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Dunaway, D. K. (2000). New Media and Society: Towards an Aesthetic.

London: Sage Publication.

Reese, D. E.; Gross, L. S. & Gross, B. (2006). Radio Production Work

Text, Studio and Equipment. (5th ed.). Boston: Focal Press.

Wurtzer, A. & Acker, S. (1989). Television Production. (3rd ed.). New

York: McGraw-Hill Publishing Company.

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UNIT 3 DIGITAL TELEVISION PRODUCTION

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Basics of Digital Operation
3.2 Digital Television Formats
3.3 Digital Devices and how they are used
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 Reference/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Digital Television (DTV) is the transmission of audio and video signals

in contrast to the totally analogue and channel separated signals used by
analogue TV. It uses radio frequency to transmit computer code and
display it as pictures and sound.

Digital production is now more evident in television than is radio. Since

television combine both sight and sound, the effect can be seen in both
the quality produced and in sound and visual. For a better understanding
of how digital production is done in television, you need to understand
the basics of digital operation, then the basic devices used in the
production. A better understanding of digitisation is gotten from the
knowledge of these devices that is why this unit will dwell much on
them.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 explain the basics of digital operation in television production

 discuss digitisation in television
 identify the various devices used in digital television production
 identify the various digital television formats.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Basics of Digital Operations

Just as we discussed in the first unit under this module, you need to
remember that a conventional television signal is an analogue signal

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because it uses the variations in electric current to represent or

reproduce an “analogy” of an image that is photographed. According to
Wurtzel and Acker (1989:348), it is the variations of the electric current
in the pickup tube that corresponds to the brightness values of the
subject before the camera. The voltage level produced by the pickup
tube and associated electronic circuitry within the camera varies across
a theoretically infinite range of values in order to reproduce accurately
the subject’s image on the television screen. In effect, what we are
dealing with is an electronic waveform that is continuously varying
electronic signal.

A digital signal on the other hand, does not use current variation or
waveforms but instead converts the analogue signal into a series of
numerical code numbers, one number for each element of the picture. In
order to process video signals digitally, we must first convert the
analogue wave forms into a digital signal. This is accomplished by
“sampling” the analogue signal over time as it enters the digital
converter and dissecting each sample of the original picture into any of
256 brightness levels. A code number is assigned to each sample
according to its brightness level and its position on the television raster.
The higher the brightness value, the higher is the digital code number.

In this way, the entire video signal is broken down into a series of
computer type binary code numbers which represent the original
picture. Of course, the sampling and conversion process must be done
very rapidly, since a new video field occurs 60 times a second and a
complete new video frame is produced 30 times a second. Once the
analogue signal has been digitised, or converted into digital code
numbers, it can be processed, manipulated and then reconverted back
into original analogue waveform at the output of the digital device.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
What are the basics of digital television operations?

3.2 Digital Television (DTV) Formats

There are so many digital television resolution formats. As many as 18
DTV formats, but only four formats are commonly used. The most
common formats fall into three broad categories. These are:
 High Definition Television (HDTV)
 Enhanced Definition Television (EDTV)
 Standard Definition Television, (SDTV).

 High Definition TV (HDTV)

HDTV in widescreen provides the highest resolution and picture quality
of all DTV formats. A current analogue TV picture is made up of 480
horizontal lines, allowing for sharp picture detail. The most common

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formats are 720P (“P” stands for progressive scan) and 1080i (“I” stands
for interlaced) with either 720 progressively (non-interlaced) scanned
line or 1080 interlaced lines combined with digitally enhanced sound
technology, HDTV achieves a new bench mark for sound and picture
quality in television.

As mentioned earlier, HDTV utilises a process called “interlacing” to

display 480 active lines of information. An interlaced picture is actually
a single frame of video “painted”, line by line onto the screen in two
passes. On the first pass, all the odd numbered lines from top to bottom
(i.e. number 1,3,5,…479) are displayed. This takes 1/60th of a second
(every sixtieth of a second) to accomplish. In the next 1/60th of a
second, all the even lines are painted. So, it takes exactly 1/30 of a
second.

 Enhanced Definition TV
EDTV is a step up from analogue TV and SDTV. It is also called 480
progressive (480p). That is, 480 visible lines of detail. This is the
number of horizontal lines found on your TV screen. Remember that
TVs are measured on the diagonal. The width of the screen changes,
while its height remains more or less constant. Thus it is the number of
pixels on the vertical axis that really determines how much detail is
visible. EDTV is widescreen 16x9 or traditional 4x3 format and provide
better picture quality than SDTV, but not as good as HDTV. Traditional
DVDs are encoded as 480p (although newer HD-DVD and Blu-ray
players allow viewing of HDTV discs.

 Standard Definition TV (SDTV)

SDTV is the baseline display and resolution for both analogue and
digital. Transmission of SDTV is usually in the traditional 4x3 aspect
ratios but may be wide screen 16x9 format. SDTV and analogue TV can
deliver up to 480 interlaced (480) resolution although analogue TV may
be lower.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
How do HDTV, EDTV and SDTV differ from one another?

Digital devices and effects

The following are some of the digital devices and effects created that
make digital broadcasting different from analogue broadcasting:
 Digitally controlled cameras
 Frame synchroniser
 Digital video effects
 Digital scene simulation.

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 Digitally controlled cameras

The new generation video cameras are controlled digitally. Unlike older
cameras, which require large multi conductor cables to send and receive
picture information and operating commands between the camera head
and the CCU, digital camera systems transform all analogue signals, but
they also are impervious to electrical interference over long cable
distances. This Wurtzel and Acker (1989:39-40) provides the digital
cameras with a number of significant advantages over conventional
cameras:

i. Digitising the electronic signals permits a number of different

commands and operations to be combined to travel together
along a single conductor cable. Digital cameras use triaxial cable,
which is higher and narrower than the multi conductor cable
which conventional cameras use.
ii. Digital signals are extremely flexible and because they are not
affected by long transmission distances, they permit a much
greater operating distance between the camera head and the
control unit. Digital cameras are capable of operating distances
of up to one mile from the CCU, and the signals can even be
transmitted via public telephone lines, radio-telephone systems,
or radio frequency links.
iii. Since digital techniques utilise the same operating principles as
computers, the camera head includes an internal memory which
automatically retains the corrected technical camera settings.
iv. Registering and aligning the three separate pick up tubes to
produce a sharp and colour perfect image is done automatically
with a digital camera by using a microprocessor. Registration and
alignment operations can be accomplished in literally seconds
and the results are consistent for each camera because of the
ability of the computer to perform highly complex functions with
greater accuracy.

 Frame synchroniser
It is not all production that is done in the studio. Some production
ventures are outside the studio and that calls for synchronisation of the
video signals. The introduction of digital frame synchroniser (Frame
Sync) unit has made the work easier and has introduced a number of
unique and exciting production techniques.

The frame-sync unit is designed to accept any “wild” (unsynchronised)

feed from any source, convert the signal to digital bits, synchronise the
signal with the in-house video and then read out the processed signal in
analogue form, where it enters the programmes switcher like any other
video source. The result is a signal that is completely synchronous and
can be keyed, wiped or dissolved in the switcher.

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In addition to synchronising a remote video source, the frame

synchroniser offers two valuable production options (1) freeze frame
and (2) image compression. In first place, the frame synchroniser works
by storing a complete frame of video and then reading it out in step with
the in-house sync generator. The device is also programmed to hold the
last complete video frame and continually repeat it in case a new signal
does not arrive from the remote source. Secondly, since the frame
synchroniser reads out the processed video signal in synchronisation
with the in-house sync generator, if we vary the rate at which the stored
signal is read out, we can reduce the size of the complete picture in the
raster.
 Digital video effects (DVE) unit
The digital video effect (DVE) unit is a remarkable device which greatly
expands the operational potential of the frame synchroniser. The DVE
unit is integrated with a full- capability programme switcher providing
the operator with enormous flexibility in manipulating and modifying
the video image. What is especially important is that the manipulation
of the image takes place instantly in real time, so you can see exactly
how the effect appears in the video space and modify it until you are
satisfied with the result.

There is a wide range of potential possibilities which a DVE unit offers.

These are:
 Continuous image compression: a full frame picture can be
compressed continuously and in real time until it literally
disappears.
 Continuous image expansion: the reverse of the compression
technique is continuous picture expansion, which appears as
though we are electronically zooming in on a picture. This effect
permits the director to enlarge an image much as a photographer
might enlarge a negative in the dark room to eliminate areas
along the edges of the frame which are unimportant and
emphasise better the relevant parts of the picture in the video
space.
 Image stretching effects: the DVE unit makes it possible to
expand or compress either the horizontal or vertical dimensions
of an image independently.
 Image rotation effects: using a DVE unit, you can take an image
and note it within the video space about all three axes.
 Transition effects: among the various transitional effects possible
with the DVE unit are the push off – in which one image literally
pushes another off the screen and the video split- in which the
image is literally split apart providing space for a new image
behind it. The page slip, as its name suggests, appears as though
the new image is flipped across an existing picture as if you were
turning the pages of a book. There are also families of matrix
wipes in which small squares of the screen randomly disappear to
be replaced by a new image. All these transitional effects can be

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varied and modified by using different controls on the DVE unit

and the switching console, providing literally dozens of different
transitional effects.

 Digital scene simulation

This is an effect in set design. With this technique, the background is
generated entirely by computer. Unlike the previous technique where
the background is built through layering videotaped images which were
created from a conventional camera source, this technique creates an
image without cameras, using any computer generated imagery. This
offers tremendous possibilities to create environments in the videospace
which cannot be physically constructed.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
Identify some digital devices and explain how they function.

4.0 CONCLUSION

Digital television production has made viewing of television more

interesting than ever before. Since the type of interference experienced
with analogue production is no longer there, interest in the programmes
is heightened with the more advanced equipment available; operating
digital equipment has a wide range of possible effects to create.

5.0 SUMMARY

Digital television production depends on analogue signals which are

converted into digital numbers or assigned digital codes. Digital
television has so many formats but the most commonly used format are
the High Definition Television; Enhanced Definition television; and
Standard Definition Television. Different digital devices exist which
help to create effects that distinguishes digital production from analogue
production. Some of these devices and effects created include: the
digitally controlled cameras; frame synchroniser; digital video effects
units and digital scene simulation.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

State clearly the characteristics of the different digital television formats

and show how they differ from one another.

7.0 REFERENCE/FURTHER READING

Wurtzel, A. & Acker, S. (1989). Television Production. (3rd ed.). New

York: McGraw-Hill Publishing Company.

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