Space frame

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The roof of this industrial building is supported by a space frame structure.

If a force is applied to the blue node, and the red bar is not present, the behaviour of the structure depends
completely on the bending rigidity of the blue node. If the red bar is present, and the bending rigidity of the blue
node is negligible compared to the contributing rigidity of the red bar, the system can be calculated using a
rigidity matrix, neglecting angular factors.

In architecture and structural engineering, a space frame or space structure (3D truss) is a rigid,
lightweight, truss-like structure constructed from interlocking struts in a geometric pattern. Space
frames can be used to span large areas with few interior supports. Like the truss, a space frame is
strong because of the inherent rigidity of the triangle; flexing loads (bending moments) are
transmitted as tension and compression loads along the length of each strut. Steel space frames
provide great freedom of expression and composition as well as the possibility to evenly distribute
loads along each rod and external constraints. With these features, steel space frames can be used
to achieve also complex geometries with a structural weight lower than any other solution. The inner
highly hyper-static system provides an increased resistance to damages caused by fire, explosions,
shocks and earthquakes. Space frames are modular and made of highly industrialized elements
designed with a remarkable dimensional accuracy and precise surface finish. [1]

Contents
 • 1History
• 2Design methods
• 3Overview
• 4Types
• 5Applications
o 5.1Construction
o 5.2Vehicles
▪ 5.2.1Aircraft
▪ 5.2.2Cars
▪ 5.2.3Motorcycles and Bicycles
• 6See also
• 7References

History[edit]
Alexander Graham Bell from 1898 to 1908 developed space frames based on tetrahedral
geometry.[2][3] Bell's interest was primarily in using them to make rigid frames for nautical and
aeronautical engineering, with the tetrahedral truss being one of his inventions. Dr. Ing. Max
Mengeringhausen developed the space grid system called MERO (acronym
of MEngeringhausen ROhrbauweise) in 1943 in Germany, thus initiating the use of space trusses in
architecture.[4] The commonly used method, still in use has individual tubular members connected at
node joints (ball shaped) and variations such as the space deck system, octet truss system and
cubic system. Stéphane de Chateau in France invented the Tridirectional SDC system (1957),
Unibat system (1959), Pyramitec (1960).[5][6] A method of tree supports was developed to replace the
individual columns.[7] Buckminster Fuller patented the octet truss in 1961[8] while focusing
on architectural structures.

Design methods[edit]
Space frames are typically designed using a rigidity matrix. The special characteristic of the stiffness
matrix in an architectural space frame is the independence of the angular factors. If the joints are
sufficiently rigid, the angular deflections can be neglected, simplifying the calculations.

Overview[edit]

Simplified space frame roof with the half-octahedron highlighted in blue

The simplest form of space frame is a horizontal slab of interlocking square

pyramids and tetrahedra built from aluminium or tubular steel struts. In many ways this looks like the
horizontal jib of a tower crane repeated many times to make it wider. A stronger form is composed of
interlocking tetrahedra in which all the struts have unit length. More technically this is referred to as
an isotropic vector matrix or in a single unit width an octet truss. More complex variations change the
lengths of the struts to curve the overall structure or may incorporate other geometrical shapes.
Types[edit]
Within the meaning of space frame, we can find three systems clearly different between them: [9]
Curvature classification

• Space plane covers. These spatial structures are composed of

planar substructures. Their behavior is similar to that of a plate in
which the deflections in the plane are channeled through the
horizontal bars and the shear forces are supported by the
diagonals.[10]

This train station is supported by a barrel vaults structure.

• Barrel vaults. This type of vault has a cross section of a simple arch.
Usually this type of space frame does not need to use tetrahedral
modules or pyramids as a part of its backing.
• Spherical domes and other compound curves usually require the
use of tetrahedral modules or pyramids and additional support from
a skin.
Classification by the arrangement of its elements

• Single layer grid. All elements are located on the surface to be

approximated.
• Double layer grid. The elements are organized in two layers parallel
to each other at a certain distance apart. Each of the layers form a
lattice of triangles, squares or hexagons in which the projection of
the nodes in a layer may overlap or be displaced relative to each
other. Diagonal bars connect the nodes of both layers in different
directions in space. In this type of meshes, the elements are
associated into three groups: upper cordon, cordon and cordon
lower diagonal.
• Triple layer grid. Elements are placed in three parallel layers, linked
by the diagonals. They are almost always flat.
Other examples classifiable as space frames are these:

• Pleated metallic structures. Emerged to try to solve the problems

that formwork and pouring concrete had their counterparts.
Typically run with welded joint, but may raise prefabricated joints, a
fact which makes them space meshes.
 • Hanging covers. Designs on the cable taut, spine, and the catenary
arch antifunicular show their ability to channel forces theoretically
better than any other alternative, have an infinite range of
possibilities for composition and adaptability to any type of plant
cover or ensure vain. However, imprecisions in shape having the
loaded strand (ideally adapts dynamically to the state of charge)
and the risk of bending the arc to unexpected stresses are problems
that require pre-compression and prestressing elements. Although
in most cases tend to be the cheapest and the technical solution
that best fits the acoustics and ventilation of the covered enclosure,
are vulnerable to vibration.
• Pneumatic structures. Wherein the closure membrane is subjected
to a pressurized state, may be considered within this group.

Applications[edit]
Construction[edit]
Space frames are a common feature in modern building construction; they are often found in large
roof spans in modernist commercial and industrial buildings.
Examples of buildings based on space frames include:

• Stansted airport, by Foster and Partners

• Bank of China Tower and the Louvre Pyramid, by I. M. Pei
• Rogers Centre by Rod Robbie and Michael Allan
• McCormick Place East in Chicago
• Eden Project in Cornwall, England
• Globen, Sweden - Dome with diameter of 110 m, (1989)
• Biosphere 2 by John P. Allen, Phil Hawes, Peter Jon Pearce in
Oracle, Arizona
• Jacob K. Javits Convention Center, New York City, New York
• Sochi International Airport in Sochi, Russia
• Entrance to Six Flags Magic Mountain
Large portable stages and lighting gantries are also frequently built from space frames and octet
trusses.
Vehicles[edit]

Yeoman YA-1 vs CA-6 Wackett frames.

Aircraft[edit]
The CAC CA-6 Wackett and Yeoman YA-1 Cropmaster 250R aircraft were built using roughly the
same welded steel tube fuselage frame.
Cars[edit]
Spaceframes are sometimes used in the chassis designs of automobiles and motorcycles. In both a
spaceframe and a tube-frame chassis, the suspension, engine, and body panels are attached to a
skeletal frame of tubes, and the body panels have little or no structural function. By contrast, in
a unibody or monocoque design, the body serves as part of the structure.
Tube-frame chassis pre-date spaceframe chassis and are a development of the earlier ladder
chassis. The advantage of using tubes rather than the previous open channel sections is that they
resist torsional forces better. Some tube chassis were little more than a ladder chassis made with
two large diameter tubes, or even a single tube as a backbone chassis. Although many tubular
chassis developed additional tubes and were even described as "spaceframes", their design was
rarely correctly stressed as a spaceframe and they behaved mechanically as a tube ladder chassis,
with additional brackets to support the attached components, suspension, engine etc. The distinction
of the true spaceframe is that all the forces in each strut are either tensile or compression, never
bending.[11] Although these additional tubes did carry some extra load, they were rarely diagonalised
into a rigid spaceframe.[11]
The first true spaceframe chassis were produced in the 1930s by designers such as Buckminster
Fuller and William Bushnell Stout (the Dymaxion and the Stout Scarab) who understood the theory
of the true spaceframe from either architecture or aircraft design. [12]
The first racing car to attempt a spaceframe was the Cisitalia D46 of 1946.[12] This used two small
diameter tubes along each side, but they were spaced apart by vertical smaller tubes, and so were
not diagonalised in any plane. A year later, Porsche designed their Type 360 for Cisitalia. As this
included diagonal tubes, it can be considered the first true spaceframe.[12]

Jaguar C-Type frame

The Maserati Tipo 61 of 1959 (Birdcage) is often thought of as the first but in 1949 Dr. Robert
Eberan-Eberhorst designed the Jowett Jupiter exhibited at the London Motor Show in 1949 and
taking a class win at the 1950 Le Mans 24hr. Later the small British car manufacturers developed
the concept TVR produced an alloy-bodied two seater on a multi tubular chassis, which appeared in
1949.
Colin Chapman of Lotus introduced his first 'production' car, the Mark VI, in 1952. This was
influenced by the Jaguar C-Type chassis, another with four tubes of two different diameters,
separated by narrower tubes. Chapman reduced the main tube diameter for the lighter Lotus, but did
not reduce the minor tubes any further, possibly because he considered that this would appear
flimsy to buyers.[11] Although widely described as a spaceframe, Lotus did not build a true
spaceframe chassis until the Mark VIII, with the influence of other designers, with experience from
the aircraft industry.[11]
Other notable examples of space frame cars include the Audi A8, Audi R8, Ferrari 360, Lamborghini
Gallardo, Mercedes-Benz SLS AMG, Pontiac Fiero and Saturn S-Series.

Chilean kitcar showing off its spaceframe structure (2013).

A large number of kit cars, possibly the majority made in the UK, use space frame construction,
because manufacture in small quantity requires only simple and inexpensive jigs, and it is relatively
easy for an amateur designer to achieve good stiffness with a space frame. Generally the space
frames are MIG welded, although the more expensive kits often use TIG welding, a slower and more
highly skilled process. Many of these resemble the Lotus Mark VII in general outline and mechanical
layout, however others are close replicas of the AC Cobra or Italian supercars, but some are original
designs resembling no other vehicle. Often, considerable effort has been made by the designers to
produce true space frames, with all points of significant load braced in 3 dimensions, resulting in
strength and stiffness comparable to, or better than, typical production cars. Others are tube frames
but not true space frames because they use relatively large diameter tubes, often curved, which are
carrying bending loads, but due to the large diameter remain adequately rigid. However some
inferior designs are not true space frames, because the tubes are carrying considerable bending
loads. This will result in considerable flexing due to dynamic loads, and ultimately fatigue fracture, a
failure mechanism which is rare in a correctly designed true space frame. The reduced stiffness will
also impair the handling.
A drawback of the spaceframe chassis is that it encloses much of the working volume of the car and
can make access for both the driver and to the engine difficult. Some spaceframes have been
designed with removable sections, joined by bolted pin joints. Such a structure had already been
used around the engine of the Lotus Mark III.[13] Although somewhat inconvenient, an advantage of
the spaceframe is that the same lack of bending forces in the tubes that allow it to be modelled as
a pin-jointed structure also means that such a removable section need not reduce the strength of the
assembled frame.

Moulton Bicycle at the Museum of Modern Art.

2006 Ducati Monster S2R 1000.

Motorcycles and Bicycles[edit]

Italian motorbike manufacturer Ducati extensively uses tube frame chassis on its models.
Space frames have also been used in bicycles, such as those designed by Alex Moulton.

See also[edit]
• Backbone chassis
• Body-on-frame
• Framing (construction)
• Monocoque
• Platonic solids
• Stressed skin construction
• Superleggera
• Tensegrity
• Tessellated roof
• Tetrahedral-octahedral honeycomb

References[edit]
1. ^ Tetrasteel. "Space frame structures".
2. ^ "Alexander Graham Bell".
3. ^ Alexander Graham Bell (June 1903). "Tetrahedral Principle In Kite
Structure". National Geographic Magazine. XIV (6).
4. ^ "Modular space grids". Archived from the original on 2016-09-15.
5. ^ "Unibat system".
6. ^ Cláudia Estrela Porto (2014). "Stéphane de Chateau's
work"(PDF). Architectus. 4 (40): 51–64.
7. ^ Evolution of Space Frames Archived November 19, 2015, at
the Wayback Machine Cities Now
8. ^ Dorothy Harley Eber, via telephone (June 29, 1978). "Fuller on Bell".
9. ^ Otero C. (1990). "Diseño geométrico de cúpulas no esféricas
aproximadas por mallas triangulares, con un número mínimo de
longitudes de barra". Tesis Doctoral. Universidad de Cantabria.
10. ^ Cavia Sorret (1993).
11. ^ Jump up to:a b c d Ludvigsen & Colin Chapman, p. 153–154
12. ^ Jump up to:a b c Ludvigsen, Karl (2010). Colin Chapman: Inside the
Innovator. Haynes Publishing. pp. 150–164. ISBN 1-84425-413-5.
13. ^ Ludvigsen & Colin Chapman, p. 151
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