1.

Introduction to space frames

1.1. Introduction
Space structures are a leaf taken from Nature. Natural forms possess exceptional
rigidity and use minimum materials to maximum structural advantage. To quote
Makowski, ‘Natural forms act in the direction of minimum effort’. In 1940, Le
Recolais, a well-known exponent of space frames, drew attention to the geodesic
type of spherical surfaces that characterize the bone skeletons of Radia tuscaretta
globosa. Man has not been slow in copying these examples drawn from Nature.
It may not perhaps be well known that Alexander Graham Bell, the inventor of the
telephone, was one of the first to appreciate the merits of space frames and apply
them in actual construction. In fact, he built one of the early versions of a flying
machine using a multi-layered space frame concept. As the saving in weight is more
critical in aircraft structures than in buildings, it is not surprising that the earliest
efforts to take advantage of the lightness of space frames, stemming from their
structural efficiency, were in building flying machines. It is in this context that the
Wright brothers discovered the possibilities offered by the tetrahedron.
Historically, the earliest space structures to be built were the domes pioneered by
the German Engineers Schwedler and Zimmermann in the nineteenth century.
Zimmermann achieved a span of 361 ft for an Exhibition Structure built at Lyons as
early as 1894. The Schwedler-type dome built over the Civic Centre at Charlotte,
North Carolina, USA, immediately after the Second World War had a clear span of
332 ft. These indeed were remarkable feats for those times. These early experiments
were all but forgotten until 1937, when Dr Mengeringhausen revived interest in
space frames. He realized that the promotion of space frames on a large scale would
be possible only if the system lent itself to factory production and field assembly. To
achieve these twin objectives, it was necessary to reduce variety and develop a means
of easy assembly. Ideally, a space frame must consist of members of identical length,
although a practical compromise is often to settle for as few different lengths
as possible. Dr Mengeringhausen’s pioneering topological studies were aimed at
reducing variety and his invention of the MERO connector elegantly solved the
problem of easy assembly. With these developments, Mengeringhausen was able
to successfully commercialize space frames in 1942. His universal MERO node
connector (Fig. 1.1) can accept as many as 18 members at different angles in tapped

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2 STEEL SPACE FRAMES

Welded seam

Hole for insertion

of bolt

Dowel pin
Cap

End cone Tube

Sleeve

Node

Threaded bolt
Cap

Fig. 1.1. The MERO system. (Reproduced with permission from Hiroyuki [1.13])

holes distributed over its surface. It became possible, for the first time, to build
space frames out of precise mass-produced factory-made components that could be
assembled in simple Mechano fashion. Transportation posed no problems, because
the individual components were of manageable size and weight. Complex space
frames can be built even at remote locations using relatively unskilled labour.
Mengeringhausen’s work triggered similar developments all over the world. The
following years witnessed a proliferation of proprietary systems. Octatube, Nodus,
Unistrut, Unibat, Space Deck and Triodetic and their variations are among the
systems that were developed during this period in different parts of the world. Some
of these systems are described in later paragraphs in this chapter.

1.2. Definition of a space frame

Drawing on the report on the state-of-the-art issued in 1984 by the International
Association for Shell and Spatial Structures (IASS) [1.1], one may adopt the
following definition:

A Space Frame is a structural system, assembled of linear elements so arranged

that the loads are transferred in a three-dimensional manner. In some cases, the
constituent elements may be two-dimensional. Macroscopically, a space frame
often takes the form of a flat or curved surface.

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INTRODUCTION TO SPACE FRAMES 3

In the 1976 American Society of Civil Engineers report entitled Lattice Structures:
State-of-the-Art Report [1.2] space frames are referred to as lattice structures and are
defined as:
… a structural system in the form of a network of elements (as opposed to a
continuous surface) … another characteristic of lattice structural systems is
that their load-carrying mechanism is three dimensional in nature.
A distinction is sometimes drawn between space frames and space trusses.
According to this terminology, space trusses are those systems that are pin-jointed,
while the term space frame is reserved for structures with rigid joints. In this chapter,
following the IASS Working Group’s report, ‘space frame’ is used as a generic term,
of which space trusses are merely a subset.

1.3. Advantages of space frames

• They are light, structurally efficient and use materials optimally.
• They are an elegant and economical means of covering large column-free spaces
for a variety of applications, including sports structures, auditoria, aircraft
hangars and assembly halls.
• They carry loads by three-dimensional action. Loads applied at a point are not
merely carried by the members meeting at that joint but are dispersed to be
shared by a large number of other members. It is thus possible to transfer heavy
concentrated loads to any joint. This characteristic is especially useful in aircraft
maintenance hangars, because it permits docking systems to be hung from
nodes, providing unlimited flexibility.
• Deflections are small because of the high inherent stiffness. This characteristic is
taken advantage of in using space frames as back-up structures for parabolic dish
antennas [1.3], multi-plate antennas [1.4] and telescopes [1.5], which demand
high rigidity as well as lightness. The accuracy required for such applications is
so high that the tolerances are specified in terms of the root mean square
of the deviations from the ideal surface. Space frames meet these exacting
requirements.
• Because space frames are put together by using precise, factory-made
components, unskilled labour is adequate for their assembly and erection.
• Services, such as lighting and air conditioning, can be integrated with space
frames and they can often be installed on the ground itself, thus obviating the
hazards of working at heights.
• Space frames save construction time, because they use factory-produced
components that can be manufactured by fast production techniques, transported
to the site and easily erected.
• Each of the components is light, facilitating transportation.
• They offer the architect unrestricted freedom in locating supports and planning
the subdivision of the covered space.
• Being light structures, dead loads are very much less and there are consequent
savings in columns and substructures.

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4 STEEL SPACE FRAMES

1.4. Shells and space frames

Space frames are akin to shells in structural behaviour, indeed so much so that they
may be described as ‘sisters under the skin’. These similarities may be summarized as
follows:
• Loads applied are primarily carried by axial forces (tension or compression)
with little or no bending.
• Deflections are small because of the inherent stiffness.
• Both are efficient structural forms, optimizing the use of materials.
Because of these close similarities in structural behaviour, preliminary analysis
of space frames can often be carried out by the continuum analogy, involving the
replacement of a space frame by an equivalent shell or plate.

1.5. Components of a space frame

A space frame consists of axial members, which are preferably tubes, also known as
circular hollow sections or rectangular hollow sections, and connectors, which join
the members together. Other structural sections such as I- and H-sections are also
occasionally used, especially if loads that are transferred to the members between
nodes cause bending in addition to axial forces. Where loads are applied only at
nodes, circular and rectangular hollow sections have an edge over other section
types because they are more efficient in compression, offering a higher radius of
gyration for the same area. Circular hollow sections have the further advantage that
their moments of inertia are the same in all directions.

1.6. Members
The members of a space frame are either of aluminium or steel. Aluminium
members are of light weight but are more expensive. The large majority of space
frames use members of steel with a yield strength ranging from 210 to 450 MPa. The
tubes may be electrically resistance welded or seamless.
The Allied & Conduit Corporation, USA, manufactures a proprietary electrical
resistance welded steel tube known as a Flocoat tube, with a yield strength of
450 MPa. The unique process involves the use of steel strips cold-rolled into a
precision tube which is continuously hot-dip galvanized followed by the on-line
application of a protective coat to make it rust-proof. This process is shown
schematically in Fig. 1.2.
The protective coats applied on-line over the galvanizing consist of a chromate
conversion coat followed by a clear polymer coating. This proprietary tube has an
edge over ordinary steel tubes in two respects:
• it has very high corrosion resistance
• it has a higher yield strength of 450 MPa.
When Flocoat tubes are not available, it is recommended that steel tubes and
connectors be galvanized and powder-coated to the colour of the client’s choice if
superior corrosion resistance and aesthetics are desired.

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INTRODUCTION TO SPACE FRAMES 5

High-quality steel

Cold formed into tubular shape to

increase yield/tensile strength

Electrically or induction welded

Hot dipped in zinc for uniform

galanizing

Water quenched

Immersed in substrate coating for

additional corrosion protection
Coated a third time with a clear, tough
organic compound that synergistically
enhances the corrosion resistance of Cutting to length
the zinc coating and allows fabrication
without flaking
Interior coated with a specially
developed protective material
Curing cycle
Tube cut to desired length

Chromate
substrate
application

Additional
exterior coatings
Tube welding

In-line Flo-Coat
Tube forming zinc galvanizing

Steel coil

Fig. 1.2. The Flocoat process

When on-line galvanizing is not possible during manufacture, it is the normal

practice to subject tubes to hot-dip galvanizing, both inside and out, to ensure
adequate corrosion resistance. The tubes may be powder-coated to provide
additional protection.

1.7. Node connectors

MERO is an abbreviation for Mengeringhausen, the inventor of the connector. The
MERO connector (see Fig. 1.1) consists of the following components:

• A threaded spherical ball of hot forged steel with as many as 18 tapped holes, at
different angles, distributed evenly over its surface, to receive tubular members
at different angles. The sphere has flat surfaces around the threaded holes to
improve the seating of the spanner sleeve. The holes are precisely drilled so that
the centre lines of the tubes at a node meet at the centre of the sphere.
• A bolt, which is inserted through a hole in the tubular member and passes
through a cone welded to the end of the tube.

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6 STEEL SPACE FRAMES

• A hexagonal spanner sleeve.

• A dowel pin, which goes through the threaded bolt and connects it to the
spanner sleeve.
The following sequence is involved in installing the tube in the node:
• The tubes are cut to the correct lengths.
• The end cones are welded to both ends of the tube.
• The member with the end cones is galvanized.
• The bolts are inserted through the holes at the end of the tubes.
• The inserted bolts are connected to the spanner sleeves by the dowel pin. The
spanner sleeve is also galvanized.
• The bolts are driven into the drilled holes in the spherical ball using the spanner
sleeve. To improve the appearance, the holes in the tubes provided for inserting
the bolts may be covered with a plastic cap. The connector shown in Fig.
1.1 is suitable only for transmitting axial loads, and it is primarily used for
double-layer grids.

1.8. New generation of MERO node connectors

In recent years MERO has introduced four new node connectors that are
particularly suitable for single-layer, shell-type space frames, which need flexural
rigidity at the nodes to improve stability. These connectors are:
• the cylindrical node connector ZK
• the plate-disc node connector TK
• the hollow hemi-spherical node connector NK
• the block node connector BK.
For more information on the MERO system, the MERO catalogue [1.6] may be
consulted.

1.9. The Octatube and Tuball node connectors

The Octatube node connector developed by Prof. Dr Ir. Mick Eekhout of
The Netherlands consists of an octagonal base plate to which are welded two
semi-octagonal plates placed at right angles to each other. The Octatube node
connector is a plate connector (Fig. 1.3). The tubes meeting at a node are flattened
and connected by means of high-strength bolts. Developed in 1973, this node
connector can be manufactured in any well-equipped workshop. The connector
is designed for space frames meant to roof workshops, warehouses and other
structures where cost rather than aesthetics is the governing consideration. It is
possible to use sections other than tubes to effect the connection if a plate is welded
to the end of the member. The space frame roof of the arrival hall at Bangalore
Airport was built using this system (Fig. 1.4).
The Tuball connector, developed by Eekhout in 1984 [1.7], is a hollow sphere
made of spheroidal graphite. One-fourth of the sphere comprises a cap and the rest
is a cup (Fig. 1.5). The end of the circular or rectangular hollow section member to

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INTRODUCTION TO SPACE FRAMES 7

(a)
Tube

A A

Holes

Member
SECTION A–A

Holes B Nut
Weld
Section B–B

Weld
Bolt

Base Holes
plate B

Joint

Web
member
(b) 2Q
2Q 2Q
Web
member
Chord
member
2Q
2Q 2Q
2Q 2Q
Chord
member Case 1

4Q 4Q Web
member
2Q
2Q 2Q

Chord
2Q 2Q member
2Q

4Q 4Q

Case 3 Octagonal plate

Case 2

Fig. 1.3. The Octatube system: (a) the components; (b) assembly patterns of the nodes. (Reproduced
with permission from Hiroyuki [1.13])

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8 STEEL SPACE FRAMES

be connected is fitted at its ends with threaded solid props by welding. Working from
inside the cup, high-strength bolts, normally of 8.8 or 10.9 grade, according to the
British Standard Code, are driven into the threaded prop by means of a torque
wrench. Coning of the ends of the tube is resorted to if tubes of large diameter are to
be accommodated without congestion (Fig. 1.6) over the surface of the cup. If the
tension to be transmitted to a node exceeds the permissible tensile strength of the
node, the member is carried through the node by using a threaded rod to connect the
ends of the tubes (see Fig. 1.6). Being hollow, the Tuball node tends to be lighter
than a solid forged node. It is also less expensive, because spheroidal graphite costs
less than forged steel. The Tubal node has been used successfully for building
numerous space frames in India, the United Arab Emirates and the Far East using
relatively unskilled labour.

1.10. The Nodus system

The Nodus connector (Fig. 1.7) is a precision engineered product developed by the
Tubes Division of the British Steel Corporation [1.8]. Its advantages are that it can
accept both rectangular and circular hollow sections and that the cladding can be
fixed directly to the chords. This is possible because the node is flush with the chords.
The two half-casings, which are the principal components of the system, are made of
spheroidal graphite of grade SNG 27/12 conforming to BS 2789 with a Charpy
impact value at 0°C of not less than 4.5 ft-lb and a 0.5% proof stress of not less than
19 t/m2. The chord connectors have to be welded to the ends of the hollow members
on site using a specially designed jig.

Fig. 1.4. The space frame over the arrival hall at Bangalore Airport, Bangalore, India

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INTRODUCTION TO SPACE FRAMES 9

Alien head
bolt
Node
Bolt
X X

Prop
Tube

PLAN SECTION X–X

Cap Tuball node

Prop
Tube

Weld

Cup

Fig. 1.5. The Tuball connector

Tube

Bolt

Prop
Tuball node
Threaded bolt

Coned ends

Fig. 1.6. A Tuball node with a threaded rod and coned props

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10 STEEL SPACE FRAMES

The space frame over the Gatwick railway station concourse in England is a good
example of the application of the Nodus system (Fig. 1.8). The design brief called for
a 63 m by 33 m concourse with no interior columns. The pre-set parameters and the
need to integrate the concourse with the grid and orientation of the British Airport
Authority’s building at the concourse level limited the options open to the architect
and structural engineer. Causing minimum inconvenience to passengers and to
British Rail was a major consideration that led to the choice of the Nodus space
frame. Assembling the space frame on the ground and lifting it into position was not
feasible at Gatwick due to the restricted space available. The structure was therefore
assembled in situ on scaffolding.
This multi-layer space frame utilized 84 t of structural hollow sections (88.9 mm ¥
3.2 mm and 114.3 mm ¥ 6.3 mm circular hollow sections; 120 mm ¥ 120 mm ¥ 8.0 mm
rectangular hollow sections), mostly of grade 43C with a small amount of grade 50C
steel. In total 725 nodes were used. The engineer for the project was Mr F. S. Proctor,
Chief Engineer, British Rail, Southern Region, the main contractor was Cementation
Construction Ltd, and the steelwork subcontractor was Fairfield Malery Ltd. More
detailed information on the project is available elsewhere [1.9].

Fig. 1.7. The Nodus joint. (Reproduced with permission from Hiroyuki [1.12])

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INTRODUCTION TO SPACE FRAMES 11

Fig. 1.8. The Nodus space frame over the concourse of the Gatwick railway station

Fig. 1.9. The Triodetic joint. (Reproduced with permission from Hiroyuki [1.13])

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12 STEEL SPACE FRAMES

1.11. The Triodetic connector

The Triodetic connector, due to A. E. Fentiman, is a Canadian development. It
consists of a hub, usually an aluminium extrusion, that has slots or key ways, and the
ends of members are pressed or coined to match the slots (Fig. 1.9). The member is

(a)

Top chord Top chord

angle A B angle B

Diagonal
member Weld

Boss
Diagonal
member

Weld

Weld

A Weld Boss

SECTION A–A SECTION B–B

(b)
Top chord angles
Bolt

Diagonal

Coupler

Secondary tie bar Boss stud

Main tie bar

Forged boss

Fig. 1.10. The Space Deck unit: (a) the components; (b) the standard assembly. (Reproduced with
permission from Hiroyuki [1.13])

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INTRODUCTION TO SPACE FRAMES 13

Fig. 1.11. The Unibat system. (Reproduced with permission from Hiroyuki [1.13])

inserted into the slot with slight pressure. The central stud and retaining washer hold
the assembly together. A hub can accommodate 12 members. It is claimed that the
connector can be used with steel as well as aluminium tubes. It is stated that if steel
tubes conform to SAE 1010 and SAE 1020 (US designation) or 65ST6 (Canadian
designation), there is no risk of electrolytic corrosion [1.10]. Most of the structures
built using this system consist of aluminium tubes and aluminium connectors [1.11].

1.12. Modular systems

Space frame systems may be roughly categorized as nodular and modular systems.
The systems described so far in this chapter are nodular systems, which consist of
members and nodes. In modular systems, instead of members there are prefabricated
units, normally in the form of pyramids, which are joined together by means of
high-strength friction bolts. Two well-known modular systems are described below.

1.12.1. The Space Deck system

The components of the Space Deck system are shown in Fig. 1.10. Developed by the
British firm Space Deck, the system has been in use since 1954. It consists of
factory-produced inverted pyramids composed of the top chords, and four diagonal
bracing members. The pyramids are connected together by means of bottom tie
members and bolts.

1.12.2. The Unibat system

The components of the Unibat system and the manner in which they are put
together are shown in Fig. 1.11. The four top chord members and the four diagonal

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14 STEEL SPACE FRAMES

Fig. 1.12. The platform shelter at Thirumailai Station, LUZ, Chennai, India

Fig. 1.13. The dome over the exhibition hall at Pragati Maidan, for the Trade Fair Authority, New
Delhi, India

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INTRODUCTION TO SPACE FRAMES 15

Fig. 1.14. The space frame over the domestic cooking gas bottling plant, for the Indian Oil
Corporation, Cuddapah, India

Fig. 1.15. The Haj Terminal, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia

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16 STEEL SPACE FRAMES

9000

9000

9000
9000
Arches

9000

9000

9000

9000

9000

4500
(a)

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 (b)
INTRODUCTION TO SPACE FRAMES

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Fig. 1.16. The roof of the Maritime Museum built for the port of Singapore Authority by L&M Prestressing PTE Ltd: (a) the frame plan; (b) cross-section
18 STEEL SPACE FRAMES

bracings comprise the factory-made inverted pyramid. Forged pieces at the four
corners and an apex piece at the bottom permit the modules to be connected
together by means of high-strength friction bolts. Modular units are quicker to
assemble in the field and they eliminate expensive node connectors.

1.13. New node connectors

A number of new space frame systems have recently become available on the
Japanese market. Among these are the Tomoe Unit Truss, the TM Truss, the NS
Space Truss, the SS Space Truss and the KT Truss. A detailed description of these is
given in a paper by Kawaguchi [1.12]. A comprehensive survey of nodular and
modular systems has recently been presented by Hiroyuki Tomatsuri [1.13].

1.14. Types of space frame

1.14.1. Two- and three-way grids
Space frames are characterized as two-way or three-way, depending on whether the
members intersecting at a node run in two or three directions.

1.14.2. Single-, double- and triple-layered space frames

A single-layer space frame has to be singly or doubly curved. Barrel vaults (Fig. 1.12)
and domes (Fig. 1.13) are examples. By far the most common space frames are
double layered and flat (Fig. 1.14). The structural depth of a space frame increases
with its span. For very large spans the structural depth becomes large, as does the
length of the diagonal bracing members. In such instances a triple-layer space frame
may be an appropriate solution. The middle layer, being located at the neutral
surface, has little or no structural function, but it does reduce the length of the
bracing members, making it possible to use lighter sections. Multiple-layer, flat
space frames are discussed in detail in Chapter 6. A triple-layer space frame with a
five-layer front girder of 129 m unsupported span used to roof the recently
completed maintenance hangar for Air India at Mumbai is described in Chapter 6 .

1.15. Fabric structures

The development of modern fabric structures may be traced to the pioneering
investigations of Frei Otto at the Institutus für leichte Flächen Tragwerke,
University of Stuttgart [1.14]. The fabric normally used is woven from fibreglass
yarn coated with PTFE (polytetrafluoroethene), commonly known as Teflon). This
material was developed by the CHEMFAB Corporation, USA, in association with
Du Pont Company and Owens Corning Fibreglass. The first fabric roof using this
new material was built for the student centre at La Verne College, California, USA,
in 1972. The PTFE used to coat the fabric is one of the most chemically inert of
plastics. Its low heat transmission characteristics, long service life (estimated at
25 years), translucency, and ability to withstand ultraviolet radiation, moisture and
pollutants makes Teflon-coated fibreglass an ideal roofing material. In wide-span

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INTRODUCTION TO SPACE FRAMES 19

Fig. 1.17. The fabric structure of the Maritime Museum, Singapore

roofing applications the fabric may be reinforced using cables and supported on
poles or suspended from overhead cables.
The most outstanding application of cable-reinforced fabric structures suspended
from overhead cables is the Haj Terminal at the Abdul Aziz International Airport at
Jeddah, which was built to accommodate the unusually high traffic during the Haj
Pilgrimage [1.15]. The terminal covers 105 acres, has a covered area of 500 000 m2
and can accommodate 50 000 pilgrims. Designed by Skidmore, Owings and Merril,
the terminal comprises 210 tent-shaped roofs, each 45 m by 45 m in plan, formed
from suspended, cable-reinforced, Teflon-coated, fibreglass fabric (Fig. 1.15). The
modules, which are catenoids on square ground plans, reflect the vernacular tent
architectural tradition. The translucent, heat-insulating fabric lets in diffused light
and provides a comfortable ambience in the desert. However, Teflon-coated
fibreglass fabric is expensive, and PVC-coated polyester, which is self-extinguishing,
meets all the code requirements and is often preferred as a cheaper alternative.
Cable-reinforced fabric structures similar to those used to roof the Haj Terminal
involve non-developable surfaces that pose several complex problems. These relate
to the development of fabric cutting patterns and sealing of the seams. These
problems may be overcome by draping the pretensioned fabric over a developable
cylindrical surface such as a barrel vault, as was done for two structures built for the
Port of Singapore Authority to house a maritime museum and an exhibition hall.
These structures involve two braced cylindrical barrel vaults of size 27 m ¥ 57.8 m
and 31.2 m ¥ 83.8 m. The structural arrangement adopted was the same for both

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20 STEEL SPACE FRAMES

vaults. The barrel vaults involve double-layered arches spaced 9 m apart (Fig. 1.16).
The structural designs of L&M pre-stressing were proof-checked by the first author
for Permafab Pty Ltd, Australia, who supplied the Teflon-coated, glass-fibre fabric
for the project. A view of the finished museum is shown in Fig. 1.17.
The imaginative combination of space frames, cable-stays and fabrics opens up an
unlimited array of possibilities for developing elegant and cost-effective solutions
for enclosing large column-free spaces for a diversity of applications.

1.16. References
1.1. Analysis, design and realization of space frames: a state-of-the-art report. Bulletin of the
International Association of Shell and Spatial Structures, Special Issue, 1984, 15(84/85).
1.2. TASK COMMITTEE ON LATTICED STRUCTURES, COMMITTEE ON SPECIAL STRUCTURES,
COMMITTEE ON METALS, STRUCTURAL DIVISION. Latticed structures: state-of-the-art
report. Journal of the Structural Division, ASCE, 1976, 102(ST11).
1.3. RAJARAMAN, A., APPA RAO, T. V. S. R, KHADAKKAR, A. G. and RAMASWAMY, G. S.
Minimum weight designs of parabolic antennas. Proceedings of the 2nd International
Conference on Space Structures, University of Surrey, Guildford, 1975, pp. 804–809.
1.4. LACOPULOS, A. J. Space frames for multiple antenna reflecting panels. Proceedings of the
International Conference on Space Structures, University of Surrey, Guildford, 1966, pp.
1134–1143.
1.5. MEDWADOWSKI, S. J. Space frames in architecture and science. Bulletin of the International
Association for Shells and Space Structures, 1996, XXVII-3(92/93); 1997, XXVIII-1, 7–12.
1.6. EEKHOUT, M. Architecture in Space Structures, UITGEVERIJ 010, Delft, 1989, p. 85.
1.7. MERO – Raumstruktur GmbH Co., Würzburg, Postfach 6169, D-8700 Würzburg, Germany.
1.8. BRITISH STEEL CORPORATION. NODUS Space Frame Grids. Part 3: Construction,
Structural Advisory Service, Tubes Division, Croydon, 1984.
1.9. BRITISH STEEL CORPORATION. Tubular Structures 34, Structural Advisory Service, Tubes
Division, Corby.
1.10. FENTIMAN, H. G. Development in Canada in the fabrication and construction of three-
dimensional structures using the triodetic system. Proceedings of the First Conference on
Space Structures, University of Surrey, Guildford, 1966, pp. 1073–1082.
1.11. ELLIOT, A. W. Triodetic domes. In: Z. S. Makowski (ed.) Analysis, Design and Construction
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