BIOLOGICAL MACROMOLECULES

- Molecules found in organisms in which they are

reliant on for survival
- Variety of functions (enzymes, hormones, energy,
storing information, etc.)
- Four main types
- Chemical Groups (bonded atoms found in specific
biological macromolecules)
o Dictates the identity and function of a specific
molecules
 Example: Without amino groups, there
won’t be any amino acids; hence, no
proteins as well.
CARBOHYDRATES
- Monomer
o Basic: Monosaccharides (Ex: Glucose)
o Forms: Disaccharides and Polysaccharides (Polymers)
o Glycosidic Bonds (sugar to sugar or sugar and other molecules)
- Examples
o Sucrose (Glucose + Fructose)
o Lactose (Galactose + Glucose)
o Maltose (Glucose + Glucose)
o Starch (Multiple Polymers of Glucose) – founds in plants, tubers of potatoes, and
rice
- Functions
o Energy source (starch in tubers of potatoes for energy storage)
o Structural (Ex: Chitin – exoskeletons of arthropods)
LIPIDS
- Generally immiscible with water
- Basic form
o Extremely diverse but basically;
 Glycerol and fatty acids
 Modifications can alter function and structure
- Functions
o Energy Storage (animals rely on such through fats and adipose tissues
(adipocytes))
o Hormones (Ex: Testosterone, Steroid Hormones and Cortisol)
o Insulation (body fats for insulating heat)
o Waterproofing (waxes covering leaf surfaces to prevent water from escaping or
dehydration)
o Membrane-forming (cell membrane is made up of a lipid bilayer (phospholipids))
PROTEINS
- Monomer: most basic building block is an amino acid -> linked by
peptide bond
 - Protein identities are based on amino acid chains, how these locally form structures, etc.
- 21 amino acids found in organisms
- Levels of Structures
o Primary: Chain of Amino Acids (what is present and what is connected to)
o Secondary: Local Structure (coils and folds) -> beta pleaded sheets (folds) and
alpha helices (coils)
o Tertiary: 3D shape or structure
o Quaternary: polypeptide chaining (NOT REACHED BY ALL PROTEINS)
 Peptides – chain of amino acids
 Oligopeptide – chain of less than 15 amino acids
 Polypeptides – chain of multiple amino acids
- Functions
o Enzymes – substances that catalyze reactions in the body
o Structural
o Mobility (Ex: Actin and Myosin which are found in muscles)
o Reception and signaling for cell-to-cell communication
NUCLEIC ACIDS
- Monomer: Nucleotide
- Basic Form: Phosphate Group + Pentose Sugar + Nitrogenous Base (will dictate what
type)
- 5 Major Nitrogenous Bases – Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, Uracil (RNA), Thymine (DNA)
- Polynucleotide Chain
o Between phosphate group of one nucleotide and pentose sugar of another
o Phosphodiester bond
o In DNA and RNA, individual nucleic acids are connected by phosphodiester
bonds. In DNA, however, the two strands of nucleic acids are connected by
hydrogen bonds.
CENTRAL DOGMA OF MOLECULAR BIOLOGY
- How information is transcribed and translated from DNA
- DNA can produce more DNAs through REPLICATION in the nucleus
- DNA can produce MRNAs through TRANSCRIPTION in the nucleus
o DNA unwinds by breaking hydrogen bonds between two strands
o 3’ to 5’ direction by which the sugars are aligned – this is read and transcribed to
a complementary strand of MRNAs (5’ to 3’ direction)
o Proteins are produced from the resultant MRNAs through TRANSLATION
 Sequence of three (3) nucleotides – CODONS until C-Terminus
 Methionine (AUG) – START CODON

ANIMAL CELLS
- Prokaryotes vs Eukaryotes (with Membrane Bound
Organelles)
 o Archaea, Eubacteria, and Eukarya (Plants, Animals, Fungi) – Domains of Life
ORGANELLES
1. Cell/Plasma Membrane
o Delineates the cell
o The fluid mosaic model (describes the structure)
 Fluid, consistently moving (not rigid)
 Multiple molecules embedded within the membrane itself (proteins,
carbohydrates, and cholesterol)
o Made up of a phospholipid bilayer (one polar end – hydrophilic head and one
non-polar end – hydrophobic tail)
o Selectively permeable (can allow specific substances to enter and exit the cell)
o Examples of Membrane Proteins
 Integral (within the entire bilayer)
 Enzymatic, Recognition, Transport, and Adhesion
 Peripheral (inner or outer surface only)
 Electron carriers, transporters, and structural
2. Nucleus
o Control center of the cell (regulates and controls activities) -> because it contains
information on how cellular processes should proceed
o Contains the chromosomes and nucleolus (for ribosome assembly)
3. Ribosomes
o Major sites of protein synthesis
o Be found in either the rough endoplasmic reticulum (BOUND) or cytoplasm
(FREE)
4. Endoplasmic Reticulum
o Synthesis of various substances
o Either smooth or rough (studded with ribosomes)
 Smooth - Lipid synthesis, carbohydrate breakdown, processing of certain
chemical substances
 Rough – Protein synthesis through ribosomes, membrane synthesis
5. Golgi Apparatus
o Receive, process, and ship off products (Ex: proteins produced by RER)
o Has a “receiving side” called the cis face to receive vesicles
o Composed of cisternae
 Modification happens here until the product reaches trans-face for
shipping off
o Three (3) main destinations – lysosomes, plasma membrane, outside area of the
cell
o Other functions: carbohydrate synthesis and protein modification
6. Lysosomes
o For digestion and waste disposal
o Fuse with different structures to perform certain functions
 Food breakdown for release into the cytosol
 Breakdown of foreign bodies
  Lysis of damaged organelles
7. Mitochondria
o A membrane-bound organelles that produces ATP
o Other functions:
 Plays a role in apoptosis (programmed cell death)
 Detoxification (in some cells)
 Signaling
CELL CYCLE: INTERPHASE
o NOT a resting state
o Phases:
 Gap 1 (G1) – size, synthesis
 Synthesis (S) – DNA synthesis, chromosome doubling
NOTE: CHROMOSOME = 1 DNA STRAND THAT IS TIGHTLY COILED
 Gap 2 (G2) – size, synthesis, mitotic proteins
o Other functions in Interphase:
 Organelle Synthesis
 Checkpoints
- Cell Cycle Checkpoints
o Certain points in a cell’s life that will check
for errors
 Environmental factors and DNA
damage
o If errors are detected -> repair or destroy
itself (apoptosis)
- Cancer
o Errors in cell cycle’s checkpoints
o P53 – tumor suppressor protein
MITOSIS
o Cell division for somatic cells while meiosis is for gametes or sex cells
o When all checkpoints are cleared, the cell will undergo mitosis
o Parent cell produces 2 daughter cells which are genetically identical
- Chromatin Fibers
o Complex of DNA and histone proteins found inside the nucleus which will be
condensed into chromosomes later on
- Centrosome
o Organelle that organizes the mitotic spindle
- Mitotic Spindle
o Complex of proteins that will aid the proper segregation of chromosomes
- Prophase
o Chromatin fibers condense into chromosomes
o Nucleolus disappears
o Nuclear envelope starts to disappear
o Centrosomes form mitotic spindles
- Prometaphase
 o Intermediate between prophase and metaphase
o Nuclear envelope DISINTEGRATES and chromosomes START MOVING to the
cell’s middle
- Metaphase
o Chromosomes align at the middle part (metaphase plane)
o Other structures:
 Spindle Poles (where the centrosomes are)
 Mitotic spindles that are made up of microtubules (proteins)
- Anaphase
o Centromeres separate and guide each sister chromatid
along the mitotic spindles to opposite poles
- Telophase
o Reformation of nuclear envelope
o Disintegration of mitotic spindles
o Splitting of the cytoplasm
o Cleavage Furrow – part where the animal cell is spitting
o Cell Plate – for plants cells
- Telomeres
o Dictates the number of times that a cell can undergo mitosis
o Impossible to undergo mitosis indefinitely
o Very ends of a chromosome that are made up of non-coding DNA
o Gets shorter every cell division
o Coding sequences are cut out if the cell runs out of telomere in the case of
diseases such as cancer
- Applications of Mitosis
o Organism growth
o Injury recovery
o Asexual reproduction (Ex: Formation of buds as new organisms for sponges)