April 3 2020 Homework 4 Michelle Arias

1)
A. Composites: Two or more than two different materials (chemical distinct and insoluble to
each other), combining together through a interface, to form a new material. This new
material can offer better properties which cannot be offered by either of the constituent
materials separately.
B. FRP: Composites are also known as Fiber-Reinforced Polymer (FRP) composites.
Reinforcement: principle load-carrying component, such as fibrous materials Matrix:
bonding and protecting reinforcement, and acting as load transfer medium, such as epoxy
and polyester resins.
C. advanced composites: also known as advanced polymer matrix composites. These are
generally characterized or determined by unusually high strength fibers with unusually high
stiffness, or modulus of elasticity characteristics, while bound together by weaker matrices.
Advanced composites are replacing metal components in many uses. They are classified
according to their matrix phase: polymer matrix composites (PMCs), ceramic matrix
composites (CMCs), and metal matrix composites (MMCs).
D. microstructure of composites: Microstructures at scales smaller than can be viewed with
optical microscopes are often called nanostructure, while the structure in which individual
atoms are arranged is known as crystal structure. These structures determine many of the
essential qualities of a material. Image processing is a common technique to determine
morphological features such as volume fraction, inclusion morphology, void and crystal
orientations.
E. interface in composite materials: The interface is the area where the different materials
in a composite coincide. A thin but distinct region or layer between fiber and matrix, which
structure and properties are different from the bulk resin matrix due to the presence of the
fiber. A successful composite should have a strong interface in order to overcome stress.
F. fiber volume content: percentage of fiber volume in the entire volume of a fiber-reinforced
composite material. When manufacturing polymer composites, fibers are impregnated with
resin. The amount of resin to fiber ratio is calculated by the geometric organization of the
fibers. The content fiber reinforcement is important in determining the overall mechanical
properties of a composite. A higher fiber volume fraction typically results in better
mechanical properties.
G. Rule of Mixture: weighted mean used to predict various properties of a composite material
made up of fibers. The mean is based on the fibers, resin properties and concentration. Rule
of mixtures states that the overall property in the
direction parallel to the fibers may be as high as:

H. specific strength: is the material tensile strength divided by its density. It indicates how
lightweight is the material.
I. specific modulus: is the material elastic modulus divided by its density. Also known as
the stiffness to weight ratio or specific stiffness.
April 3 2020 Homework 4 Michelle Arias

J. anisotropic property: It means that the measurable strength and stiffness of the material is
in line with the direction of the fiber weave. Most of the strength and stiffness of that part
would be in the same direction. In simple words, the property is directionally dependent.
K. resin wetting: Solvent impregnated
resins are macroporous resins
impregnated with a solvent/an
extractant. In this approach, a liquid
extractant is contained within the pores
of (adsorption) particles. Contact angle
is the measure of how well a fluid wets a
solid. A smaller contact angle indicates
the liquid has good ability to penetrate
the micromechanical porosities of the
surface. For good wetting, an angle less
than 90º is needed.
Resin impregnation: The resin impregnation process precisely controls the fiber to resin
ratio and ply thickness. Darcy's law is commonly used to describe the factors influencing
impregnation of the fiber bed by the matrix resin. A low polymer viscosity facilitates
impregnation of the small-diameter (5–20 μm) reinforcing fibers at the required fiber
contents. Darcy's law is an equation that describes the flow of a fluid through a porous
medium.
L. reinforcement: Reinforcements for a composite can be fibers, fabrics particles or
whiskers. These are the load-carrying components of the composite. Providing strength,
heat resistance or conduction, resistance to corrosion and rigidity.
M. resin matrix: Composites are essentially composed of an organic resin matrix, inorganic
filler and silane agent that bonds the two parts together. Resin matrix systems are generally
epoxy, modified epoxy, or polyester. Their function is bonding and protecting
reinforcement and working as a load-transfer medium.
N. O. storage modulus and loss modulus: The storage modulus represents the energy stored
in the elastic structure of the sample. If it is higher than the loss modulus the material can
be regarded as mainly elastic. The loss modulus represents the viscous part or the amount
of energy dissipated in the sample. The ‘sum’ of loss and
storage modulus is called complex modulus. Storage
modulus is considered the real part and loss modulus the
imaginary part.
P. tan delta: ratio between the loss and storage modulus in a viscoelastic material. Provides
a measure of damping in the material. can also be visualized in vector space as the tangent
of the phase angle between the storage and loss modulus.
April 3 2020 Homework 4 Michelle Arias

2) Discuss the microstructure-property relationships of glass fiber, carbon fiber and Kevlar
fiber.

- Glass fiber: basis of textile-grade glass fibers is silica, SiO2. Typically the glass fibers
have diameter between 3.8 and 20 µm. Their structure consists of a : three-dimensional
long network of silicon and oxygen atoms. They present amorphous and isotropic
behavior. strength/weight ratios are higher than most other materials and their impact
resistance and thermal properties are good. Transparency and reasonable cost. However, it
had disadvantages such as high density, and sensitive to flaws and environment.
- Carbon fiber: Carbon fibers are fibers about 5–10 micrometres in diameter and composed
mostly of carbon atoms. Aligned crystalline graphic sheets with amorphous sections and
voids at the core. The C-C bonds are strong. High anisotropy is present. It is a lightweight
material with high tensile strength, stiffness, temperature tolerance and chemical
resistance. Disadvantage: high cost.
- Kevlar fiber: type of fiber called an aramid, short for 'aromatic polyamide', in which the
molecules form long, highly-oriented chains. The fibers can be spun or woven into mats or
fabrics. Kevlar is made by a condensation reaction of an amine and acid chloride. Chains
are relatively rigid and tend to form mostly planar sheets, similar to silk. This is due to the
Para-orientation of the benzene rings. The chains lock together via H-bonds to form a sheet
that has a very high tensile strength. The sheets also stack radically, like the spokes on a
wheel, allowing additional interactions between sheets which increase the strength of the
overall fiber. It has high strength, high modulus, toughness and thermal stability. It is
lightweight (1.44 g/cm^3), but costly.

3) There is an unidirectional hybrid composite of glass and carbon fibers. In this hybrid
composite, glass fiber volume is 20v% and carbon fiber volume content is 30v%. The resin
matrix is epoxy resin. The moduli of the resin, glass and carbon fibers are 3.5GPa, 75GPa
and 230GPa, respectively. Calculate the longitudinal modulus of this hybrid composites
and discuss the property and cost advantages of using hybrid composites, comparing to
conventional composites of single type fibers.

E = EgfVgf + EerVer + EcfVcf = 75GPa (0.20) + 3.5Gpa (0.50) + 230Gpa (0.30) = 85.75 GPa

Hybrid composites have unique features that can be used to meet various design requirements in a
more economical way than conventional composites. This is because expensive fibers like graphite
can be partially replaced cheaper fibers such as glass and Kevlar. Some advantages of hybrid
composites over conventional composites include balanced strength and stiffness, balanced
bending and membrane mechanical properties, balanced thermal distortion stability, reduced
weight and/or cost, improved fatigue resistance, reduced notch sensitivity, improved fracture
toughness and/or crack arresting properties, and improved impact resistance.
April 3 2020 Homework 4 Michelle Arias

4) What is DSC and DMA? Explain their working principles.

à Differential Scanning Calorimeter:

Thermal analysis technique in which the heat flow into or out of a sample is measured as a
function of temperature or time, while the sample is being heated, cooled or kept at
constant temperature. This technique helps determine the various material transitions that
take place in the substance to quantify many physical and mechanical properties. From the
test we will obtain a graph, from where we can determine characteristics such as glass
transition temperature, melting point, crystallization time and temperature, specific heat
capacity, oxidation behavior, and thermal stability.

à Dynamic Mechanical Analysis:

Technique where an oscillatory strain (or stress) is applied to a sample at desired
temperature and frequency, then, the resulting stress (or strain) produced in the material is
measured. The sample is deformed sinusoidally. The amount of deformation is related to
stiffness. A force motor is used to generate this sinusoidal wave and then is transmitted to
the sample via a driveshaft. The dynamic mechanical properties of the material are
determined by the complex modulus and damping coefficient from the curve, these
represent the stiffness, elastic and viscous behavior.

5) How to find the curing parameters (temperature range and time) for an unknown thermoset
resin? How to determine if the thermoset resin is fully cured?

To find curing parameters for an unknown thermoset resin, a

DSC test can be conducted. In the generated graph, an
exothermic peak will represent the curing process. The
temperature at the peak represents the maximum rate of the resin
curing. The curing temperature range : must be between
temperature at the tangent drawn parallel to the slope of the peak
(see figure) and the peak temperature. In this case, from (~145º
to ~200º). To find curing time, heat the sample up to the curing
temperature range, and hold constant for a determined time; then,
cool down the sample and do a ramp test again; if some peaks
appear, it means residual reaction has occurred and the cure time
was not enough for a fully cured sample. In this way you can Example – Lab 2 – DSC
determine if the thermoset resin is fully cured, likewise, you can epoxy resin
check if Tg has remained the same, which means the sample
cannot crosslink any further.
April 3 2020 Homework 4 Michelle Arias

6) What are the working principles of SEM ?

A scanning electron microscope (SEM) uses a focused beam of high-energy electrons to produce
a variety of signals at the surface of solid specimens. An electron is the negatively charged particle
of an atom orbiting around the nucleus. It can be released by heat or an electric field. Electrons are
2,000 times lighter than an atom, so they can be easily diverted when striking materials. Electrons
move freely only in a vacuum, which is why vacuum pumps are used in this process. From millions
to billions of electrons, hit the sample per second. Then, electromagnetic lenses focus the beam on
the sample in an optimal way. The electron beam passes through various apertures with different
diameters, which stops undesirable electrons for creating an image. These accelerated electrons
carry significant amounts of kinetic energy, this energy is dissipated as various signals produced
by electron-sample interactions when the incident electrons are decelerated in the sample. The
generated signals gives us information about the sample such as: external morphology, chemical
composition, crystalline structure and orientation of the materials.