STUDY MATERIAL DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER II PU

Chapter 11:
DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER
Work function:
“The minimum energy required by a free electron to just liberate from the
metal surface is called Work function.”
It is denoted by  0 .
SI unit of work function is joule (J).
Practical unit is eV (electron volt).

Define eV: It is the energy gained by an electron when it has been accelerated
by a potential difference of 1 volt.
1eV=1.60210-19 J
Note:
1. Work function depends on nature of metal surface and properties of metal.
2. Platinum has highest work function ( 0 = 5.65 eV )
Caesium has lowest work function ( 0 = 2.14eV )
Electron emission:
The liberation of free electrons from a metal surface is called electron
emission.
Types of electron emission:
According to the electron theory of metals, a large number of loosely
bound electrons (free electrons) exist in a metal. Thus electrons can be
liberated from a metal surface by any one of the following methods.
1. Thermionic emission
2. Photoelectric emission
3. Field emission
4. Secondary emission
1. The process of emission of free electrons from the metal surface by
suitably heating a metal is called Thermionic emission.
2. The process of emission of free electrons from the metal surface when a
light of suitable frequency incident on it is called Photoelectric
emission.
The electrons emitted from this method are called photoelectrons.
3. The process of emission of free electrons from the metal surface by
applying a strong electric field to a metal is called Field emission or
cold cathode emission. (Electric field is of the order of 108 V/m.)
4. The process of emission of electrons from the surface of a metal, using a
beam of accelerated charged particles (like electrons) is called Secondary
emission.

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PHOTO ELECTRIC EFFECT:

“The phenomenon of emission of free electrons from metal surface when a
light of suitable frequency incident on it is called Photoelectric effect.”
Photoelectric effect was discovered by Heinrich Hertz.
The current constituted by photoelectrons is called photoelectric current
or photocurrent.
In photoelectric effect light energy is converted into electrical energy. i.e.
Photoelectric effect follows law of conservation of energy.

Hertz’s observations on photoelectric effect:

The phenomenon of photoelectric emission was discovered in 1887 by
Heinrich Hertz (1857-1894). In his experimental investigation on the
production of electromagnetic waves by means of a spark discharge, Hertz
observed that high voltage sparks across the detector loop were enhanced
(increased) when the emitter plate was illuminated by ultraviolet light from an
arc lamp.
When light falls on a metal surface, some electrons near the surface absorb
enough energy from the incident radiation to overcome the attraction of the
positive ions in the material of the surface. After gaining sufficient energy from
the incident light, the electrons escape from the surface of the metal into the
surrounding space.

Lenard’s observations on Photoelectric effect

Lenard observed that
(i) When ultraviolet radiations were allowed to fall on the emitter plate of an
evacuated glass tube enclosing two electrodes (metal plates), current flows in
the circuit.
(ii) As soon as the ultraviolet radiations were stopped, the current flow also
stopped.
These observations indicate that when ultraviolet radiations fall on the
emitter plate (C), electrons are ejected from it which are attracted towards the
positive collector plate (A).
Thus, light falling on the surface of the emitter causes current in the
external circuit.

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Hallwachs observations on photoelectric effect

Hallwachs, in 1888, undertook the study further and connected a
negatively charged zinc plate to an electroscope. He observed that,
(i) The zinc plate lost its charge when it was illuminated by ultraviolet light.
(ii) The uncharged zinc plate became positively charged when it was irradiated
by ultraviolet light.
(iii) Positive charge on a positively charged zinc plate was found to be further
enhanced when it was illuminated by ultraviolet light.
From these observations he concluded that negatively charged particles
(electrons) were emitted from the zinc plate under the action of ultraviolet light.

Note: It was found that certain metals like zinc, cadmium, magnesium, etc.,
responded only to ultraviolet light, having short wavelength, to cause electron
emission from the surface. However, some alkali metals such as lithium,
sodium, potassium, caesium and rubidium were sensitive even to visible light.
All these photosensitive substances emit electrons when they are illuminated by
light. After the discovery of electrons, these electrons were termed as
photoelectrons. The phenomenon is called photoelectric effect.

Experimental study of photoelectric effect

Figure shows an experimental
arrangement to study photoelectric
effect. C is the cathode (emitter
plate) coated with a photosensitive
material. A is the anode or collector
plate placed in front of C. Both these
electrodes are enclosed in a
evacuated glass tube G provided
with Quartz window. The battery
maintains potential difference
between plates A and C that can be
varied. The polarity of the A and C
can be reversed by a Commutator.
When the anode plate A is positive
with respect to the cathode plate C then electrons are attracted to it. Through
the quartz window radiation of suitable frequency is made to fall on the
cathode. As soon as the radiation falls on the cathode photoelectrons are
liberated. These photoelectrons move towards the anode and produce
photoelectric current. This current is recorded by a microammeter.

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Experimental observations made on photoelectric effect:

(fig. 1) (fig. 2)

1. For a given photosensitive material and frequency of incident radiation

(above the threshold frequency), the photoelectric current is directly
proportional to the intensity of incident light (fig. 1).
2. For a given photosensitive material and frequency of incident radiation,
saturation current is found to be proportional to the intensity of incident
radiation whereas the stopping potential is independent of its intensity.
(fig.2)
3. For a given photosensitive material, there exists a certain minimum cut-off
frequency of the incident radiation, called the threshold frequency, below
which no emission of photoelectrons takes place, no matter how intense the
incident light is.
4. Above the threshold frequency, the
stopping potential or the
maximum kinetic energy of the
emitted photoelectrons increases
linearly with the frequency of the
incident radiation, but is
independent of its intensity. (fig.3)

5. The photoelectric emission is an instantaneous process without any

apparent time lag (10–9 s or less), even when the incident radiation is made
exceedingly dim.
Note:
1. The positive potential given to A with respect to C is called accelerating
potential. The negative potential given to A with respect to C is called
retarding potential.

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2. As accelerating potential increases, photoelectric current also increases

and reaches maximum value. If we increase accelerating potential for
that, the photoelectric current does not increases. This maximum value
of photoelectric current is called saturation current.
Laws of photo electric effect
1. Photo electron emission is an instantaneous process.
2. For every metal, there is a certain minimum frequency of the incident
radiation called threshold frequency below which photoelectric emission
does not take place.
3. Photoelectric current is directly proportional to the intensity of the incident
radiation provided the frequency is greater than threshold frequency and is
independent of frequency.
4. At constant frequency of incident radiation and for a given photosensitive
metal, saturation current is directly proportional to intensity of incident
radiation.
5. The maximum kinetic energy and the stopping potential of the photoelectric
increases linearly with the frequency of the incident radiation and is
independent of intensity.

Threshold frequency:
The minimum frequency of incident radiation at which or above which
photoelectric emission takes place is called Threshold frequency.
It is denoted by  0 .

Threshold wavelength:
The maximum wavelength of incident radiation at which or below which
photoelectric emission takes place is called Threshold wavelength.
It is denoted by  0 .

Relation between Threshold frequency (0) and Threshold wavelength (0):

C
C = 0 0 Or 0 =
0
Note: 0 and  0 depends on nature of metal surface and properties of metal.

Expression for work function:

hc
0 = h 0 = , Where C=speed of light in free space.
0

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Stopping potential (Cut off potential):

The minimum negative potential given to the anode for which the photo
electric current becomes zero is called the stopping potential.

If Vs is the stopping potential for photoelectrons emitted with maximum

1 2
velocity Vmax or maximum kinetic energy Emax then E m = mv max = eVs Where,
2
m is the mass of the electron, e is its charge.

Note:
1. If anode is made negative with respect to cathode, then photoelectric
current decreases. If negative potential of A increases then photoelectric
current decreases.
2. The stopping potential is directly proportional to frequency of incident
radiation. It depends on nature of emitter material. It does not depend on
intensity of incident radiation.
3. The photoelectric current is directly proportional to the number of
photoelectrons emitted per second.

Failure of wave theory of light to explain Photoelectric effect:

The wave nature of light was well established by the end of the
nineteenth century. The phenomena of interference, diffraction and
polarisation were explained in a natural and satisfactory way by the wave
picture of light. According to this picture, light is an electromagnetic wave
consisting of electric and magnetic fields with continuous distribution of energy
over the region of space over which the wave is extended. Let us now see if this
wave picture of light can explain the observations on photoelectric emission
given in the previous section.
We should note that in the wave picture, the absorption of energy by
electron takes place continuously over the entire wavefront of the radiation.
Since a large number of electrons absorb energy, the energy absorbed per
electron per unit time turns out to be small. Explicit calculations estimate that
it can take hours or more for a single electron to pick up sufficient energy to
overcome the work function and come out of the metal. This conclusion is
again in striking contrast to observation (iv) that the photoelectric emission is
instantaneous. In short, the wave picture is unable to explain the most basic
features of photoelectric emission.

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Einstein’s explanation of photoelectric effect:

In 1905, Einstein explained the photoelectric effect using quantum
theory. According to which the radiation consists of discrete energy packets or
bundles called quanta or photons. Energy of each such photon is given by
E=h 𝝂, where h is planck’s constant 𝝂 is the frequency of the radiation.
Einstein considered that the emission of photoelectron is the result of an
elastic collision between a photon of incident radiation and free electron inside
the metal. In this process the entire photon energy is transferred to the
electron. A part of the energy gained by the electron is used in doing work
against the surface forces of the metal (surface barrier). This part of the energy
represents the work function of the metal.
The remaining energy is available to the electron as its maximum kinetic
energy, Thus according to Einstein’s explanation.

𝟏
i.e. h𝝂 = 0 + m𝐕𝐦𝐚𝐱
𝟐
𝟐
Where, h is Planck’s constant, 𝜈 is the frequency of the incident radiation, m is
the mass and Vmax is the maximum velocity of the electron.
This relation is called Einstein’s photoelectric equation.
𝟏 1
Note: We have, h𝝂 = 0 + m𝐕𝐦𝐚𝐱
𝟐
, but 0 = h 0 ,  h = h 0 + 2
mv max
𝟐 2
1 1
mv 2max = h − h 0 , mv 2max = h (  −  0 )
2 2
Explanation of experimental observations based on Einstein’s
photoelectric equation:
1. If <0, then kinetic energy will be negative which is not possible because
kinetic energy cannot be negative. This shows that photoelectric emission
is not possible if frequency of incident light is less than the threshold
frequency of the metal.
2. One photon can emit only one electron from the metal surface, so the
number of photo-electrons emitted per second is directly proportional to
the intensity of incident light which depends upon number of photons
present in the incident light.
3. If >0, maximum kinetic energy increases with increase of frequency of
incident radiation.
4. Since the interaction between photon and electron is treated as electric
collision between two macro particles, i.e. photo electric emission is
instantaneous.

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Determination of Plank’s constant and work function of a metal:

According to Einstein’s photoelectric equation.
1 1
We have, mv 2max = h − h 0 , but, mv 2max = eV0
2 2
Where, e is the charge of an electron and V0 is stopping potential.
 eV0 = h − h0
h h
V0 =    − 0
e e
h 
V0 =    − 0 --------- (1)  h0 = 0 
e e
Equation (1) can be compared with the equation of a straight line y=mx+c,
where m is the slope of the line and c is the intercept on y-axis. Thus, graph
h  
between V0 and  is a straight line having slope=   and intercept OC =  0 
e  2 
From figure,
h V
= tan  = 0
e 
h=e tan ---------(2)
h=e  slope of V0 versus  graph
Using equation (2) value of h can be determined.

Intercept, OC =   i.e,  0 = OC  e .
2
This is the expression for workfunction.

Particle nature of light:

Light exhibits the phenomenon like reflection, refraction, interference,
diffraction and polarization. These phenomena can be explained successfully
by treating light as a wave.
Light also exhibits the phenomena like photoelectric effect and Raman
effect. These phenomena can be explained by treating the light as particles in
the form of Quanta or photons.
Thus, radiations have dual nature i.e., wave and particle nature.

What are photons?

The discrete energy packets of the radiation are called photons.

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Characteristics of Photons:
(i) In interaction of radiation with matter, radiation behaves as if it is made up
of particles called photons.
(ii) Each photon has energy E =hν= hc/λ and momentum p= h ν/c=h/λ, and
speed c, the speed of light.
(iii) All photons of light of a particular frequency ν, or wavelength λ, have the
same energy (E) and momentum (p), whatever the intensity of radiation may be.
By increasing the intensity of light of given wavelength, there is only an
increase in the number of photons per second crossing a given area, with each
photon having the same energy. Thus, photon energy is independent of
intensity of radiation.
(iv) Photons are electrically neutral and are not deflected by electric and
magnetic fields.
(v) In a photon-particle collision (such as photon-electron collision), the total
energy and total momentum are conserved. However, the number of photons
may not be conserved in a collision. The photon may be absorbed or a new
photon may be created.
Wave nature of matter: De – Broglie hypothesis
A French physicist Louis de-Broglie suggested that the particles like
electron, protons, neutrons etc have also dual nature i.e., the material particle
can behave both wave as well as particle.
According to de-Broglie, a moving particles can be associated with a wave and
is known as de-Broglie waves or matter waves .
Expression for de-Broglie Wavelength
According to Quantum theory, the energy of a photon is given by
E = h𝝂 ……..(1)
where h is a Planck’s constant , 𝜈 is the frequency of a photon.
According to Einstein’s mass energy equivalence, the energy of a photon is
E = mc2 ……(2)
Where m is the mass of a photon, c is a velocity of light
ℎ𝑐
From (1) and (2) we have mc2 = h𝜈 or mc2 = 𝜆
h
mc =

h
= since, mc=p=momentum of photon
mc
 = h
p
This is the expression for de-Broglie wavelength.

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If instead of photon, a material particle of mass m moving with velocity v is

considered then
ℎ ℎ
λ= =𝑝 is de-Broglie wavelength.
𝑚𝑣
1
The kinetic energy of the particle is E = mv2 hence mv = √2𝑚𝐸
2
𝒉
∴ 𝝀=
√𝟐𝒎𝑬
For a charged particle accelerated by a potential difference V the kinetic
1 𝒉
energy gained is E= mv2 = Vq hence 𝝀 =
2 √𝟐𝒎𝑽𝒒
Note:
1. de-Broglie wavelength ‘’ is smaller for a heavier particle.
1.227
2. h = nm
V
Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle:
According to this principle. It is not possible to measure both the
position and momentum of a particles at the same time exactly.
The product of the uncertainty in the measurement of the position and
uncertainty in the measurement of the momentum as equal to ħ.
 h 
i.e. x p ħ.  ħ= 
 2 
Probability interpretation of matter waves:
Max Born, proposed the probability interpretation according to him the
electron is not localized in any
finite region of space. That is, its
position uncertainty is infinite
(x→), which is consistent with
uncertainty principle.
In general, the matter wave associated with the electron is not extended
all over space. It is a wave packet extending over some finite region of space in
that case x is not infinite but has some finite value depending on the
extension of the wave packet. Also wave packet of finite wavelength spread
around central wavelength as shown below.

Note: The matter wave

corresponding to ta definite
momentum of an electron extends
all over space as shown Fig.

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Davisson and Germer experiment:

The wave nature of electrons was
first experimentally verified by
C.J. Davisson and L.H. Germer
in 1927 and independently by
G.P. Thomson, in 1928, who
observed diffraction effects with
beams of electrons scattered by
crystals. Davisson and Thomson
shared the Nobel Prize in 1937
for their experimental discovery
of diffraction of electrons by crystals.
The experimental arrangement used by Davisson and Germer is
schematically shown in Fig. It consists of an electron gun which comprises of a
tungsten filament F, coated with barium oxide and heated by a low voltage
power supply (L.T. or battery). Electrons emitted by the filament are
accelerated to a desired velocity by applying suitable potential/voltage from a
high voltage power supply (H.T. or battery). They are made to pass through a
cylinder with fine holes along its axis, producing a fine collimated beam. The
beam is made to fall on the surface of a nickel crystal. The electrons are
scattered in all directions by the atoms of the crystal. The intensity of the
electron beam, scattered in a given direction, is measured by the electron
detector (collector). The detector can be moved on a circular scale and is
connected to a sensitive galvanometer, which records the current. The
deflection of the galvanometer is proportional to the intensity of the electron
beam entering the collector. The apparatus is enclosed in an evacuated
chamber. By moving the detector on the circular scale at different positions,
the intensity of the scattered electron beam is measured for different values of
angle of scattering θ which is the angle between the incident and the scattered
electron beams. The variation of the intensity(I) of the scattered electrons with
the angle of scattering θ is obtained for different accelerating voltages from 44V
to 68V.
The de Broglie wavelength λ associated with electrons, , for V=54V is given by
1.227 1.227
=h/p= nm = nm = 0.167nm
V 54
Thus, there is an excellent agreement between the theoretical value and
the experimentally obtained value of de Broglie wavelength. Davisson-Germer
experiment thus strikingly confirms the wave nature of electrons and the de
Broglie relation.

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One mark questions:

1. What is electron emission?
2. What is thermionic emission?
3. What is field emission?
4. What is photoelectric emission?
5. What are photoelectrons?
6. What is photoelectric current?
7. Define threshold frequency.
8. Define threshold wavelength.
9. Define electron volt.
10. What is stopping potential?
11. Who proposed the matter waves?
12. What are mater waves? (2016-S)
13. What is de-Broglie wavelength?
14. What is the conclusion of Davisson and Germer experiment? (2015-A)
15. Write the expression for de-Broglie wavelength of a particle. (2017-A)
Two mark questions:
1. What are photosensitive substances? Give one example
2. What is photoelectric workfunction? Mention expression for it.
3. Explain variation of photoelectric current with intensity of incident
radiation.
4. Explain how stopping potential varies with intensity of incident radiation.
5. Mention Einstein’s photoelectric equation and explain the symbols.
6. Mention the expression for de-Broglie wavelength of a particle and explain
the symbols. 2016-S.
7. Mention the expression for de-Broglie wavelength interms of kinetic energy
of the particle and explain the symbols.
8. Mention the expression for de-Broglie wavelength in terms of acceleration
potential and explain the symbols.
9. Define: a) Photoelectric work function, b) Electron volt (eV). (2016-S)
10. Write any two types of electron emission. (2014-A)
Three marks questions:
1. What is electron emission? Mention different types of electron emission?
2. Mention the Hertz observations on photoelectric effect.
3. Mention the Lenard’s observations on photoelectric effect. (2015-S)
4. Mention the Halwachs observations on photoelectric effect. (2015-S)
5. Describe an experiment to study the photoelectric effect.

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Five mark questions:

1. Mention the experimental observational of photoelectric effect or (state the
laws of photoelectric effect). (2017-A)
2. Mention Einstein’s photoelectric equation and explain the symbols. Explain
the experimental results using this relation. (2015-A)
3. Mention any five characteristics of photon. (2014-A)
Problems:
1. Calculate the frequency associated with a photon of energy 3.3x10-20J.
Plank’s constant h=6.6x10-34 Js. What is the wavelength of photon in air?
2. Ultraviolet light of wavelength 350 nm and intensity 1 W/m2 is directed at
a potassium surface. (a) Find the maximum kinetic energy of the
photoelectrons. (b) If 0.5 percent of the incident photons produce
photoelectrons, how many photoelectrons per second are emitted if the
potassium surface has an area of 1cm2? Work function=2.2 eV.
h=6.63x10-34Js.
3. Estimate the number of photons emitted by a 1000 W lamp emitting light
of average wavelength 6000 Ǻ. H=6.6x10-34 Js, c= 3x108m/s.
4. A metal whose work function is 3.0eV is illuminated b light of wavelength
3 x 10-7 m. calculate: (a) Threshold frequency (b)Maximum energy of the
photoelectrons (c) retarding potential, assume h and c.
5. Ultraviolet radiation of wavelength 800Å and 700 Å when allowed to fall on
a photosensitive metal surface are found to liberate electrons with
maximum kinetic energy of 1.8 eV and 4 eV respectively. Calculate the
value of Planck’s constant.
6. Solar radiation falls on the earth at a rate of 2.0 cal/ cm2 – min. how
many photons / cm2 –min is this, assuming an average wavelength of
5500Å.
7. The energy required to remove an electron from sodium is 2.3 eV. Does
sodium show a photoelectric effect for orange light, with λ =680 nm?
8. Photoelectric work function of a metal is 2.5 eV. Calculate the threshold
frequency and limiting wavelength for the metal.
9. A filament emits light of wavelength 600nm. Calculate the frequency of the
light and also the energy of the emitted photon h= 6625x10-34Js.
10. A metal whose work function is 2.5 eV is illuminated by light of wavelength
2500 Å. Calculate the threshold frequency and the maximum kinetic
energy of the photoelectrons.
11. Radiations of wavelength 500 nm and 331 nm when incident on a
photosensitive metal surface are found to liberate electrons with maximum
kinetic energy of 0.061 eV and 1.87 eV respectively. calculate the value of
Planks constant.

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12. Calculate the kinetic energy of photoelectron emitted from a metal whose
work function is 2.2 eV when irradiated with light of wavelength 450 nm
and a retarding potential of 0.2 V is applied.
13. The speed of a photoelectron is 104ms-1. What should be the frequency of
the incident radiation on a potassium metal whose work function is 2.3eV?
14. Light of wavelength 350 nm is incident on two metals A and B whose work
functions are 4.2 eV and 1.9 eV respectively. Which metal will emit
photoelectrons?
15. Monochromatic light of wavelength 450 nm is incident on a clean sodium
surface of work function 2.3 eV. Determine a) the energy of a photon of
this light b) the maximum K.E. of emitted electron c) the threshold
frequency for sodium, and d) the magnitude of the momentum of photon in
the incident light.
16. A 100 watt sodium vapour lamp radiates uniformly in all directions. a) At
what distance from the lamp will the average density of photons be 107m-3
b) What is the average density of photons 2.0 m from the lamp? Assume
the light to be monochromatic, with λ = 589 nm.
17. Calculate the number of photons emitted per second by a 600nm falling on
a photosensitive material of work function 2eV. Assuming the efficiency of
one percent for electron emission, calculate the current produced.
18. Calculate the wavelength of a photon of energy 10-19J.
19. The work function of caesium metal is 2.14eV, when light of frequency
61014Hz is incident on the metal surface, photoemission of electrons
occurs find:
a) Energy of incident photons
b) Maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons
c) Give Plank’s constant =h=6.6310-34JS, 1eV=1.610-19J. (2014-S)

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