Electron Emission:

In metal electrons are quite free to move easily within the metal. These electrons are
responsible for the conductivity of metals. These electrons in the outer shell of the atoms are
loosely bound. These loosely bound electrons are called free electrons.

If it has got sufficient energy to overcome the attractive puil then only the electron can come
out of the metal surface. This phenomenon of emission of electrons from the metal surface is
called electron emission.
Work Function:
To pull out electron from the surface of the metal, a certain minimum amount of energy is
required. This minimum energy required by the electron is called the work function of the
metal. Work function is generally denoted by 'w' and measured in eV (electron volt).
Threshold Frequency:
The minimum frequency of light which can emit photoelectrons from a material is called
threshold frequency or cut-off frequency of that material
Threshold Wavelength:
The maximum wavelength of light which can emit photoelectrons from a material is called
threshold wavelength or cut-off wavelength of that material.
Electron Volt:
One electron volt is the energy acquired by an electron, when it has been accelerated by 1
volt potential difference. (1 eV 1.602 × 10-19).
Process of Electron Emission
(i). Thermionic emission
The process of emission of electrons when a metal is heated is known as thermionic
emission. The emitted electrons are called thermions. Emitted number of thermions depends
on the temperature of the metal surface.
(ii). Field emission
The process of emission of free electrons when a strong electric field (10 V/m) is applied
across the metal surface is known as field emission. Field emission is also known as cold.
emission or cold cathode emission. One of the examples of cold efression is spark plug
(iii). Photoelectric emission
The process of emission of electrons when light of suitable frequency is incident on a metal
sürface is known as photoelectric emission. These photo-generated electrons are called
photo electrons. The number of photo electrons emitted depends on the intensity of the
incident light.
Photoelectric Effect:
The phenomenon of emission of electrons from (preferably) metal surface exposed to light
energy of suitabile frequency is known as photoelectric effect. The emitted electrons are
called photo electrons and the current so produced is called photoelectric current Alkali
metals (lithium, sodium, potassium, caesium etc.) show photoelectric effect with visible light.
Hertz's Observations:
The phenomenon of photoelectric emission was discovered in 1887 by Heinrich Hertz while
studying experimentally the production of electromagnetic waves by means of spark
discharge. He found that when the emitter plate was illuminated by ultraviolet light.
high-voltage sparks across the detector loop were enhanced. This observation led him to
conclude that light facilitated the emission of some electrons
From this it was concluded that when suitable radiation falls on a metal surface some
electrons near the surface absorb enough energy from the inodent radiation to overcome the
attraction of the positive ions in the material of the surface
Lenard's Observation:
Lenard observed that when ultraviolet radiation were allowed to fall on emitter plate of an
evacuated glass tube enclosing two electrodes, current flows. As soon as the ultraviolet
radiations were stopped, the current flows ahc stopped. These observations indicate that
when ultraviolet radiations fall on the emitter plate, electrons are ejected from it which are
attracted towards the positive plate by the electric field.
Experimental Study of Photoelectric Effect:
It consists of an evacuated glass or quartz tube having two electrodes. The electrode C is a
photosensitive plate, which emits photoelectrons when exposed to ultraviolet radiation. The
electrode 'A' is a charge collecting plate. The tube has a side window. which will allow the
light of a particular wavelength to pass through it and falls on the photo sensitive plate C.
From a commutator the polarity of the plates C and A can be reversed. Thus with respect to
emitter C. the plate A can be maintained at a desired positive or negative potential The
electrons are attracted, when the collector plate A is positive with respect to the emitter plate
C. Electron emission causes flow of electric current in the circuit.
Voltameter (V) measures the potential difference between the emitter and collector plates.
Microammeter (A) measures the resulting photocurrent flowing in the arcuit. The current
flowing in the circuit can be increased or decreased by varying the potential between
collector plate A and emitter plate C. We can also vary the intensity and frequency of the
incident light.
(i). Effect of Intensity
According to this. Photoelectric current for a fixed frequency of incident radiation, the
photoelectric current increases linearly with increase in intensity of incident light
(ii). Effect of Potential
According to this, photoelectric current for a fixed frequency increases with increase in the
potential applied to the collector
(III). Effect of Frequency.
According to this, the energy of the emitted electrons depends on the frequency of the
incident radiations. The stopping potential is more negative for higher frequencies of
incident radiation.
Laws of photoelectric emission
1. The photoelectric cument is directly proportional to the intensity of incident radiation
2 Saturation current is found to be proportional to the intensity of incident radiation whereas
the stopping potential in independent of its intensity
3 The maximum kretic energy or equivalently stopoing potential above the threshold
frequency of the emitted photo electrons increases nearly with the frequency of the Incident
radiation but is not a function of intensity.
4.The photoelectric emission is an instantaneous process. The time lag is very smal
between the incidence of radiation and emission of photo electrons 1-10 or less even when
the inodent radiation is extremely dims
Einstein's Photoelectric Equation
To explain photoelectric effect in 1905, Albert Einstein proposed completely different picture
of electromagnetic radiation in this picture radiation energy is built up of discrete unts and
photoelect ression dars not take place by continuous absorption of energy from radiation.
These discrete unts are called quanta of energy of radiation, Each quantum of energy is tv,
where is the frequency of light and his Planck's constant
in photoelectoc effect, an electron absortis a quantum of energy of radiation. If thes
absorbed energy exceeds the minimum energy work function 'w of the metal, the most losely
bound election, wie emerge with maxmum sinetic energy, more bghtly bound
electron will emerge with kinetic energies less than the maximum value.
Particle Nature of Light
Photoelectric effect thus gave evidence to the strange fact that light in interaction with matter
behaved as if it was made of quanta or packets of energy, each of energy the A definite
value of energy as well as momentum is associated with a particle. This particle was later
named photon.
We can summanse the photon picture of electromagnetic radiation as follows:
1. In interaction of radiation with matter, radiation behaves as if it is made up of particles
called photons
2. Each photon has energy E (hv) and momentum p = hu/t), and speed c. the speed of light
3. All photons of light of a particular frequency, v, or wavelength #, have the same energy E
(hv=hc/) and momentum p\ = huk = h / lambda \ Photons are electrically neutral and are not
deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
4. In a photon-particle collision (such as photon electron collision), the total energy and total
momentum are conserved
Wave Nature of Matter
The wave nature of light shows up in the phenomena of interference, diffraction and
polarisation. De Broglie proposed that the wave length A associated with a particle of
momentum p is given as
lambda = h/p = h/(mv)
Davisson and Germer Experiment
The wave nature of electrons was first experimentally verified independently by C. L
Davisson and L. H. Germer in 1927 and by G. P. Thomson in 1928 while observing
diffraction effects with beams of electrons scattered by crystals. The experimental
arrangement is schematically.
It has an electron gun made up of a tungsten filament. F, heated by a low voltage battery and
the filament is coated with barium oxide Emitted electrons from filament are accelerated to a
desired velocity by applying required potential/voltage from a high-voltage power supply. C is
a hollow metallic cylinder with a hole along the axis and is kept at negative potential to get a
convergent beam of electrons emitted from filament. It acts as a cathode. A is a cylinder with
fine hole along its axis acting as an anode.
The cathode and anode form an electron gun by which a fine beam of electrons can be
obtained of different velocities by applying different accelerating potentials. N is a nickel
crystal cut along cubical diagonal, D is an electron detector which can be rotated on a
circular scale and is connected to a sensitive galvanometer which records the current.
Working: From electron gun a fine beam of accelerated electrons is made to fall normally on
the surface of nickel crystal The atoms of the crystal scatter the incident electrons in different
directions. The detector detects the intensity of the electron beam scattered in particular
direction by rotating the electron detector on circular scale at different positions.
Summary:
Photon: The rest mass of photon is zero. Its momentum is h/A These are packets of energy
and travel in a straight line.
Velocity in different media is different but frequency of photon in different media is same
Dual nature of light and matter: Light exhibits particle aspects in certain phenomena te
photoelectric effect, emission and absorption of radiation, while wave aspects in other
phenomena (eg, interference diffraction and polansation) light has dual nature
de Broglie concluded that matter also possess dual nature Light and matter both possess
properties of wave and matter
Work function: Minimum energy required by a free electron to just come out of the metal
surface (with KEOj is called work function of the metal Work function is expressed in e
1ev=1.6×10‐19 j
Photoelectric effect. The phenomenon of emission of electrons from a metalic surface by
the use of light stadiant) energy is called photoelectric effect. For photo-electric emission, the
metal must have low work function
Alkal metals have low value of work function. Cesum is the best metal for photoelectric
effect.
Photoelectric current depends ‫سل‬
(i) the intensity of incident light
(ii) the potential difference applied between the two electrodes, and
(iii) the nature of the emitter material.
Threshold frequency. The mumum frequency of incident light which is just capable of
ejecting elections from a metal is called the threshold frequency, is denoted by The
corresponding wavelength of light is called threshold wavelength (Ag there will be no photo
electic emission
Stoping potential The manum retarding entential applied to anode of a photoelectric tube
which is just capable of stopping photoelectric current is called the stepping potential in
denoted be Vo jar V Stepping potential depends upon the beguncy at innodent light
de Broglie hypothesis: A wave is associated with a moving material particle which conticis
the particle in all respect. The wavelength associated with a moving particle is guen by
Lamda=h/mv
where m is the mass of the particle moving with velocity v and h is planck's constant. This
wave is called de Broglie wave.
Photoelectric cell: It is a device used to convert light energy into electrical energy.
Photoelectric cells are of three type:
(i) Photoemissive cell
(ii) Photovolatic cell
(iii) Photoconductive cell
*Photoelectric effect has established the particle nature of light.
*Einstein's photoelectric equation was experimentally verified by Millikan for radiations of
lower frequencies and de Broglie for higher frequency radiations.